Gazikumukh Khanate was a Lak state that was established in present-day Dagestan after the disintegration of Gazikumukh Shamkhalate in 1642. Its peoples included various Lezgin tribes and Avars.
145-501: Khanate was ruled by the supreme council known as "Kat" in Lak or " Divan " where viziers, main qadis, warlords and the ruler participated in the meetings. Local governments consisted of jama'at, council of chiefs, judge and executor. Police functions were performed by the khan's noukers. The state of Laks consisted of one Lakia that was divided into such territories as "Kullal", "Uri-Mukarki", "Machaymi", "Vitskhi", "Gumuchi" and "Bartki". After
290-405: A Firman that proclaimed Surkhay-khan I the ruler of Shirvan. According to Butkov, Surkhay-khan I was not subordinate to Turkish authority "as he understood his strength". Surkhay-khan I receiving the title of khan of Shirvan and Gazi-Kumukh, made Shemakha his residence, built schools, fortresses and roads. Historian Gusaynov wrote that "as early as July 1730 shah of Persia offered Surkhay-khan I
435-531: A dialect of the Southern Oghuz group or a dialect of Azerbaijani . As he was growing up, he must have swiftly learned Persian, which was the language of the cities and high culture . But unless he was speaking to someone who spoke only Persian, he always preferred to communicate in Turkic. His knowledge of Arabic is not documented, but it seems doubtful given his lack of interest in literature and theology. Nader
580-414: A dispute with Muhammad-khan fled to Fatali-khan. Muhammad-khan rendered his preference of the future ruler to Surkhay-bek, born from the daughter of Abdal Gani-khan. In subsequent years Fatali-khan was in conflict with utsmi of Kaitag, nutsal of Avaria and the khan of Gazi-Kumukh. A coalition was formed which included many rulers of Dagestan who undertook an invasion of Quba Khanate . A battle took place in
725-493: A fifth school ( madhhab ) of Sunni Islam and that the Ottomans would allow its adherents to go on the hajj , or pilgrimage, to Mecca , which was within their territory. In the subsequent peace negotiations, the Ottomans refused to acknowledge Ja'farism as a fifth mazhab but they did allow Iranian pilgrims to go on the hajj . Nader was interested in gaining rights for Iranians to go on the hajj in part because of revenues from
870-464: A figure of national importance. When Nader discovered that Fath Ali Khan was in treacherous correspondence with Malek Mahmud and revealed this to the shah, Tahmasp executed him and made Nader the chief of his army instead. Nader subsequently took on the title Tahmasp Qoli (Servant of Tahmasp). In late 1726, Nader recaptured Mashhad . Nader chose not to march directly on Isfahan. First, in May 1729, he defeated
1015-645: A form of Shia Islam he called "Ja'fari", in honour of the sixth Shia imam Ja'far al-Sadiq . He banned certain Shia practices which were particularly offensive to Sunni Muslims , such as the cursing of the first three caliphs of Islam. Personally, Nader is said to have been indifferent towards religion and the French Jesuit who served as his personal physician reported that it was difficult to know which religion he followed and that many who knew him best said that he had none. Nader hoped that "Ja'farism" would be accepted as
1160-405: A move to prepare for an improbable conquest of distant Kashgaria . Such a campaign did not materialize, but Nader frequently sent funds and engineers to Merv trying to restore its prosperity and rebuild its ill-fated dam. Merv, however, did not become prosperous. Nader now decided to punish Dagestan for the death of his brother Ebrahim Qoli on a campaign a few years earlier. In 1741, while Nader
1305-625: A number of companies under the command of a junior officer or Bey . The Janissaries quickly became the dominant force in Ottoman Libya. As a self-governing military guild answerable only to their own laws and protected by a Divan (in this context, a council of senior officers who advised the Pasha), the Janissaries soon reduced the Pasha to a largely ceremonial role. The Divan-ı Hümayun or Sublime Porte
1450-555: A position of Persian viceroy in Shemakha but Surkhay-khan I refused". In 1733 Nader , a commander-in-chief of the Persian army, defeated the Turkish army near Baghdad . Accordingly, Turkey was transferring to Persia several provinces including Shirvan. General Nader sent his messenger to Surkhay-khan I of Shirvan and demanded him to leave. Surkhay-khan I wrote to Nader a letter saying that "Shirvan
1595-527: A request from people to take charge of state affairs offering her Mahmud-bek, nephew of Aslan-khan, as an assistant. Divan A divan or diwan ( Persian : دیوان , dīvān ; from Sumerian dub , clay tablet ) was a high government ministry in various Islamic states , or its chief official (see dewan ). The word, recorded in English since 1586, meaning "Oriental council of a state", comes from Turkish divan , from Persian دیوان ( dêvân ). It
SECTION 10
#17330857034481740-470: A result of his illness and his desire to extort more and more tax money to pay for his military campaigns. New revolts broke out and Nader crushed them ruthlessly, building towers from his victims' skulls in imitation of his hero Timur. In 1747, Nader set off for Khorasan, where he intended to punish Kurdish rebels . Some of his officers and courtiers feared he was about to execute them and plotted against him, including two of his relatives: Muhammad Quli Khan,
