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33-516: Sir Kenelm Digby (11 July 1603 – 11 June 1665) was an English courtier and diplomat. He was also a highly reputed natural philosopher , astrologer and known as a leading Roman Catholic intellectual and Blackloist . For his versatility, he is described in John Pointer 's Oxoniensis Academia (1749) as the "Magazine of all Arts and Sciences, or (as one stiles him) the Ornament of this Nation". Digby

66-518: A court appointment could be called courtiers but not all courtiers held positions at court. Those personal favourites without business around the monarch, sometimes called the camarilla , were also considered courtiers. As social divisions became more rigid, a divide, barely present in Antiquity or the Middle Ages , opened between menial servants and other classes at court, although Alexandre Bontemps ,

99-429: A higher ratio of sand to potash and lime than was customary. Digby's technique produced wine bottles which were stronger and more stable than most of their day, and which due to their translucent green or brown color protected the contents from light. During his exile and prison term, others claimed his technique as their own, but in 1662 Parliament recognised his claim to the invention as valid. Digby and his wife are

132-681: A laboratory under the lodgings of Gresham Professor of Divinity where the two conducted botanical experiments. At that period, public servants were often rewarded with patents of monopoly; Digby received the regional monopoly of sealing wax in Wales and the Welsh Borders . This was a guaranteed income; more speculative were the monopolies of trade with the Gulf of Guinea and with Canada . These were doubtless more difficult to police. Digby married Venetia Stanley in 1625. They had six sons: In addition, there

165-558: A member of the Privy Council of Charles I of England . As his Roman Catholicism hindered appointment to government office, he converted to Anglicanism . Digby became a privateer in 1627. Sailing his flagship, the Eagle (later renamed Arabella ), he arrived off Gibraltar on 18 January and captured several Spanish and Flemish vessels. From 15 February to 27 March he remained at anchor off Algiers due to illness of his men, and extracted

198-416: A naval administrator and later Governor of Trinity House . His wife Venetia, a noted beauty, died suddenly in 1633, prompting a famous deathbed portrait by Van Dyck and a eulogy by Ben Jonson . (Digby was later Jonson's literary executor . Jonson's poem about Venetia is now partially lost, because of the loss of the centre sheet of a leaf of papers which held the only copy.) Digby, stricken with grief and

231-521: A promise from authorities of better treatment of the English ships: he persuaded the city governors to free 50 English slaves. He seized a Dutch vessel near Majorca , and after other adventures gained a victory over the French and Venetian ships in the harbour of Iskanderun on 11 June. His successes, however, brought upon the English merchants the risk of reprisals, and he was urged to depart. He returned to become

264-655: A thousand courtiers. The court's systems became prevalent in other courts such as those in the Balkan states, the Ottoman Empire and Russia . Byzantinism is a term that was coined for this spread of the Byzantine system in the 19th century. In modern English, the term is often used metaphorically for contemporary political favourites or hangers-on. In modern literature, courtiers are often depicted as insincere, skilled at flattery and intrigue, ambitious and lacking regard for

297-407: A time when scientific enquiry had not settled down in any disciplined way. He spent enormous time and effort in the pursuits of astrology , and alchemy which he studied in the 1630s with Van Dyck. Notable among his pursuits was the concept of the powder of sympathy . This was a kind of sympathetic magic ; one manufactured a powder using appropriate astrological techniques, and daubed it, not on

330-616: A work of apologetics in 1638, A Conference with a Lady about choice of a Religion . In it he argued that the Catholic Church, possessing alone the qualifications of universality, unity of doctrine and uninterrupted apostolic succession , is the only true church, and that the intrusion of error into it is impossible. Digby was regarded as an eccentric by contemporaries, partly because of his effusive personality, and partly because of his interests in scientific matters. Henry Stubbe called him "the very Pliny of our age for lying". He lived in

363-603: The Forbidden City of Beijing was even larger and more isolated from national life. Very similar features marked the courts of all very large monarchies, including in India , Topkapı Palace in Istanbul , Ancient Rome , Byzantium or the Caliphs of Baghdad or Cairo . Early medieval European courts frequently travelled from place to place following the monarch as they travelled. This

