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143-600: The Buddhāvataṃsaka-nāma-mahā­vaipulya-sūtra (The Mahāvaipulya Sūtra named "Buddhāvataṃsaka") is one of the most influential Mahāyāna sutras of East Asian Buddhism . It is often referred to in short as the Avataṃsaka Sūtra . In Classical Sanskrit , avataṃsaka means garland , wreath, or any circular ornament, such as an earring. Thus, the title may be rendered in English as A Garland of Buddhas , Buddha Ornaments , or Buddha's Garland . In Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit ,

286-502: A Buddha's pure land or buddha field ( buddhakṣetra ), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, liberation into a buddha-field can be obtained by faith , meditation, or sometimes even by the repetition of Buddha's name . Faith-based devotional practices focused on rebirth in pure lands are common in East Asia Pure Land Buddhism . The influential Mahāyāna concept of

429-544: A Buddha. This wish to help others by entering the Mahāyāna path is called bodhicitta and someone who engages in this path to complete buddhahood is a bodhisattva . High level bodhisattvas (with eons of practice) are seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings. They are objects of devotion and prayer throughout the Mahāyāna world. Popular bodhisattvas which are revered across Mahāyāna include Avalokiteshvara , Manjushri , Tara and Maitreya . Bodhisattvas could reach

572-462: A Mahāyāna bodhisattva is best defined as: that being who has taken the vow to be reborn, no matter how many times this may be necessary, in order to attain the highest possible goal, that of Complete and Perfect Buddhahood. This is for the benefit of all sentient beings. Paramartha Paramārtha ( Sanskrit , Devanagari : परमार्थ; traditional Chinese : 真諦 ; simplified Chinese : 真谛 ; pinyin : Zhēndì ) (499-569 CE)

715-694: A chronology for the Shaiva tantric literature and argues that both traditions developed side by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion. Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahāyāna Buddhism became extremely influential in India, especially in Kashmir and in the lands of the Pala Empire . It eventually also spread north into Central Asia , the Tibetan plateau and to East Asia. Vajrayāna remains

858-459: A double meaning in the famous Parable of the Burning House , which talks of three vehicles or carts (Skt: yāna ). In Chinese , Mahāyāna is called 大乘 ( dàshèng, or dàchéng ), which is a calque of maha (great 大 ) yana (vehicle 乘 ). There is also the transliteration 摩诃衍那 . The term appeared in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, including Emperor Ling of Han 's translation of

1001-571: A grand palace which is coextensive with the Bodhimaṇḍa . In this set of books, the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī arrives, and empowered by the Buddha's power, gives various teachings on the path. Mañjuśrī teaches on the four noble truths and the Buddha sends a light from his feet that illuminates the ten directions (symbolizing the all-pervading quality of the Buddha's wisdom). Mañjuśrī then gives further teachings on bodhisattvas, and on pure conduct. The 11th chapter

1144-401: A minority in India, Indian Mahāyāna was an intellectually vibrant movement, which developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has been called "The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy" (from the beginning of the first millennium CE up to the 7th century). Some major Mahāyāna traditions are Prajñāpāramitā , Mādhyamaka , Yogācāra , Buddha-nature ( Tathāgatagarbha ), and

1287-485: A new sect or order. A few of these texts often emphasize ascetic practices, forest dwelling, and deep states of meditative concentration ( samadhi ). Indian Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools. Membership in these nikāyas , or monastic orders, continues today, with

1430-429: A number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen thinks they were inspired by cult shrines where Mahāyāna sutras were kept. Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejected stupa worship, or worshiping holy relics. David Drewes has recently argued against all of the major theories outlined above. He points out that there

1573-526: A particularly important place for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna spread from China to Korea , Vietnam , and Taiwan , which (along with Korea) would later spread it to Japan . Mahāyāna also spread from India to Myanmar , and then Sumatra and Malaysia . Mahāyāna spread from Sumatra to other Indonesian islands , including Java and Borneo , the Philippines , Cambodia , and eventually, Indonesian Mahāyāna traditions made it to China. By

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1716-405: A pure land, and enthusiastically recommends the cult of the book, yet seems to know nothing of emptiness theory, the ten bhumis , or the trikaya , while another (the P'u-sa pen-yeh ching ) propounds the ten bhumis and focuses exclusively on the path of the bodhisattva, but never discusses the paramitas . A Madhyamika treatise ( Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamika-karikas ) may enthusiastically deploy

1859-519: A result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism . Sanderson argues that Vajrayāna works like the Samvara and Guhyasamaja texts show direct borrowing from Shaiva tantric literature . However, other scholars such as Ronald M. Davidson question the idea that Indian tantrism developed in Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism. Davidson points to the difficulties of establishing

2002-411: A separate school in competition with the so-called " Hīnayāna " schools. Some of the major theories about the origins of Mahāyāna include the following: The lay origins theory was first proposed by Jean Przyluski and then defended by Étienne Lamotte and Akira Hirakawa. This view states that laypersons were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and is partly based on some texts like

2145-411: A series of teachers of all types (monastic, and lay, male and female, from all social and economic classes), including great bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara . Each teacher imparts to Sudhana their own special bodhisattva practice which helps Sudhana deepen his wisdom. The book's climax comes when Sudhana meets the bodhisattva Maitreya , who guides him to enter a great tower called "Matrix Adorned with

2288-488: A single pore are countless, immeasurable vast oceans. Also, for the Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra , the historical Buddha Sakyamuni is simply a magical emanation of the cosmic Buddha Vairocana. The point of all the skillful teachings of the Buddha is to lead all living beings through the bodhisattva stages (Bhūmis) and to final Buddhahood . These stages of spiritual attainment are also widely discussed in various parts of

2431-457: A single unified movement, but scattered groups based on different practices and sutras. One reason for this view is that Mahāyāna sources are extremely diverse, advocating many different, often conflicting doctrines and positions, as Jan Nattier writes: Thus we find one scripture (the Aksobhya -vyuha ) that advocates both srávaka and bodhisattva practices, propounds the possibility of rebirth in

2574-512: A small movement in India, Mahāyāna eventually grew to become an influential force in Indian Buddhism . Large scholastic centers associated with Mahāyāna such as Nalanda and Vikramashila thrived between the 7th and 12th centuries. In the course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from South Asia to East Asia , Southeast Asia and the Himalayan regions . Various Mahāyāna traditions are

2717-474: A specific school or sect, Mahāyāna is a "family term" or a religious tendency, which is united by "a vision of the ultimate goal of attaining full Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings (the 'bodhisattva ideal') and also (or eventually) a belief that Buddhas are still around and can be contacted (hence the possibility of an ongoing revelation)." Buddhas and bodhisattvas (beings on their way to Buddhahood) are central elements of Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna has