1885-440: A roar. 'Where is my sword? Bring me my weapons!' The assassins were struck with fear by these words and wanted to escape, but ran straight into the two chiefs of the murder-conspiracy, who allayed their fears and made them go into the tent again. Nader Shah had not yet had time to get dressed; Muhammad Quli Khan ran in first and struck him with a great blow of his sword which felled him to the ground; two or three others followed suit;
2030-558: A rumour broke out that Nader had been assassinated, some Indians attacked and killed Iranian troops; by midday 900 Iranian soldiers had been killed. Nader, furious, reacted by ordering his soldiers to sack the city . During the course of one day (22 March) 20,000 to 30,000 Indians were killed by the Iranian troops and as many as 10,000 women and children were taken as slaves, forcing Mohammad Shah to beg Nader for mercy. In response, Nader Shah agreed to withdraw, but Mohammad Shah paid
2175-570: A shamkhal family that remained in Gazi-Kumukh, a ruler. Surkhay-khan I established a Lak state with a strong central power. Public dissatisfaction in Shirvan with the Persians led to a revolt. In 1707, the population of Djaria and Tsakhur led by their elders attacked Shamakha, the residence of the ruler of Shirvan. In 1708, Iranian troops under the command of Imam Kuli-khan advanced from Kakheti and crushed
2320-616: A statesman from the Thaqif tribe who was versed in Persian , is credited with establishing Basra's dīwān during his governorship (636–638), and the dīwān of the Caliphate's other garrison centers followed its organization. With the advent of the Umayyad Caliphate , the number of dīwāns increased. To the dīwān al-jund , the first Umayyad caliph, Mu'awiya (r. 661–680), added the bureau of
2465-528: Is almost unknown, except that their treasury was located in their capital of Nishapur . Ya'qub al-Saffar (r. 867–879), the founder of the Saffarid dynasty who supplanted the Tahirids, is known to have had a bureau of the army ( dīwān al-ʿarḍ ) for keeping the lists and supervising the payment of the troops, at his capital Zarang . Under his successor Amr ibn al-Layth (r. 879–901) there were two further treasuries,
2610-505: Is first attested in Middle Persian spelled as dpywʾn and dywʾn , itself hearkening back, via Old Persian , Elamite and Akkadian , ultimately to Sumerian dub , clay tablet. The word was borrowed into Armenian as well as divan ; on linguistic grounds this is placed after the 3rd century, which helps establish the original Middle Persian (and eventually New Persian ) form was dīvān , not dēvān , despite later legends that traced
2755-506: Is known to have acquired reading and writing skills at some point in his life, probably later on. Approximately three million people or more were nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists in Iran in the beginning of the 18th-century, accounting for one-third of the country's population. Strong ties of kinship as well as customs of helping each other out with fights and finances kept their tribal groups united. Despite being partially or fully absorbed into
2900-655: Is now part of or includes Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Oman, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, the North Caucasus , and the Persian Gulf , but his military spending had a ruinous effect on the Iranian economy. Nader idolized Genghis Khan and Timur , the previous conquerors from Central Asia. He imitated their military prowess and—especially later in his reign—their cruelty. His victories during his campaigns briefly made him West Asia 's most powerful sovereign, ruling over what
3045-767: The Napoleon of Persia , the Sword of Persia , or the Second Alexander . Nader belonged to the Turkoman Afshars , one of the seven Qizilbash tribes that helped the Safavid dynasty establish their power in Iran . Nader rose to power during a period of chaos in Iran after a rebellion by the Hotaki Afghans had overthrown the weak Shah Soltan Hoseyn ( r. 1694–1722 ), while
SECTION 20
#17330857034483190-936: The Abdali Afghans near Herat . Many of the Abdali Afghans subsequently joined his army. The new shah of the Ghilzai Afghans, Ashraf , decided to move against Nader but in September 1729, Nader defeated him at the Battle of Damghan and again decisively in November at Murchakhort. Ashraf fled and Nader finally entered Isfahan, handing it over to Tahmasp in December. The citizens' rejoicing was cut short when Nader plundered them to pay his army. Tahmasp made Nader governor over many eastern provinces, including his native Khorasan, and Tahmasp's sister
3335-556: The Chenab valley, and seized a large amount of the booty and freed most of the slaves in captivity. The Persians, however, were unable to pursue the Sikhs, because they were overloaded with the remaining plunder and overwhelmed by the terrible heat of that May. Traveling with an advance guard, Nader Shah stopped at Lahore where he learned of his losses. He traveled back to his forces, accompanied by Governor Zakariya Khan . Upon learning about
3480-575: The Khanate of Khiva . After the Iranians had forced the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara to submit, Nader wanted Reza to marry the khan's elder daughter because she was a descendant of his hero Genghis Khan, but Reza flatly refused and Nader married the girl himself. With regard to Central Asia, Nader viewed Merv (present-day Bayramali , Turkmenistan ) vital to his north-eastern defenses. He also tried to secure