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396-480: The Day Before as "Mr. d'Igby". He explains the principle of his sympathetic powder ( unguentum armarium ) to the main character. Courtier Monarchs very often expected the more important nobles to spend much of the year in attendance on them at court. Not all courtiers were noble , as they included clergy , soldiers , clerks , secretaries , agents and middlemen with business at court. All those who held

429-579: The Immortality of Reasonable Souls . The latter was translated into Latin in 1661 by John Leyburn . These Two Treatises were his major natural-philosophical works, and showed a combination of Aristotelianism and atomism . He was in touch with the leading intellectuals of the time, and was highly regarded by them; he was a founding member of the Royal Society and a member of its governing council from 1662 to 1663. His correspondence with Fermat contains

462-569: The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell , who believed in freedom of conscience, Digby was received by the government as a sort of unofficial representative of English Roman Catholics, and was sent in 1655 on a mission to the Papacy to try to reach an understanding. This again proved unsuccessful. At the Restoration , Digby found himself in favour with the new regime due to his ties with Henrietta Maria,

495-511: The Queen Mother. However, he was often in trouble with Charles II , and was once even banished from Court. Nonetheless, he was generally highly regarded until his death, a month before his 62nd birthday, from "the stone", likely caused by kidney stones . He was buried in his wife's tomb (which was damaged in the great fire of 1666 ), in Christ Church, Newgate Street , London. Digby published

528-583: The courts of the Akkadian Empire where there is evidence of court appointments such as that of cup-bearer which was one of the earliest court appointments and remained a position at courts for thousands of years. Two of the earliest titles referring to the general concept of a courtier were likely the ša rēsi and mazzāz pāni of the Neo-Assyrian Empire . In Ancient Egypt a title has been found that translates to high steward or great overseer of

561-581: The growing Puritan party. In the time between 1639 and 1640, he supported Charles I 's expedition against the Presbyterian Scots. He left England for France again in 1641. Following an incident in which he killed a French nobleman, Mont le Ros, in a duel, he returned to England via Flanders in 1642, and was jailed by the House of Commons . He was eventually released at the intervention of Anne of Austria , and went back again to France. He remained there during

594-470: The head valet de chambre of Louis XIV , was a late example of a "menial" who managed to establish his family in the nobility. The key commodities for a courtier were access and information, and a large court operated at many levels: many successful careers at court involved no direct contact with the monarch. The largest and most famous European court was that of the Palace of Versailles at its peak, although

627-740: The house. The courts influenced by the court of the Neo-Assyrian Empire such as those of the Median Empire and the Achaemenid Empire had numerous courtiers After invading the Achaemenid Empire , Alexander the Great returned with the concept of the complex court featuring a variety of courtiers to the Kingdom of Macedonia and Hellenistic Greece . The imperial court of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople would eventually contain at least

660-403: The injured part, but on whatever had caused the injury. His book on this mythical salve went through 29 editions. Synchronising the effects of the powder, which allegedly caused a noticeable effect on the patient when applied, was actually suggested in 1687 as a means of solving the longitude problem. In 1644 he published together two major philosophical treatises, The Nature of Bodies and On

693-431: The national interest. More positive representations include the role played by members of the court in the development of politeness and the arts. Examples of courtiers in fiction: Gresham Professor of Divinity The Professor of Divinity at Gresham College , London, gives free educational lectures to the general public. The college was founded for this purpose in 1597, when it created seven professorships; this

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726-513: The object of enough suspicion for the Crown to order an autopsy (rare at the time) on Venetia's body, secluded himself in Gresham College and attempted to forget his personal woes through scientific experimentation and a return to Catholicism. At Gresham College he held an unofficial post, receiving no payment from the college. Digby, alongside Hungarian chemist Johannes Banfi Hunyades , constructed