2860-489: A supportive following of disciples, many of whom traveled great distance to hear his teachings, especially those from the Mahāyānasaṃgraha . In 569 CE, at the age of 70, he died, and a stūpa was built in his honor. Paramārtha's interest ranged across a wide variety of Buddhist teachings, from Abhidharma , to Yogacara Buddhism, Buddha-nature teaching and Nagarjuna's ethical teachings . However, Paramārtha

3003-570: A translation team of twenty accomplished monks. Paramartha's work was interrupted by political events and the general chaotic state of China during this period, which included the murder of Emperor Wu. Several years later, Paramārtha was able to continue translation efforts in earnest with his translation team, beginning with the Golden Light Sutra (Skt. Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra ). Despite his success in China, Paramārtha wished to return to India toward

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3146-571: A vastly expanded cosmology and theology , with various Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas residing in different worlds and buddha-fields ( buddha kshetra ). Buddhas unique to Mahāyāna include the Buddhas Amitābha ("Infinite Light"), Akṣobhya ("the Imperturbable"), Bhaiṣajyaguru ("Medicine guru") and Vairocana ("the Illuminator"). In Mahāyāna, a Buddha is seen as a being that has achieved

3289-399: Is "characterized by overflowing visionary images, which multiply everything to infinity, by a type of monadology that teaches the interpenetration of the one whole and the particularized many, of spirit and matter" and by "the notion of a gradual progress towards liberation through successive stages and an obsessive preference for images of light and radiance." Likewise, Alan Fox has described

3432-656: Is a popular text, widely known as the "pure practices chapter". In chapter 12, the bodhisattva Bhadraśrī also teaches the Bodhisattva Path, discussing bodhicitta, faith, and merit, and recites a set of verses which were seen as a dharani in India, the Dharani of the Jewelled Comet ( Ratnolkadhāraṇī ). Without leaving his seat at the bodhi tree, the Buddha ascends to Indra's ( Sakra ) palace in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven at

3575-453: Is a supreme cosmic Buddha who is the source of light and enlightenment of the 'Lotus universe', and who is said to contain all world systems within his entire cosmic body. The Avatamsaka sutra also states that the wisdom of the Buddha (the Tathagata ) is present everywhere in the universe, indeed, it is present within every living being. Thus, the sutra states (in chapter 32, Manifestation of

3718-518: Is also seen as a key figure of the Shelun School (攝論宗) and he possibly was the main force behind the promotion of the Awakening of Faith as Paramārtha's work . The Shelun School based itself off Paramārtha's translation of Vasubandhu’s Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya. As Paramārtha's work became more influential, it also became central to the so called Faxing school (法性宗, “School of Dharma-nature”), which

3861-515: Is an influential text titled The Manifestation of the Tathagata (Tathāgatotpattisaṃbhava) which also once circulated as an independent sutra. This book discusses the nature of Buddhahood and its manifestation in the world. Samantabhadra describes ten aspects of Buddhahood in detail and affirms that Buddhahood is present in every particle in the physical universe, as well as in the body and mind of every living being. In book 38 (the third longest book in

4004-720: Is as extensive as the great universe, it can be fully comprised within a single particle of dust. As it is with one particle, so it is with all particles of dust. This idea would later become central in East Asian Buddhist traditions like the Huayan school and Zen . Paul Williams notes that the sutra contains both the "mind-only" ( cittamatra , Yogacara ) teachings and the emptiness teachings (associated with Prajñaparamita and Madhyamaka ). The sutra thus teaches that all things are empty of inherent existence and also speaks of "pure untainted awareness or consciousness ( amala-citta ) as

4147-457: Is associated with some unique doctrines. He is traditionally seen as having taught the doctrine of the "immaculate consciousness" ( amalavijñāna , Ch: amoluoshi 阿摩羅識). He is also seen as the source of the doctrine of “ original awakening ” (benjue [本覺]). Paramārtha is also associated with various works on Buddha-nature that became extremely influential in Chinese Buddhism . These include

4290-467: Is completely empty. That is the vision of the Buddhas;" and "all dharmas lack intrinsic nature; to understand the nature of dharmas like this is to see Vairocana." The Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra also highlights the visionary and mystical power of attaining the spiritual wisdom which sees the nature of the world: Endless action arises from the mind; from action arises the multifarious world. Having understood that

4433-420: Is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue as well on the general relationship between Buddhism and Theism. The idea that Buddhas remain accessible is extremely influential in Mahāyāna and also allows for the possibility of having a reciprocal relationship with a Buddha through prayer, visions, devotion and revelations. Through the use of various practices, a Mahāyāna devotee can aspire to be reborn in

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4576-525: Is most well known for introducing his unique Yogacara doctrine of the "pure consciousness" or "immaculate consciousness" ( amalavijñāna , Ch: amoluoshi 阿摩羅識 or wugou shi 無垢識). This doctrine expands on the Yogacara school's doctrine of eight consciousnesses by introducing the immaculate consciousness as a ninth consciousness. The term amalavijñāna was not a new term and had been used by Vasubandhu in his Abhidharmakośa (at 5.29) . In this text,

4719-664: Is mostly dominated by various branches of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to the study of the Mahāyāna sūtras. Beginning during the Gupta (c. 3rd century CE–575 CE) period a new movement began to develop which drew on previous Mahāyāna doctrine as well as new Pan-Indian tantric ideas. This came to be known by various names such as Vajrayāna (Tibetan: rdo rje theg pa ), Mantrayāna, and Esoteric Buddhism or "Secret Mantra" ( Guhyamantra ). This new movement continued into

4862-507: Is no actual evidence for the existence of book shrines, that the practice of sutra veneration was pan-Buddhist and not distinctly Mahāyāna. Furthermore, Drewes argues that "Mahāyāna sutras advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones." Regarding the forest hypothesis, he points out that only a few Mahāyāna sutras directly advocate forest dwelling, while the others either do not mention it or see it as unhelpful, promoting easier practices such as "merely listening to

5005-503: Is quite difficult. There are many disagreements and discrepancies between the main Chinese Buddhist catalogs regarding Paramārtha's translations and modern scholarly opinion on which works to attribute to him also remain divided. Some scholars have also argued that the term “Paramārtha" should often be regarded not as a single individual, but as a group of scholars, the “Paramārtha group” or translation workshop. This helps explain why

5148-501: Is seen as being the superior spiritual path by Mahāyānists, over and above the paths of those who seek arhatship or "solitary buddhahood" for their own sake ( Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekabuddhayāna ). Mahāyāna Buddhists generally hold that pursuing only the personal release from suffering i.e. nirvāṇa is a smaller or inferior aspiration (called " hinayana "), because it lacks the wish and resolve to liberate all other sentient beings from saṃsāra (the round of rebirth ) by becoming

5291-811: Is still much scholarly debate regarding which works can be attributed to him. Scholars have noted that some of Paramārtha's translations contain deviations from their Indic or Tibetan counterparts. Some scholars such as Funayama Tōru have argued that this difference is due to Paramārtha's "lecture notes" being included as part of the translations of the Indian source texts. Some of Paramārtha's various lost works, including some of his oral commentaries written by his students, have survived in fragmentary form as quotations in later texts. Modern scholars are still working on collecting these fragments. After Paramārtha's death, his various students dispersed and attempted to spread his teachings, but they were not very successful . It