3625-534: The North Caucasus , South Caucasus , as well as in northern mainland Iran. This included mainly, but was not limited to, the losses of Dagestan (including its principal city of Derbent ), Baku , Gilan , Mazandaran , and Astrabad . The regions to the west of that, mainly Iranian territories in Georgia , Iranian Azerbaijan , and Armenia , were taken by the Ottomans. The newly gained Russian and Turkish possessions were confirmed and further divided amongst themselves in
3770-644: The Ottoman Empire regained the lost territories in Western Armenia and Mesopotamia . Finally, Karim Khan founded the Zand dynasty and became ruler of Iran by 1760. Erekle II and Teimuraz II , who, in 1744, had been made the kings of Kakheti and Kartli respectively by Nader himself for their loyal service, capitalized on the eruption of instability, and declared de facto independence. Erekle II assumed control over Kartli after Teimuraz II's death, thus unifying
3915-503: The Ottoman Empire , as well as the campaigns in the North Caucasus . Nader also secured one of the Mughal emperor's daughters, Jahan Afruz Banu Begum, as a bride for his youngest son. The Indian campaign was the zenith of Nader's career. Afterwards he became increasingly despotic as his health declined markedly. Nader had left his son Reza Qoli Mirza to rule Iran in his absence. Reza had behaved highhandedly and somewhat cruelly but he had kept
4060-520: The Ottoman Empire . He believed that Safavid Shia Islam had intensified the conflict with the Sunni Ottoman Empire. His army was a mix of Shia and Sunni Muslims (with a notable minority of Christians and Kurds ) and included his own Qizilbash as well as Uzbeks , Afghans , Christian Georgians , and Armenians , and others. He wanted Iran to adopt a form of religion that would be more acceptable to Sunni Muslims and suggested that Iran adopt
4205-738: The Qajar tribe , who offered to back him. Meanwhile, Iran's imperial neighboring rivals, the Ottomans and the Russians , took advantage of the chaos in the country to seize and divide territory for themselves. In 1722, Russia, led by Peter the Great and further aided by some of the most notable Caucasian regents of the disintegrating Safavid Empire, such as Vakhtang VI , launched the Russo-Iranian War (1722–1723) in which Russia captured swaths of Iran's territories in
4350-613: The Treaty of Constantinople (1724) . During the chaos, Nader cut a deal with Mahmud Hotaki to rule Kalat in the north of Iran. However, when Mahmud Hotaki began minting coins in his name and asked for everyone's allegiance, Nader refused. Tahmasp and the Qajar leader Fath Ali Khan (the ancestor of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar ) contacted Nader and asked him to join their cause and drive the Ghilzai Afghans out of Khorasan. He agreed and thus became
4495-669: The Turkoman Afshar tribe , which was one of the seven tribes of the Qizilbash who helped the Safavid dynasty establish their power in Iran. The Afshar tribe had originally lived in the Turkestan region, but during the 13th-century they moved to the Azerbaijan region in northwestern Iran as a result of the expansion of the Mongol Empire . Nader was from the semi-nomadic Qirqlu clan of
Gazikumukh Khanate - Misplaced Pages Continue
4640-475: The dīwān al-barīd in charge of the postal service ; the bureau of expenditure ( dīwān al-nafaqāt ), which most likely indicates the survival of a Byzantine institution; the dīwān al-ṣadaqa was a new foundation with the task of estimating the zakāt and ʿushr levies; the dīwān al-mustaghallāt administered state property in cities; the dīwān al-ṭirāz controlled the government workshops that made official banners, costumes and some furniture. Aside from
4785-503: The dīwān al-kharāj now included all land taxes ( kharāj , zakāt , and jizya , both in money and in kind), while another department, the dīwān al-ṣadaqa , dealt with assessing the zakāt of cattle. The correspondence of the dīwān al-kharāj was checked by another department, the dīwān al-khātam . As in Umayyad times, miniature copies of the dīwān al-kharāj , the dīwān al-jund and the dīwān al-rasāʾil existed in every province, but by
4930-603: The dīwān al-sawād , which oversaw the rich lands of lower Iraq, was moved from Baghdad to Shiraz . In addition, a dīwān al-khilāfa was established to oversee the affairs of the Abbasid caliphs, who continued to reside in Baghdad as puppets of the Buyid emirs. The Great Seljuks tended to cherish their nomadic origins, with their sultans leading a peripatetic court to their various capitals. Coupled with their frequent absence on campaign,
5075-432: The mustawfī al-mamālik , a fiscal oversight office ( dīwān al-ishrāf or dīwān al-muʿāmalāt ) under the mushrif al-mamālik , and the army department ( dīwān al-ʿarḍ or dīwān al-jaysh ) under the ʿariḍ (further divided into the recruitment and supply bureau, dīwān al-rawātib , and the salary and land grants bureau, dīwān al-iqṭāʾ ). A number of lesser departments is also attested, although they may not have existed at
5220-467: The māl-e khāṣṣa , and an unnamed bureau under the chief secretary corresponding to a chancery ( dīwān al-rasāʾil or dīwān al-inshāʾ ). The Buyids , who took over Baghdad and the remains of the Abbasid Caliphate in 946, drew partly on the established Abbasid practice, but was adapted to suit the nature of the rather decentralized Buyid "confederation" of autonomous emirates. The Buyid bureaucracy