759-514: The only extant mathematical proof by Fermat, a demonstration, using his method of descent , that the area of a Pythagorean triangle cannot be a square. His Discourse Concerning the Vegetation of Plants (1661) proved controversial among the Royal Society's members. It was published in French in 1667. Digby is credited with being the first person to note the importance of "vital air", or oxygen , to

792-568: The remainder of the period of the English Civil War . Parliament declared his property in England forfeit. Queen Henrietta Maria had fled England in 1644, and he became her Chancellor. He was then engaged in unsuccessful attempts to solicit support for the English monarchy from Pope Innocent X . His son, also called Kenelm, was killed at the Battle of St Neots , 1648. Following the establishment of

825-665: The subjects of the 2014 literary novel Viper Wine by Hermione Eyre . He is mentioned in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's novel The Scarlet Letter . In the chapter titled "The Leech", the narrator describes the antagonist, Chillingworth, as having an impressive knowledge of medicine, remarking that Chillingworth claims to have been a colleague of Digby "and other famous men" in the study of natural philosophy. Digby's "scientific attainments" are called "hardly less than supernatural". Digby also appears in Umberto Eco 's novel The Island of

858-570: The sustenance of plants. He also came up with a crude theory of photosynthesis. Digby is known for the publication of a cookbook , The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digbie Kt. Opened , but it was actually published by a close servant, from his notes, in 1669, several years after his death. It is currently considered an excellent source of period recipes, particularly for beverages such as mead . He tried out many of his recipes on his wife, Venetia, one of which

891-633: The third and fourth Earls of Dorset and, consequently, which Earl was the father of Margery. Digby became a Catholic once more in 1635. He went into voluntary exile in Paris, where he spent most of his time until 1660. There he met both Marin Mersenne and Thomas Hobbes . Returning to support Charles I in his struggle to establish episcopacy in Scotland (the Bishops' Wars ), he found himself increasingly unpopular with

924-401: Was capons fed on the flesh of vipers . Digby is also considered the father of the modern wine bottle . During the 1630s, Digby owned a glassworks at Newnham-on-Severn and manufactured glass onions , which were globular in shape with a high, tapered neck, a collar, and a punt. His manufacturing technique involved a coal furnace, made hotter than usual by the inclusion of a wind tunnel, and

957-628: Was Mary, daughter of William Mushlo . His uncle, John Digby , was the first Earl of Bristol. He went to Gloucester Hall, Oxford , in 1618, where he was taught by Thomas Allen , but left without taking a degree. In time Allen bequeathed to Digby his library, and the latter donated it to the Bodleian . He spent three years on the Continent between 1620 and 1623, where Marie de Medici fell madly in love with him (as he later recounted). In 1623, in Madrid, Digby

990-419: Was a daughter, Margery. Born c. 1625, who married Edward Dudley of Clopton and had at least one child. She is never mentioned by Digby in his writings. She may have been the daughter of Edward Sackville , 4th Earl of Dorset and Venetia Stanley prior to her marriage to Sir Kenelm. The Earl of Dorset settled an annuity on her. There is some controversy and confusion about whether or not Venetia had affairs with both

1023-455: Was appointed to the household of Prince Charles, who had just arrived there. Returning to England the same year, he was knighted by James I and appointed gentleman of the privy chamber to Charles. He was granted a Cambridge Master of Arts on the King's visit to the university in 1624. Around 1625, he married Venetia Stanley , whose wooing he cryptically described in his memoirs. He had also become

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1056-518: Was born at Gayhurst , Buckinghamshire , England. He was of gentry stock, but his family's adherence to Roman Catholicism coloured his career. His father, Sir Everard , was executed in 1606 for his part in the Gunpowder Plot . Kenelm was sufficiently in favour with James I to be proposed as a member of Edmund Bolton 's projected Royal Academy (with George Chapman , Michael Drayton , Ben Jonson , John Selden and Sir Henry Wotton ). His mother

1089-451: Was particularly the case in the early French court. But, the European nobility generally had independent power and was less controlled by the monarch until around the 18th century, which gave European court life greater complexity. The earliest courtiers coincide with the development of definable courts beyond the rudimentary entourages or retinues of rulers. There were probably courtiers in

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