5434-422: Is taught by the Buddha himself, and it discusses the incalculable ( asaṅkhyeya ) and infinite nature of the universe and the number of beings contained in it. Books 31 and 32 are taught by the bodhisattva Cittaraja and discuss time and space respectively. Cittaraja states that time is relative, and that in some worlds, an entire aeon ( kalpa ) is but a day in other worlds. Books 33 discusses the various qualities of

5577-619: Is the same as the Avataṃsaka Sūtra in 100,000 lines. Identification of the Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra as a "Bodhisattva Piṭaka" was also recorded in the colophon of a Chinese manuscript at the Mogao Caves : "Explication of the Ten Stages, entitled Creator of the Wisdom of an Omniscient Being by Degrees , a chapter of the Mahāyāna sūtra Bodhisattvapiṭaka Buddhāvataṃsaka , has ended." The sutra, among

5720-461: Is traditionally divided into are: This assembly of bodhisattvas and other beings is gathered at the Bodhimaṇḍa (the seat of awakening under the bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya , Magadha ), where the Buddha is seated. It is depicted as both the historical place as well as a transcendent palace filled with multicolored jewels and lights. In these chapters, various bodhisattvas, including Samantabhadra , and

5863-479: Is traditionally seen as a key figure of the Shelun School (攝論宗), a major tradition of Chinese Buddhist thought in the 6th and 7th centuries as well as a major figure of the Faxing school (法性宗, “School of Dharma-nature”). The distinctive doctrine of the Faxing school was "the existence of a pure and transcendent element within the mind, in which case liberation would simply be a matter of recovering that innate purity." This

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6006-565: The Awakening of Faith . The influence of the Awakening of Faith on the immaculate consciousness doctrine can already be seen in the work of Jingying Huiyuan (淨影慧遠, 523-592). For Huiyuan, the amalavijñăna and the ălayavijñăna are both two aspects of the same "true" consciousness, reminiscent of the "One Mind" of the Awakening of Faith . The doctrine is also further developed in the Vajrasamādhi sūtra. Faxiang school thought also commented on

6149-577: The Ratnagotravibhāga (both texts share many similarities). Because of this, Paramārtha is seen as an important figure in the development of the Yogacara- tathagatagarbha synthesis. Since the status of the various texts attributed to Paramārtha are still up for debate, attempting to extract Paramārtha's original doctrine from later interpolations and the ideas of other figures in Paramārtha's tradition

6292-459: The Ratnagotravibhāga and thus with the doctrine of Buddha nature ( foxing 佛性). This purity is also linked with the dharmadhātu and, according to Radich, "this is the beginning of a process that links *amalavijñāna into a chain of identifications for (aspects of) the Mahāyāna “absolute”. Some modern scholars also consider the " Treatise on Buddha Nature" (Foxing lun 佛性論, T. 1610 ) to be an original work of Paramārtha, based on his reading of

6435-598: The Vimalakirti Sūtra , which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics. This theory is no longer widely accepted since numerous early Mahāyāna works promote monasticism and asceticism. The Mahāsāṃghika origin theory , which argues that Mahāyāna developed within the Mahāsāṃghika tradition. This is defended by scholars such as Hendrik Kern , A.K. Warder and Paul Williams who argue that at least some Mahāyāna elements developed among Mahāsāṃghika communities (from

6578-537: The Buddhist context, this refers to the absolute, as opposed to merely conventional truth. Paramārtha became a Buddhist monk in India, most likely in the Sāṃmitīya Vinaya . He received support from royalty for his travels to spread the teachings of Buddhism. He most likely received royal patronage from Bālāditya II or Kumāragupta III. The Maukhari ruler Dhruvasena I may have also supported Paramārtha, as his kingdom

6721-618: The Dasabhūmikabhāsya. Another commentary survives in Chinese translation, the Daśabhūmikavibhāṣā (十住毘婆沙論, Shi zhu piposha lun , Taisho # 1521) . It is attributed to Nagarjuna and was translated by Kumārajīva's translation team. The Buddha returns to the hall of universal light and Samantabhadra re-appears, becoming the main teacher of this assembly. In book 27, Samantabhadra teaches on ten types of meditative absorption ( samadhi ) and

6864-668: The Dharmaguptaka nikāya being used in East Asia, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda nikāya being used in Tibetan Buddhism . Therefore, Mahāyāna was never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools. Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of a nikāya were Mahāyānists. From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in

7007-646: The East Asian Madhymaka (by Kumārajīva ) and East Asian Yogacara (especially by Xuanzang ). Later, new developments in Chinese Mahāyāna led to new Chinese Buddhist traditions like Tiantai , Huayen , Pure Land and Chan Buddhism ( Zen ). These traditions would then spread to Korea , Vietnam and Japan . Forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahāyāna sutras are still popular in East Asian Buddhism , which

7150-690: The Pala era (8th century–12th century CE), during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism. Possibly led by groups of wandering tantric yogis named mahasiddhas , this movement developed new tantric spiritual practices and also promoted new texts called the Buddhist Tantras . Philosophically, Vajrayāna Buddhist thought remained grounded in the Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas of Madhyamaka, Yogacara and Buddha-nature. Tantric Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of

7293-624: The Treatise on Buddha Nature ( Foxing lun 佛性論) and the Mahayana Awakening of Faith ( Dasheng qi xin lun 大乘起信論), a key work for Huayan and Chan Buddhism . However, modern scholars have expressed doubts about the attribution of the Awakening of Faith to Paramārtha (as well as numerous other texts), and scholarly opinion remains divided, often due to discrepancies between ancient Chinese catalogs . Due to his teachings which synthesize Yogacara thought with Buddha-nature ideas, Paramārtha

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7436-454: The amalavijñāna is a pure and permanent ( nitya ) consciousness that is unaffected by suffering or mental afflictions . This immaculate consciousness is not a basis for the defilements (unlike the ālayavijñāna ), but rather is a basis for the noble path ( āryamārga ). It is thus a purified vijñāna skandha (consciousness aggregate). As Michael Radich notes, Paramārtha holds that there are two different types of basic consciousnesses, "one

7579-738: The earlier Buddhist texts . Broadly speaking, Mahāyāna Buddhists accept the classic Buddhist doctrines found in early Buddhism (i.e. the Nikāya and Āgamas ), such as the Middle Way , Dependent origination , the Four Noble Truths , the Noble Eightfold Path , the Three Jewels , the Three marks of existence and the bodhipakṣadharmas (aids to awakening). Mahāyāna Buddhism further accepts some of