5365-611: The 1732 Treaty of Resht yet, resulting in the reestablishment of Iranian rule over all of the Caucasus and northern mainland Iran again. Nader suggested to his closest intimates, after a great hunting party on the Moghan plains (presently split between Azerbaijan and Iran), that he should be proclaimed the new king ( shah ) in place of the young Abbas III. The small group of close intimates, Nader's friends, included Tahmasp Khan Jalayer and Hasan-Ali Beg Bestami . Following Nader's suggestion,
5510-430: The 20 thousand shooters of Khorasan and Turkestan left this world". Nevertheless, Persians overcame the defences of highlanders. By August 1741 Surkhay-khan I retreated to his fortress in Gazi-Kumukh but surrendered in a week. Muhammad-bek and Murtazali-bek with five thousand army retreated to Andalal. Ahmed-khan retreated to Andalal as well where highlanders began to gather. Murtazali-bek, the son of Surkhay-khan I, became
5655-521: The Afshars, which lived in the Khorasan region of northeastern Iran. They had either settled there during the reign of the first Safavid Shah Ismail I ( r. 1501–1524 ), or had been resettled by Shah Abbas I ( r. 1588–1629 ) to fend off Uzbek attacks. Regardless, Afshars moving to Khorasan was already taking place by start of the 16th-century. The Afshar dialect is categorized either as
5800-453: The Arabs. In 1743, he conquered Oman and its main capital Muscat . In 1743, Nader started another war against the Ottoman Empire . Despite having a huge army at his disposal, in this campaign Nader showed little of his former military brilliance. It ended in 1746 with the signing of a peace treaty, the Treaty of Kerden , in which the Ottomans agreed to let Nader occupy Najaf . Nader changed
5945-523: The Caliph ( dīwān al-riḳāʿ ). Caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) created a parallel dīwān al-zimām (control bureau) for every one of the existing dīwāns , as well as a central control bureau ( zimām al-azimma ). These acted as comptrollers as well as coordinators between the various bureaus, or between individual dīwāns and the vizier. In addition, a dīwān al-maẓālim was created, staffed by judges, to hear complaints against government officials. The remit of
Gazikumukh Khanate - Misplaced Pages Continue
6090-564: The Gevdusha valley where Fatali-khan suffered a defeat and retreated to Salyan. Russia after receiving the appeal of Fatali-khan began combat actions in the Caucasus. In 1775 March 4, general Frederick Medem crossed over Terek river and invaded Derbent, Kura and Quba. Utsmi Amir-Hamza retreated from Derbent to Kaitag and Muhammad-khan from Quba to Gazi-Kumukh. In 1776 Russian army was recalled from Dagestan as "Fatali-khan reconciled his disputes with
6235-452: The Iranian coinage system. He minted silver coins, called Naderi , that were equal to the Mughal rupee . Nader discontinued the policy of paying soldiers based on land tenure. Like the late Safavids he resettled tribes. Nader Shah transformed the Shahsevan , a nomadic group living around Azerbaijan whose name literally means "shah lover", into a tribal confederacy which defended Iran against
6380-513: The Iranians could make little headway against them. Though Nader managed to take most of Dagestan during his campaign, the effective guerrilla warfare as deployed by the Lezgins, but also the Avars and Laks made the Iranian re-conquest of the particular North Caucasian region a short lived one; several years later, Nader was forced to withdraw . During the same period, Nader accused his son of being behind
6525-614: The Ottoman ambassador Ali Pasha. He cut a deal with notables and the clergy that he would only assume the position of Shah if they promised to refrain from cursing Omar and Uthman , avoid beating themselves to draw blood at the Ashura festival, accept Sunni practices as legitimate, and to obey Nader's children and relatives after his death, thereby setting up a dynasty in his name. He was effectively realigning Persia with Sunni Islam. The notables accepted. The Safavids had forced Shia Islam as
6670-537: The Ottomans and Mughals more closely than the Safavids had been, Nader Shah started creating new concepts. One of these was a focus on a shared Turkmen descent, by having several official documents evoke how Nader Shah, the Ottomans, Uzbeks, and Mughals all had a shared Turkmen background. In a broad sense, this concept mirrored the origin fables of 15th century Anatolian Turkmen dynasties . The Ottomans, however, were left unimpressed with Nader Shah's new concept. According to
6815-521: The Ottomans and Mughals. He may have perceived a need to unite disparate components of the ummah against the expanding power of Europe at that time, however his view of Muslim unity was different from later concepts of it. He proposed a peace treaty with the Ottomans , in it, he proclaimed the Persians wanted the Ja'fari Maddhab to be incorporated as a Madhhab of Islam. While only a nominal claim, Nader's army
6960-414: The Ottomans, and signed a treaty ceding Georgia and Armenia in exchange for Tabriz . Nader, furious, saw that the moment had come to ease Tahmasp from power. He denounced the treaty, seeking popular support for a war against the Ottomans. In Isfahan, Nader got Tahmasp drunk then showed him to the courtiers asking if a man in such a state was fit to rule. In 1732 he forced Tahmasp to abdicate in favour of
7105-420: The Persian throne. Turkish minister promised to support saying: "When the mentioned prince will be firmly established on the stolen throne of his ancestors, then he will give back previously under our rule states of Shirvan, Ganja, Tiflis and Yerevan". At the end of 1743 Muhammad-khan invaded Kura, Derbent and Shabran that were under Persian rule. Abdal Gani-khan Afghani, Nader-shah's general who defended Shabran,
7250-565: The Safavid Iranian city of Shemakha , the major trading center of Shirvan , and captured it. English writer Jonas Hanway wrote that "the city was ransacked". Utsmy Ahmed-khan could take part in this campaign due to a threat from shamkhal of Tarki. In 1722 a 110 thousand army of Peter I of Russia came to Dagestan as he invaded the Iranian domains in the region during the Russo-Persian War (1722-1723) . Surkhay-khan I spoke out against
7395-500: The Shah's baby son, Abbas III, to whom Nader became regent . Nader decided, as he continued the 1730–1735 war, that he could win back the territory in Armenia and Georgia by seizing Ottoman Baghdad and then offering it in exchange for the lost provinces, but his plan went badly amiss when his army was routed by the Ottoman general Topal Osman Pasha near the city in 1733. the soldiers under
SECTION 50
#17330857034487540-547: The Sikhs, he told Khan that these rebels would one day rule the land. Still, the remaining plunder his forces had seized from India was so much that Nader was able to stop taxation in Iran for three years following his return. Many historians believe that Nader attacked the Mughal Empire to give his country some breathing space after previous turmoil. His successful campaign and replenishment of funds meant that he could continue his wars against Iran's archrival and neighbour,
7685-709: The Tarikh-e-Jahangoshay-e-Naderi ( History of Nader Shah's Wars ). Finished translations were presented to Nāder Shah in Qazvīn in June 1741, who, however, was not impressed. Nader diverted money going to Shia mullahs and redirected it to his army instead. In 1738, Nader Shah conquered Kandahar, the last outpost of the Hotaki dynasty . His thoughts now turned to the Mughal Empire of India. This once powerful Muslim state to
7830-590: The Turchidag plateau. In Aymaki gorge Persian army was attacked and defeated too. French diplomat in St. Petersburg Marquis de La Chétardie wrote: "The defeat was all the more significant that Nader Shah lured himself into a trap and got into the canyon where hidden forces on both sides have made a terrible massacre of most of his army". By night of September 28 Nader-shah hastily retreated from Andalal losing 40 thousand of his army, according to I. Kalushkin. Murtazali-khan pursued
7975-415: The Turks were defeated by a strong enemy artillery. Advancing further on Nader's artillery stormed the positions of Surkhay-khan I at Koysu river for three days and arrived in Gazi-Kumukh . General-in-chief V. Y. Levashov wrote: "Surkhay was not able to resist the great gun-fire". Surkhay-khan I retreated to Andalal, according to the "Chronicle of wars of Djaria". Nader then marched against Abdullah-pasha, who
8120-440: The arch-enemy of the Safavids, the Ottomans , as well as the Russians had seized Iranian territory for themselves. Nader reunited the Iranian realm and removed the invaders. He became so powerful that he decided to depose the last members of the Safavid dynasty, which had ruled Iran for over 200 years, and become Shah himself in 1736. His numerous campaigns created a great empire that, at its maximum extent, briefly encompassed what
8265-480: The assassination attempt in Mazanderan. Reza Qoli angrily protested his innocence, but Nader had him blinded as punishment, and ordered his eyes to be brought to him on a platter. When his orders had been carried out, however, Nader instantly regretted it, crying out to his courtiers, "What is a father? What is a son?" Soon afterwards, Nader started executing the nobles who had witnessed his son's blinding. In his last years, Nader became increasingly paranoid , ordering
8410-412: The assassination of large numbers of suspected enemies. Following the orders of Nadir Shah, his soldiers executed 150 monks at Monastery of Saint Elijah after they refused to convert to Islam . With the wealth he gained, Nader started to build an Iranian navy . With lumber from Mazandaran , he built ships in Bushehr . He also purchased thirty ships in India. He recaptured the island of Bahrain from
8555-409: The attacks of Surkhay-khan II. In 1820 general Aleksey Ermolov decided to capture Gazi-Kumukh, the stronghold of anti-colonial struggle of highlanders, by a direct attack. A decisive battle took place on June 12 near Khosrekh village. General Madatov with army divisions from Shirvan, Shaki, Quba and Karabakh moved to Khosrekh. By artillery fire Russians overcame the defences of highlanders. Khosrekh
8700-467: The beginning of May 1739, but before they left, he ceded back to Muhammad Shah all territories to the east of the Indus which he had overrun. The booty they had collected was loaded on 700 elephants, 4,000 camels, and 12,000 horses. Nader Shah left the area via the mountains in Northern Punjab . Learning of his planned route, the Sikhs started gathering light cavalry bands, and planned an attack to capture his plunder. The Sikhs fell upon Nadir's army in