7722-449: The mind of awakening ( bodhicittotpāda ) and how its merit is greater than any kind of act of worship, no matter how vast. In book 18, Dharmamati discusses the main practices of bodhisattvas: heedfulness ( apramāda ), the perfections ( pāramitās ), the ten "inexhaustible treasuries" and others. The Buddha ascends to Yama's palace (Yama is the god of death), is welcomed with verses of praise. Ten more bodhisattvas arrive and sing verses on

7865-540: The school of Dignaga and Dharmakirti as the last and most recent. Major early figures include Nagarjuna , Āryadeva , Aśvaghoṣa , Asanga , Vasubandhu , and Dignaga . Mahāyāna Buddhists seem to have been active in the Kushan Empire (30–375 CE), a period that saw great missionary and literary activities by Buddhists. This is supported by the works of the historian Taranatha . The Mahāyāna movement (or movements) remained quite small until it experienced much growth in

8008-465: The "Ten Inexhaustible Treasuries" (which summarize the bodhisattva path in from a different point of view). They are: (1) Faith; (2) Ethical conduct; (3) Repentance; (4) Shame (with regard to past wrongdoing); (5) Acquiring Knowledge (of the Dharma); (6) Generosity; (7) Wisdom; (8) Mindfulness; (9) Retention (of what has been learnt); and (10) Eloquence (in teaching the Dharma). Paralleling the last two books,

8151-576: The 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier Gandhāri Prakrit version of the Lotus Sūtra was not the term mahāyāna but the Prakrit word mahājāna in the sense of mahājñāna (great knowing). At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this mahājāna , being phonetically ambivalent, may have been converted into mahāyāna , possibly because of what may have been

8294-455: The 1st century BCE onwards), possibly in the area along the Kṛṣṇa River in the Āndhra region of southern India. The Mahāsāṃghika doctrine of the supramundane ( lokottara ) nature of the Buddha is sometimes seen as a precursor to Mahāyāna views of the Buddha. Some scholars also see Mahāyāna figures like Nāgārjuna , Dignaga , Candrakīrti , Āryadeva , and Bhavaviveka as having ties to

8437-609: The Avatamsaka and it was known as the Vajradhvaja Sūtra or Vajradhvaja Dhāraṇī to the Indian scholar Shantideva . This is the Ten Stages Sutra ( Daśabhūmika sutra ), which focuses on explaining the ten bhūmis (levels or stages) of the bodhisattva path. It was well known in India as the main source for the bodhisattva stages and was widely cited by Shantideva . Vasubandhu wrote an influential commentary on this sutra,

8580-432: The Buddha "is said or implied at various places in this vast and heterogeneous sutra to be the universe itself, to be the same as 'absence of intrinsic existence' or emptiness, and to be the Buddha's all-pervading omniscient awareness." The very body of Vairocana is also seen as a reflection of the whole universe: The body of [Vairocana] Buddha is inconceivable. In his body are all sorts of lands of sentient beings. Even in

8723-413: The Buddha arrives as Tushita heaven without leaving from his past abodes as well. He radiates light in the ten directions and ten more bodhisattvas arrive, singing verses to the Buddha. In book 25, the bodhisattva Vajradhvaja enters samadhi and is blessed by 100,000 Buddhas. Then Vajradhvaja teaches the ten aspects of the bodhisattvas' transfer ( pariṇāmana ) of merit . This is the second longest book in

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8866-464: The Buddha, discuss the nature of reality, the infinity of the universe, how Buddhahood is omnipresent throughout the universe (which is really one vast Buddhafield ) and how bodhisattvas fill the countless worlds in the universe. Chapter six discusses the Buddha Vairocana , his vow to reach Buddhahood long ago, and his path of practice. This assembly is located in the "Hall of Universal Light",

9009-402: The Buddha, just as if there was a great sūtra, as extensive as the great universe, in which are written down all phenomena in the great universe. That is to say, in it is written about the phenomena in the great enclosing iron mountains, as extensively as the great enclosing iron mountains; it is written about the phenomena on earth, as extensively as the earth; it is written about the phenomena in

9152-561: The Buddhas and in book 34, Samantabhadra teaches the attributes of the ten bodies of the Buddha. Book 35 discusses the manifestation of the Buddha in the world. Shakyamuni discusses his birth in Tushita, where he was a bodhisattva named Vairocana ('Shakyamuni' and 'Vairocana' are often used interchangeably in the Avatamsaka). In book 36, Samantabhadra discusses the bodhisattva path in brief, including fifty qualities that must be cultivated. Book 37

9295-545: The Buddhism practiced in China , Indonesia , Vietnam , Korea , Tibet , Mongolia and Japan is Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings and practices (some of which are seemingly contradictory). Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive and broad set of traditions characterized by plurality and the adoption of a vast number of new sutras , ideas and philosophical treatises in addition to

9438-596: The Buddhist Order", who were attempting to imitate the Buddha's forest living. This has been defended by Paul Harrison, Jan Nattier and Reginald Ray . This theory is based on certain sutras like the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra and the Mahāyāna Rāṣṭrapālapaṛiprcchā which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate

9581-594: The Dharmarealm (入法界品) in the Chinese, is also known as the Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra ( Stem Array, or Supreme Array Sutra ). It is the longest book in the Avatamsaka . It contains the story of the bodhisattva Sudhana 's spiritual career. Sudhana is a young man who hears Manjushri teaching and is inspired to seek awakening. Manjushri sends him to his first teacher, and this begins Sudhana's quest, which leads him to study under

9724-539: The Lotus Sutra. It also appears in the Chinese Āgamas , though scholars like Yin Shun argue that this is a later addition. Some Chinese scholars also argue that the meaning of the term in these earlier texts is different from later ideas of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood and there are numerous competing theories. The earliest Western views of Mahāyāna assumed that it existed as

9867-545: The Mahāsāṃghika tradition of Āndhra. However, other scholars have also pointed to different regions as being important, such as Gandhara and northwest India. The Mahāsāṃghika origins theory has also slowly been shown to be problematic by scholarship that revealed how certain Mahāyāna sutras show traces of having developed among other nikāyas or monastic orders (such as the Dharmaguptaka ). Because of such evidence, scholars like Paul Harrison and Paul Williams argue that

10010-517: The Mahāyāna tradition was the largest major tradition of Buddhism , with 53% of Buddhists belonging to East Asian Mahāyāna and 6% to Vajrayāna , compared to 36% to Theravada . According to Jan Nattier , the term Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") was originally an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayāna (" Bodhisattva Vehicle"), the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. The term Mahāyāna (which had earlier been used simply as an epithet for Buddhism itself)

10153-565: The Mahāyāna." Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from Central Asia to China at that time. Based on archeological evidence, Gregory Schopen argues that Indian Mahāyāna remained "an extremely limited minority movement – if it remained at all – that attracted absolutely no documented public or popular support for at least two more centuries." Likewise, Joseph Walser speaks of Mahāyāna's "virtual invisibility in