8845-426: The border and invade the militarily weak but still extremely wealthy far eastern empire, and in a brilliant campaign against the governor of Peshawar he took a small contingent of his forces on a daunting flank march through nearly impassable mountain passes and took the enemy forces positioned at the mouth of the Khyber Pass completely by surprise, utterly beating them despite being outnumbered two-to-one. This led to
SECTION 60
#17330857034488990-415: The capital into a new department, the dīwān al-dār (bureau of the palace) or dīwān al-dār al-kabīr (great bureau of the palace), where " al-dār " probably meant the vizier's palace. At the same time, the various zimām bureaux were combined into a single dīwān al-zimām which re-checked all assessments, payments and receipts against its own records and, according to the 11th-century scholar al-Mawardi ,
9135-428: The capital, Isfahan . After the Shah failed to escape or to rally a relief force elsewhere, the city was starved into submission and Soltan Husayn abdicated, handing power to Mahmud. In Khorasan, Nader at first submitted to the local Afghan governor of Mashhad , Malek Mahmud, but then rebelled and built up his own small army. Soltan Husayn's son had declared himself Shah Tahmasp II , but found little support and fled to
9280-399: The captain of the guards, and Salah Khan, the overseer of Nader's household. Nader Shah was assassinated on 20 June 1747, at Quchan in Khorasan . He was surprised in his sleep by around fifteen conspirators, and stabbed to death. Nader was able to kill two of the assassins before he died. The most detailed account of Nader's assassination comes from Père Louis Bazin, Nader's physician at
9425-409: The capture of Ghazni , Kabul , Peshawar , Sindh , and Lahore . As he moved into the Mughal territories, he was loyally accompanied by his Georgian subject and future king of eastern Georgia , Erekle II , who led a Georgian contingent as a military commander as part of Nader's force. Following the prior defeat of Mughal forces, he then advanced deeper into India, crossing the river Indus before
9570-483: The capture of the Gazi-Kumukh Khanate, Sufism as the teachings of Qizilbashes, had spread in Dagestan, that had been prevented by the war of Surkhay-khan II. In 1820 Aslan-bek was elected the ruler of Gazi-Kumukh Khanate who also inherited the Kura Khanate which was restored by Russians into an independent Khanate in gratitude to Aslan-bek for his services. Aslan-khan was elevated to the rank of Major-General. In 1826 Surkhay-khan II returned from Persia and in 1827 died in
9715-403: The central government, there was a local branch of the dīwān al-kharāj , the dīwān al-jund and the dīwān al-rasāʾil in every province. Under Caliph Abd al-Malik ( r. 685–705 ), the practices of the various departments began to be standardized and Arabized: instead of the local languages ( Greek in Syria , Coptic and Greek in Egypt , Persian in the former Sasanian lands) and
9860-587: The cognate Dewan is the standard word for chamber, as in the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat or Chamber of People's Representatives. In the sultanate of Morocco , several portfolio Ministries had a title based on Diwan: Nader Shah Khorasan Campaign Afghan Campaigns Safavid restoration First Ottoman War Indian Campaign Central Asian Campaign Dagestan Campaign Persian Gulf Campaign Second Ottoman War Rebellions & Civil War Nader Shah Afshar ( Persian : نادر شاه افشار ; 6 August 1698 – 20 June 1747)
10005-670: The colonial policy of Russia, but avoided an armed clash with Peter. Colonel Alexander Komarov wrote that "In 1723 September 12, shah Tahmasp had ceded to Russia the whole Caspian region from Astrabad to Sulak, however Gazi-Kumukh was not included there. The merit of Gazi-Kumukh reached a high point in Dagestan". In 1724 Surkhay-khan I refused to acknowledge the extension of Ferhat-pasha treaty that passed Shirvan from Persia to Turkey . Surkhay-khan I demanded from Turkey to hand Shirvan over to his rule. Turkey refused. Surkhay-khan I, Ahmed-khan and Nutsal of Avaria ransacked Shirvan for one whole year. In 1725 (in another version in 1728) Turkey issued
10150-446: The command of Mohammad Khan Baloch to besiege finally, after hours of fighting, Nader's troops were defeated and retreated. This was the only time that he was ever defeated in battle. Nader decided he needed to regain the initiative as soon as possible to save his position because revolts were already breaking out in Iran. He faced Topal again with a larger force and defeated and killed him. He then besieged Baghdad, as well as Ganja in
10295-409: The confiscated properties of the Umayyads after his victory in the Abbasid Revolution . This was probably the antecedent of the later dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ , administering the caliph's personal domains. Similarly, under al-Mansur (r. 754–775) there was a bureau of confiscations ( dīwān al-muṣādara ), as well as a dīwān al-aḥshām , probably in charge of palace service personnel, and a bureau of petitions to
10440-621: The consequence in handing over the keys of his royal treasury, and losing even the fabled Peacock Throne to the Iranian emperor. The Peacock Throne, thereafter, served as a symbol of Iranian imperial might. It is estimated that Nader took away with him treasures worth as much as seven hundred million rupees. Among a trove of other fabulous jewels, Nader also looted the Koh-i-Noor (meaning "Mountain of Light" in Persian) and Darya-ye Noor (meaning "Sea of Light") diamonds . The Iranian troops left Delhi at