10296-558: The Practices; (4) Noble Birth (i.e. into the family of the buddhas); (5) Perfection of Skilful Means; (6) Rectification of the Mind; (7) Nonregression; (8) Childlike Simplicity; (9) Crown Prince of the Dharma; and (10) Consecration. Dharmamati then teaches on spiritual conduct and the importance of analytical inquiry for beginners on the path (book 16). In book 17, Dharmamati teaches about the arousing of

10439-502: The Qualities of Infinite Buddhafields ). Apart from these four texts and some fragments, the rest of the sutra only survives in Chinese and Tibetan translations. Two full Chinese translations of the Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra were made. Fragmentary translation probably began in the 2nd century CE, and the famous Ten Stages Sutra , often treated as an individual scripture, was first translated in the 3rd century. The first complete Chinese version

10582-491: The Splendours of Vairocana" (vairocana-vyūhālāṅkāra-garbha). Within the tower, Sudhana has a grand vision of infinite worlds, each of which contains forms of Maitreya guiding beings to awakening. He also sees countless assemblies of beings with Buddhas teaching them and with Sudhana present in each one. Sudhana then meets Manjushri and Samantabhadra which confirm his attainment with further visions, including his final merging into

10725-535: The Tathagata): Son of Buddha, the wisdom of Tathagata is present everywhere. Why? Son of Buddha, in the class of living beings there is no place where the wisdom of Tathagata is not present. Why is it that? The wisdom of Tathagata is not established due to grasping the discrimination/consciousness, because the omniscient wisdom, the self-existent wisdom and the non-obstructed wisdom perfectly appear in total disconnection with discrimination. According to Paul Williams,

10868-400: The Yogacara doctrine of vijñaptimātra ( weishi ), which posits not just the unreality of non-mental phenomena, but also the unreality of the defiled consciousness itself . According to Radich, some sources attributed to Paramārtha also identify the immaculate consciousness with the “innate purity of the mind” (prakṛtiprabhāsvaracitta) and this links the concept with the pure Thusness of

11011-404: The archaeological record until the fifth century". Schopen also sees this movement as being in tension with other Buddhists, "struggling for recognition and acceptance". Their "embattled mentality" may have led to certain elements found in Mahāyāna texts like Lotus sutra , such as a concern with preserving texts. Schopen, Harrison and Nattier also argue that these communities were probably not

11154-410: The basis for worldly and defiled dharmas, and the other the basis of transcendent ( lokôttara ) dharmas." Furthermore, the phenomena produced by the immaculate consciousness act as the counteragent to all the defilements and the amalavijñāna is said to be attained by the cultivation of the wisdom that knows Thusness ( tathatā ). According to Paramārtha, Buddhahood is achieved when, after practicing

11297-524: The beginning of the common era . Jan Nattier has noted that some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the early schools . Instead, Nattier writes that in the earliest sources, "Mahāyāna" referred to the rigorous emulation of Gautama Buddha 's path to Buddhahood. Some important evidence for early Mahāyāna Buddhism comes from

11440-421: The body of Samantabhadra (which contains the entire universe). Mahayana Mahāyāna also refers to the path of the bodhisattva striving to become a fully awakened Buddha for the benefit of all sentient beings, and is thus also called the "Bodhisattva Vehicle" ( Bodhisattvayāna ). Mahāyāna Buddhism generally sees the goal of becoming a Buddha through the bodhisattva path as being available to all and sees

11583-542: The capital are described in a Chinese introduction written by Pao Kuei in 597 CE: During the Ta-t'ung period the emperor sent a rear guard Chang Szu to Funan to send back to China eminent monks and Mahayana sastras and sutras of various kinds. This country [Funan] then yielded in turning over the western Indian Dharma Master from Ujjain, namely Paramartha, who in Liang was called Chen-ti, and many sutras and sastras in order to honor

11726-540: The collection. The single extant Tibetan version was translated from the original Sanskrit by Jinamitra et al. at the end of ninth century. According to Paramārtha , a 6th-century monk from Ujjain in central India, the Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra is also called the "Bodhisattva Piṭaka." In his translation of the Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya , there is a reference to the Bodhisattva Piṭaka, which Paramārtha notes

11869-642: The current scholarly debate as to its provenance. An important source for Paramārtha's doctrine of the immaculate consciousness is the Jueding zang lun (決定藏論, the beginning of the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī portion of the Yogācārabhūmi , T. 1584). This text is not included in all catalogs of Paramārtha's works but is considered to be by Paramārtha by various modern scholars including Michael Radich. There are numerous other works attributed to Paramārtha and there

12012-425: The doctrine of immaculate consciousness as a ninth consciousness. The idea is used by numerous influential East Asian Buddhist authors like Zhiyi (智顗, 538-597), Wŏnch’uk (圓測, 613-696); Wŏnhyo (元曉, 617-686); Amoghavajra (不空金剛, 705-774), Chengguan (澄觀, 738-839); and Zongmi (宗密, 780-841). Many later authors interpreted Paramārtha's doctrine of the immaculate consciousness through other works, especially

12155-732: The dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet , in surrounding regions like Bhutan and in Mongolia . Esoteric elements are also an important part of East Asian Buddhism where it is referred to by various terms. These include: Zhēnyán ( Chinese : 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra), Mìjiao (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching), Mìzōng (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition") or Tángmì (唐密; "Tang (Dynasty) Esoterica") in Chinese and Shingon , Tomitsu, Mikkyo , and Taimitsu in Japanese. Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism in general other than that

12298-606: The emperor. After Dharma Master Paramartha had traveled to many kingdoms he had settled in Funan. His manner was lively and intelligent and he relished details in scriptural texts and profound texts, all of which he had studied. In the first year of T'ai-ch'ing (547) he went to the capital and had a visit with the emperor who himself bowed down to him in the Jeweled Cloud quarters of the palace in reverence to him, wishing for him to translate sutras and sastras. In China, Paramārtha worked with

12441-409: The end of his life, but felt that this journey back to the west would be "impossible." Instead, he accepted the patronage of Ouyang Ho and continued his translation efforts at a rapid pace. During much of his later life, Paramārtha continued a pattern of continually translating texts while traveling from region to region in China. He also continued to review his older translations for any areas in which

12584-528: The fields full of assemblies, the beings and aeons which are as many as all the dust particles, are all present in every particle of dust." Thus, a Buddha's view of reality is also said to be "inconceivable; no sentient being can fathom it". The following passage from the Buddhāvataṃsaka describes this holistic idea of universal interpenetration or interfusion which sees the total sum of all things as being contained in each individual phenomena: Children of

12727-415: The fifth century . Very few manuscripts have been found before the fifth century (the exceptions are from Bamiyan ). According to Walser, "the fifth and sixth centuries appear to have been a watershed for the production of Mahāyāna manuscripts." Likewise it is only in the 4th and 5th centuries CE that epigraphic evidence shows some kind of popular support for Mahāyāna, including some possible royal support at