10585-645: The death of Catherine II, Russian troops pulled out of southern Dagestan. Ali Kayaev wrote that in 1797 Surkhay-khan II gave decisive battles in Karachay–Cherkessia . In 1803 Octobers 22, Surkhay-khan II crossed Alazani and attacked the Kabardin battalion of Tiflis regiment, under the command of Major-General Gulyakov. Gordin Y. A. wrote that "Surkhay-khan II is one of the strongest Lezgin rulers in Dagestan". In 1811 December 15, generals Guryev and Khatuntsev besieged
10730-628: The east was falling apart as the nobles became increasingly disobedient and local opponents such as the Sikhs and Hindu Marathas of the Maratha Empire were expanding upon its territory. Its ruler Muhammad Shah was powerless to reverse this disintegration. Nader asked for the Afghan rebels to be handed over, but the Mughal emperor refused. Nader used the pretext of his Afghan enemies taking refuge in India to cross
10875-533: The end of 18th century Caucasian conflict erupted once again with participation of Iran, Turkey and Russia. Turkish emissaries visited the khans of Lakia and Avaria with large sums of money asking for alliance against Russia. Surkhay-khan II becomes an ally of Turkey. In 1796 Catherine II of Russia sent general Valerian Zubov for further conquest of southern Dagestan during the Persian Expedition of 1796 . General Zubov invaded Quba Khanate and Derbent. After
11020-576: The end of year. The news of the Iranian army's swift and decisive successes against the northern vassal states of the Mughal empire caused much consternation in Delhi, prompting the Mughal ruler, Muhammad Shah , to raise an army of some 300,000 men and march to confront Nader Shah. Despite being outnumbered by six to one, Nader Shah crushed the Mughal army in less than three hours at the huge Battle of Karnal on 13 February 1739. After this spectacular victory, Nader captured Mohammad Shah and entered Delhi . When
11165-477: The existence of a dīwān al-ḥaram , which supervised the women's quarters of the palace. As the Abbasid Caliphate began to fragment in the mid 9th century, its administrative machinery was copied by the emergent successor dynasties, with the already extant local dīwān branches likely providing the base on which the new administrations were formed. The administrative machinery of the Tahirid governors of Khurasan
11310-498: The first four caliphs of Islam . Alternatively, it has also been recorded that the four peaks symbolised the territories of Persia , India , Turkestan , and Khwarezm . In 1741, eight Muslim scholars and three European and five Armenian priests translated the Koran and the Gospels . The commission was supervised by Mīrzā Moḥammad Mahdī Khan Monšī , the court historiographer and author of
11455-471: The fortress of Dastgerd in the northern valleys of Khorasan , a province in the northeast of the Iranian Empire. His father, Emam Qoli, was a herdsman who may also have been a coatmaker. His family lived a nomadic way of life. Nader was a long-waited son in his family. At the age of 13, his father died and Nader had to find a way to support himself and his mother. He had no source of income other than
11600-503: The fortress of Kurakh where Surkhay-khan II resided. After the battle Surkhay-khan II retreated to Gazi-Kumukh. General Khatuntsev passed the management of Kurakh, the capital of Kura region , to Aslan-bek son of Shahmardan-bek. In May 1813 Surkhay-khan II attacked the Kurakh garrison, but was repelled by Aslan-bek. Surkhay-khan II passed the management of khanate to his son Murtazali-bek and left for Tabriz to shah Abbas-Mirza. Surkhay-khan II
11745-551: The fortress of utsmi who was forced to surrender. Nader then headed for Gazi-Kumukh. Surkhay-khan I stood not far from Gazi-Kumukh where 30 thousand army of Nader clashed with a 10 thousand army of Surkhay-khan I. "Land was red with blood as Jaihun" wrote Iranian historian Muhammed Gazim. Surkhay-khan I retreated to Andalal again. Historian Jones wrote that "the fierce sea of the conqueror’s army turned its waves on habitats and fields of Kumukh, and possessions of all people of this place were destroyed". Russian military administration in
11890-412: The future. Nader returned to the province of Khorasan in 1708. At the age of 15, he enlisted as a musketeer for a governor. He rose the ranks and became the governor's right-hand man. Nader grew up during the final years of the Safavid dynasty which had ruled Iran since 1502. At its peak, under such figures as Abbas the Great , Safavid Iran had been a powerful empire, but by the early 18th century
12035-469: The group did not "demur", and Hasan-Ali remained silent. When Nader asked him why he remained silent, Hasan-Ali replied that the best thing for Nader to do would be assembling all leading men of the state, in order to receive their agreement in "a signed and sealed document of consent". Nader approved with the proposal, and the writers of the chancellery, which included the court historian Mirza Mehdi Khan Astarabadi , were instructed with sending out orders to