12870-447: The fifth century, Mahāyāna Buddhism and its institutions slowly grew in influence. Some of the most influential institutions became massive monastic university complexes such as Nalanda (established by the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor, Kumaragupta I ) and Vikramashila (established under Dharmapala c. 783 to 820) which were centers of various branches of scholarship, including Mahāyāna philosophy. The Nalanda complex eventually became

13013-599: The forest life. Jan Nattier's study of the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra, A few good men (2003) argues that this sutra represents the earliest form of Mahāyāna, which presents the bodhisattva path as a 'supremely difficult enterprise' of elite monastic forest asceticism. Boucher's study on the Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra (2008) is another recent work on this subject. The cult of the book theory , defended by Gregory Schopen , states that Mahāyāna arose among

13156-455: The fourth century, Chinese monks like Faxian (c. 337–422 CE) had also begun to travel to India (now dominated by the Guptas ) to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahāyāna works. These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases Indian Mahāyāna traditions were directly transplanted, as with the case of

13299-420: The ground of all phenomena". Teachings about emptiness and mind-only can be found throughout the sutra, especially in chapters 10, 1 6, and 22 of the 60 fascicle version (T 278). The sutra contains various statements affirming the mind-only teaching. For example, it states: "The triple world is only mind", and "Everything is created by the mind alone." It also affirms emptiness when it states: "The triple world

13442-454: The highest kind of awakening due to his superior compassion and wish to help all beings. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahāyāna understandings. Mahāyāna texts not only often depict numerous Buddhas besides Sakyamuni , but see them as transcendental or supramundane ( lokuttara ) beings with great powers and huge lifetimes. The White Lotus Sutra famously describes

13585-478: The ideas found in Buddhist Abhidharma thought. However, Mahāyāna also adds numerous Mahāyāna texts and doctrines, which are seen as definitive and in some cases superior teachings. D.T. Suzuki described the broad range and doctrinal liberality of Mahāyāna as "a vast ocean where all kinds of living beings are allowed to thrive in a most generous manner, almost verging on a chaos". Paul Williams refers to

13728-517: The importance of dharmabhanakas (preachers, reciters of these sutras) in the early Mahāyāna sutras. This figure is widely praised as someone who should be respected, obeyed ('as a slave serves his lord'), and donated to, and it is thus possible these people were the primary agents of the Mahāyāna movement. Early Mahayana came directly from " early Buddhist schools " and was a successor to them. The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes from sūtras ("discourses", scriptures) originating around

13871-568: The kingdom of Shan shan as well as in Bamiyan and Mathura . Still, even after the 5th century, the epigraphic evidence which uses the term Mahāyāna is still quite small and is notably mainly monastic, not lay. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian (337–422 CE), Xuanzang (602–664), Yijing (635–713 CE) were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together. After

14014-560: The largest and most influential Buddhist center in India for centuries. Even so, as noted by Paul Williams, "it seems that fewer than 50 percent of the monks encountered by Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) on his visit to India actually were Mahāyānists." Over time Indian Mahāyāna texts and philosophy reached Central Asia and China through trade routes like the Silk Road , later spreading throughout East Asia . Over time, Central Asian Buddhism became heavily influenced by Mahāyāna and it

14157-449: The lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable and states that he actually achieved Buddhahood countless of eons ( kalpas ) ago and has been teaching the Dharma through his numerous avatars for an unimaginable period of time. Furthermore, Buddhas are active in the world, constantly devising ways to teach and help all sentient beings. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for

14300-453: The longest Buddhist sutras, is a compilation of disparate texts on various topics such as the Bodhisattva path, the interpenetration of phenomena ( dharmas ), the omnipresence of Buddhahood , the miraculous powers of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, the visionary powers of meditation, and the equality of things in emptiness . According to Paul Demiéville , the Buddhāvataṃsaka collection

14443-475: The main impulse behind Mahāyāna as the vision which sees the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for sake of other beings as being the supreme religious motivation. This is the way that Atisha defines Mahāyāna in his Bodhipathapradipa . As such, according to Williams, "Mahāyāna is not as such an institutional identity. Rather, it is inner motivation and vision, and this inner vision can be found in anyone regardless of their institutional position." Thus, instead of

14586-460: The medium universe, as extensively as the medium universe; it is written about the phenomena in the small universe, as extensively as the small universe. In the same vein, all phenomena – be they of the four continents, or the great oceans, Sumeru mountains, the palaces of the gods in the heavens of the realm of desire, the palaces in the realm of form, and the palaces of the formless realm – are written down to an equal length. Even though this sūtra

14729-421: The movement was not sectarian and was possibly pan-buddhist. There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for aspiring bodhisattvas. The "forest hypothesis" meanwhile states that Mahāyāna arose mainly among "hard-core ascetics , members of the forest dwelling ( aranyavasin ) wing of

14872-731: The nature of reality, emptiness and the mind. These verses also discuss how the world is a mental creation, it includes the famous simile which compares the mind to a painter and the world to a painting. In book 21, one of the bodhisattvas, Guṇavana, teaches the ten practices (carya) of bodhisattvas (which also roughly correspond to the 10 paramitas): (1) Giving Delight (corresponding to dāna ); (2) Bestowing Benefits ( śīla ); (3) Nonresentment ( kṣānti ); (4) Inexhaustible Practice ( vīrya ); (5) Transcending Ignorance and Confusion ( dhyāna ); (6) Skilful Manifestation ( upāya ); (7) Nonattachment; (8) Veneration; (9) Cultivation of Good Qualities; (10) Cultivation of Truth ( jñāna ). In book 22, Guṇavana teaches

15015-412: The noble path, the mind experiences the “revolutionary transformation of the basis” ( āśrayaparāvṛtti ) during which the storehouse consciousness ( ālayavijñāna ) ceases to exist, leaving only the immaculate consciousness free of all evil ( dauṣṭhulya ), suffering and all outflows ( asrava ). Thus, according to Michael Radich "Paramărtha understood *amalavijñăna to be the counteragent to ălayavijñăna, and

15158-464: The personal nirvana of the arhats , but they reject this goal and remain in saṃsāra to help others out of compassion. According to eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra , the term "bodhisattva" can technically refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards bodhi (awakening) and hence the technical term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a mahāsattva (great being) bodhisattva . According to Paul Williams,

15301-620: The predominant forms of Buddhism found in China , Korea , Japan , Taiwan , Singapore , Vietnam , Philippines , and Malaysia . Since Vajrayāna is a tantric form of Mahāyāna, Mahāyāna Buddhism is also dominant in Tibet , Mongolia , Bhutan , and other Himalayan regions. It has also been traditionally present elsewhere in Asia as a minority among Buddhist communities in Nepal , Malaysia , Indonesia and regions with Asian diaspora communities. As of 2010,

15444-429: The rhetoric of emptiness without ever mentioning the bodhisattva path, while a Yogacara treatise ( Vasubandhu's Madhyanta-vibhaga-bhasya ) may delve into the particulars of the trikaya doctrine while eschewing the doctrine of ekayana . We must be prepared, in other words, to encounter a multiplicity of Mahayanas flourishing even in India, not to mention those that developed in East Asia and Tibet. In spite of being

15587-468: The same monasteries side by side. It is also possible that, formally, Mahāyāna would have been understood as a group of monks or nuns within a larger monastery taking a vow together (known as a " kriyākarma ") to memorize and study a Mahāyāna text or texts. The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the Buddha Amitābha (an important Mahāyāna figure)

15730-631: The state of the arhat as incomplete. Mahāyāna also includes numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas that are not found in Theravada (such as Amitābha and Vairocana ). Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy also promotes unique theories, such as the Madhyamaka theory of emptiness ( śūnyatā ), the Vijñānavāda ("the doctrine of consciousness" also called "mind-only"), and the Buddha-nature teaching. While initially

15873-504: The summit of Mount Sumeru and he is praised by Sakra in verse. Many bodhisattvas arrive from other realms and recite verses on the nature of reality, praising the Buddha and bodhisattvas. In book 15, a bodhisattva named Dharmamati teaches on how the bodhisattva path progresses through ten abodes (viharas): (1) Awakening the Aspiration to Enlightenment; (2) Preparing the Ground; (3) Cultivating

16016-434: The sutra (book 15, book 26). Indeed, according to a detailed study of the sutra by Itō Zuiei, some of the most important teachings in the sutra are related to the bodhisattva path, its primary cause ( bodhicitta ) and bodhisattva activity (bodhisattva-caryā). The Daśabhūmika Sūtra chapter describes ten bhūmis in detail. Luis O. Gómez notes that there is an underlying order to the Avatamsaka collection. The discourses in

16159-465: The sutra version with thirty nine books (or chapters) are delivered to eight different audiences or "assemblies" in seven locations such as Bodh Gaya and Tusita Heaven. Each "assembly" includes various locales, doctrinal topics and characters. The following list of assemblies is based on the exegesis of the Chinese Huayan school. In Huayan commentaries, the main "assemblies" which the collection

16302-457: The sutra's worldview as " fractal ", " holographic ", and " psychedelic ". The East Asian Buddhist view of the text is that it expresses the infinite universe as seen by a Buddha (the Dharmadhatu ), who sees all phenomena as empty and thus infinitely interpenetrating, from the point of view of enlightenment . This interpenetration is described in the Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra as the perception "that

16445-619: The sutra), titled Disengagement from the World , Samantabhadra teaches on the Buddhist path to awakening. He is asked two hundred questions on the bodhisattva's career and provides ten answers to each one, providing a comprehensive set of guidelines and practices for bodhisattvas. These answers include: "ten types of spiritual teachers, ten kinds of effort, ten sources of contentment, ten ways of bringing sentient beings to maturity, ten kinds of moral discipline and so on." Book thirty nine, entitled Entering

16588-622: The sutra, or thinking of particular Buddhas, that they claim can enable one to be reborn in special, luxurious ' pure lands ' where one will be able to make easy and rapid progress on the bodhisattva path and attain Buddhahood after as little as one lifetime." Drewes states that the evidence merely shows that "Mahāyāna was primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sutras , that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." Drewes points out

16731-501: The term Mahāyāna as a synonym for Bodhisattvayāna , but the term Hīnayāna is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in the same era. Among the earliest and most important references to Mahāyāna are those that occur in the Lotus Sūtra (Skt. Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra ) dating between

16874-594: The term avataṃsaka means "a great number," "a multitude," or "a collection." This is matched by the Tibetan title of the sutra, which is A Multitude of Buddhas (Tibetan: sangs rgyas phal po che ). Modern scholars consider the Buddhāvataṃsaka to be a compilation of numerous smaller sutras, many of which originally circulated independently and then were later brought together into the larger mature Buddhāvataṃsaka. Many of these independent Buddhāvataṃsaka sutras survive in Chinese translation. The text has been described by

17017-507: The term refers to a “consciousness without outflows” (anăsravavijñăna). This is a consciousness that has been purified of all defilement through insight into the four noble truths and which brings freedom from rebirth. Likewise, the Yogacarabhumi contains teachings on purified consciousness ( visuddha vijñāna ). It is likely that these earlier sources influenced Paramārtha's conception of immaculate consciousness. Paramārtha's concept of

17160-453: The texts translated by the Indoscythian monk Lokakṣema in the 2nd century CE, who came to China from the kingdom of Gandhāra . These are some of the earliest known Mahāyāna texts. Study of these texts by Paul Harrison and others show that they strongly promote monasticism (contra the lay origin theory), acknowledge the legitimacy of arhatship , and do not show any attempt to establish

17303-508: The three bodies ( trikāya ) of a Buddha developed to make sense of the transcendental nature of the Buddha. This doctrine holds that the "bodies of magical transformation" ( nirmāṇakāyas ) and the "enjoyment bodies" ( saṃbhogakāya ) are emanations from the ultimate Buddha body, the Dharmakaya , which is none other than the ultimate reality itself, i.e. emptiness or Thusness . The Mahāyāna bodhisattva path ( mārga ) or vehicle ( yāna )

17446-442: The translator Thomas Cleary "the most grandiose, the most comprehensive, and the most beautifully arrayed of the Buddhist scriptures." The Buddhāvataṃsaka describes a cosmos of infinite realms upon realms filled with an immeasurable number of Buddhas. This sutra was especially influential in East Asian Buddhism . The vision expressed in this work was the foundation for the creation of the Huayan school of Chinese Buddhism , which

17589-423: The two to be in a temporal relationship to one another, whereby ălayavijñăna existed only until liberation, and was then succeeded by fully realised *amalavijñăna." Some texts attributed to Paramārtha also identify the Yogacara idea of the perfected nature ( pariniṣpannasvabhāva ) with the amalavijñāna. Some of these texts also see the teaching of the immaculate consciousness as a superior or higher version of

17732-463: The universe, and they do this effortlessly and without any calculation, through an infinite number of skillful means ( upaya ), out of great compassion for all beings. As the sutra states: The sutra also discusses how there are an immeasurable number of Buddhas and their buddha-fields which are said to be infinite, representing a vast cosmic view of reality. One key Buddha in this sutra is the Buddha Vairocana ("Radiance" or "The Illuminator"). Vairocana

17875-409: The various catalogs diverge in many ways. According to Keng Ching and Michael Radich, the following key texts are agreed upon by all catalogs (with minor differences in dating etc) as being translations of Paramārtha (and his team of translators): Regarding the famous Mahayana Awakening of Faith ( Dasheng qi xin lun 大乘起信論, T. 1666), it is cited as "dubious" in one of the Chinese catalogs, hence

18018-455: The various powers that they bestow on those who master them (such as being able to travel freely to all realms in the universe). In book 28, Samantabhadra similarly discusses ten supernormal powers ( abhijñā ) mastered by bodhisattvas (such as telepathy etc), and in book 29, he discusses ten types of patience ( kṣānti ), which mainly refers to an acceptance of the illusory and unarisen nature of reality (i.e. anutpattikadharmakṣānti ). Book 30

18161-475: The visualization of Buddhist deities (including Buddhas, bodhisattvas, dakinis , and fierce deities ) and the use of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric master ( vajracarya ) or guru . The source and early origins of Vajrayāna remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some scholars like Alexis Sanderson argue that Vajrayāna derives its tantric content from Shaivism and that it developed as

18304-636: The words and the general meaning were in conflict. During his later years (562–569) Paramārtha finally attained a stable patronage and could remain in one single place to work - Guangzhou . It was during this late period that he and his main students, like Huikai, Sengzong (僧宗), Fazhun (法准), and Sengren (僧忍), produced the most important translations, like the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya and the Mahāyānasaṃgraha . In this later period, Paramārtha had become famous throughout southern China and had acquired

18447-625: The world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares". Buddha Sakyamuni 's life and death on earth are then usually understood docetically as a "mere appearance", his death is a show, while in actuality he remains out of compassion to help all sentient beings. Similarly, Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an omnipotent and almighty divinity "endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities". Mahayana Buddhologies have often been compared to various types of theism (including pantheism ) by different scholars, though there

18590-490: The world's true nature is mind, you display bodies of your own in harmony with the world. Having realized that this world is like a dream, and that all Buddhas are like mere reflections, that all principles [dharma] are like an echo, you move unimpeded in the world (Trans in Gomez, 1967: lxxxi) As a result of their infinite power and omnipotence , Buddhas have the magical ability to create and manifest infinite number of forms all over

18733-486: The “ninth consciousness” (jiushi 九識), an extension of the Yogacara doctrine of eight consciousnesses ). While numerous later sources claim that Paramārtha taught the immaculate consciousness as a “ninth consciousness”, this is not found in any of Paramārtha's extant works and Michael Radich writes that the truth of the issue is impossible to determine. Later sources also drew on a passage in the Laṃkâvatăra sūtra to defend

18876-438: Was a Chinese form of Yogacara that also placed much emphasis on the doctrine of tathagatagarbha . Paramārtha's doctrine of the immaculate consciousness was a particularly influential teaching which was widely adopted by many later Chinese Buddhist thinkers. Beginning with the work of Huijun (慧均, d.u., fl. 574-580s?), the immaculate consciousness began to be widely called the untainted consciousness (wugoushi 無垢識) as well as

19019-551: Was a major source for Chinese Buddhism. Mahāyāna works have also been found in Gandhāra , indicating the importance of this region for the spread of Mahāyāna. Central Asian Mahāyāna scholars were very important in the Silk Road Transmission of Buddhism . They include translators like Lokakṣema (c. 167–186), Dharmarakṣa (c. 265–313), Kumārajīva (c. 401), and Dharmakṣema (385–433). The site of Dunhuang seems to have been

19162-473: Was a well-known bastion of the type of Yogācāra teachings advocated by Paramārtha. The first destination of Paramārtha was the kingdom of Funan , or pre- Angkor Cambodia . Here in Funan, Paramārtha's reputation grew to the extent that Emperor Wu of Liang sent ambassadors to bring Paramārtha to the Chinese imperial court. Paramārtha arrived in China through Guangdong (then called Nanhai) on 25 September 546 CE.23 The conditions of Paramartha's arrival at

19305-748: Was an Indian monk from Ujjain , who is best known for his prolific Chinese translations of Buddhist texts during the Six Dynasties era . He is known as one of the four great translators in Chinese Buddhist history (along with Kumārajīva and Xuanzang ). He is also known for the various oral commentaries he gave on his translations which were written down by his disciples (and now only survive in fragmentary form). Some of Paramārtha's influential translations include Vasubandhu 's Abhidharmakośa , Asaṅga’s Mahāyānasaṃgraha , and Dignāga's Ālambanaparīkṣā & Hastavālaprakaraṇa . Paramārtha

19448-736: Was characterized by a philosophy of interpenetration . The Huayan school is known as Hwaeom in Korea , Kegon in Japan and Hoa Nghiêm in Vietnam. The sutra is also influential in Chan Buddhism . This work has been used in a variety of countries. Some major traditional titles include the following: According to a Dunhuang manuscript , this text was also known as the Bodhisattvapiṭaka Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra . The Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra

19591-755: Was compiled in India from sutras already in circulation which also bore the name "Buddhavatamsaka". The Ten Stages sutra ( Daśabhūmika ) and the Flower Array sutra ( Gaṇḍavyūha ) have both survived in Sanskrit . There are two other parts of the Avatamsaka which have survived in Sanskrit, the Bhadracaryāpraṇidhāna (The Aspiration Prayer for Good Conduct) , and the Anantabuddhakṣetraguṇodbhāvana-nāma-mahāyāna-sūtra ( Cultivating

19734-772: Was found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura , and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the Brāhmī inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of King Huviṣka , ... for the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha." There is also some evidence that the Kushan Emperor Huviṣka himself was a follower of Mahāyāna. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in the Schøyen Collection describes Huviṣka as having "set forth in

19877-400: Was only due to the efforts of Tanqian (曇遷; 542–607) that Paramārtha's teachings flourished and became popular in the north. In spite of the fact that Tanqian had neither met Paramārtha, nor studied with any of Paramārtha’s students, it was Tanqian who really popularized Paramārtha's teachings, especially the Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya, which he taught together with the Awakening of Faith. Tanqian

20020-593: Was opposed to the view of Xuanzang and his school, which held that the mind was impure and had to be totally transformed. Paramārtha was born in 499 CE in the autonomous kingdom of Malwa in central India, at the end of the Gupta Dynasty . His given name was Kulanātha, meaning "savior of the family", and his parents were Brahmins belonging to the Bhāradvāja clan. His Buddhist name of Paramārtha means "the ultimate meaning," parama : uppermost, artha : meaning. In

20163-399: Was therefore adopted at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for Bodhisattvayāna , the adoption of the term Mahāyāna and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition. The earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the Lotus Sūtra , often use

20306-498: Was translated by Buddhabhadra around 420 in 60 scrolls with 34 chapters, and the second by Śikṣānanda around 699 in 80 scrolls with 40 chapters. There is also a translation of the Gaṇḍavyūha section by Prajñā around 798. The second translation includes more sutras than the first, and the Tibetan translation, which is still later, includes many differences with the 80 scrolls version. Scholars conclude that sutras were being added to

20449-520: Was written in stages, beginning from at least 500 years after the death of the Buddha . One source claims that it is "a very long text composed of a number of originally independent scriptures of diverse provenance, all of which were combined, probably in Central Asia, in the late third or the fourth century CE." Japanese scholars such as Akira Hirakawa and Otake Susumu meanwhile argue that the Sanskrit original

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