12180-605: The head of 100 thousand army. Before the invasion Nader-shah declared that "I took under my power Hindustan, the lands of Turan and Iran. Now, I intend with enormous and countless army to conquer the kingdom of Kumukh ". Shah's historiographer Mirza-Mehdi Astarabadi wrote: "The banners that conquered the world are leaving Iran and heading to Dagestan". Persians faced battles in Bashli, Dubek, Tabasaran, Kaitag and Djengutai. Muhammed Gazim, historian of Nader-shah, wrote that "the troops of Surkhay kept on firing from guns for two hours and all
12325-495: The holy war against the Byzantine Empire . Under Caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861), a bureau of servants and pages ( dīwān al-mawālī wa ’l-ghilmān ), possibly an evolution of the dīwān al-aḥshām , existed for the huge number of slaves and other attendants of the palace. In addition, the dīwān al-khātam , now also known as the dīwān al-sirr (bureau of confidential affairs) grew in importance. Miskawayh also mentions
12470-586: The khan of Kaitag, khan of Gazi-Kumukh and the ruler of Tabasaran". In 1789 after the death of Muhammad-khan, his son Surkhay-bek was elected the ruler of Gazikumukh Khanate. Ali Kayaev, a scholar from Kumukh wrote that "Surkhay-khan II was a religious scholar, who knew Qur'an by heart. He restored three mosques in Kumukh: Burhay mosque, Qadi mosque and Friday mosque". Mosque in Tpik was also reconstructed by Surkhay-khan II. Van Galen, officer and an eyewitness wrote: "This
12615-507: The khan of Laks. Murtazali-khan was married to the daughter of Muhammad-qadi of Sogratl. In 1741 at the end of August, Nader-shah approached the territory of Andalal. Sogratl became the military centre of Dagestanis. Murtazali-khan at the head of Dagestani army stood in Andalal. Four days and four nights passed in heavy battles. Persians were routed under Sogratl, Megeb, Chokh and Oboch. A decisive historical battle began on September 12 of 1741 on
12760-473: The land tax ( dīwān al-kharāj ) in Damascus , which became the main dīwān , as well as the bureau of correspondence ( dīwān al-rasāʾil ), which drafted the caliph's letters and official documents, and the bureau of the seal ( dīwān al-khātam ), which checked and kept copies of all correspondence before sealing and dispatching it. A number of more specialist departments were also established, probably by Mu'awiya:
12905-481: The mid-9th century each province also maintained a branch of its dīwān al-kharāj in the capital. The treasury department ( bayt al-māl or dīwān al-sāmī ) kept the records of revenue and expenditure, both in money and in kind, with specialized dīwāns for each category of the latter (e.g. cereals, cloth, etc.). Its secretary had to mark all orders of payment to make them valid, and it drew up monthly and yearly balance sheets. The dīwān al-jahbad̲ha , responsible for
13050-535: The military, clergy and nobility of the nation to summon at the plains. The summonses for the people to attend had gone out in November 1735, and they began arriving in January 1736. In the same month of January 1736, Nader held a qoroltai (a grand meeting in the tradition of Genghis Khan and Timur ) on the Moghan plains. The Moghan plain was specifically chosen for its size and "abundance of fodder ". Everyone agreed to
13195-468: The modern historian Ernest Tucker, comparing this concept to an early version of " pan-Turkism " would be "anachronistic and misleading." He adds that this was part of unpolished drafts of concepts that would get polished throughout the 11 years of Nader Shah's reign, and would include wide political and religious aspects. Nader's concepts regarding the Ja'farism and common Turkmen descent were directed primarily at
13340-504: The more progressive, urbanized Persian culture, many of them nevertheless identified culturally with the Turco-Mongol heritage that had been passed down from the era of Timur and Genghis Khan . The settled population was seen by the semi-nomads and nomads as inferior. Nader was part of this heritage, which the British academic Michael Axworthy calls "paradoxical". Nader Shah was born in
13485-462: The names of the warriors of Medina who participated in the Muslim conquests and their families, and was intended to facilitate the payment of salary ( ʿaṭāʾ , in coin or in rations) to them, according to their service and their relationship to Muhammad . This first army register ( dīwān al-jund ) was soon emulated in other provincial capitals like Basra , Kufa and Fustat . Al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba ,
13630-420: The neighbouring Ottomans and Russians . In addition, he increased the number of soldiers under his command and reduced the number of soldiers under tribal and provincial control. His reforms may have strengthened the country, but they did little to improve Iran's suffering economy. He also always paid his troops on time, no matter what. In order to construct a broad political framework that could link him to
13775-534: The north Caucasus reported that utsmi Ahmed-khan with Surkhay-khan I built ten fortifications equipped with guns. Russian officer Kalushkin at the Persian court informed the Senate in Moscow that "Surkhay-khan ransacked Derbent fortress, defeated the army of Mehdi-khan". In 1738 Ibrahim-khan marched against Dagestanis who dealt a crushing defeat to the shah's army of Ibrahim-khan. In 1741 on July 2, Nader-shah invaded Dagestan at
13920-454: The northern provinces, earning a Russian alliance against the Ottomans. Nader scored a great victory over a superior Ottoman force at Baghavard and by the summer of 1735, Iranian Armenia and Georgia were his again. In March 1735, he signed a treaty with the Russians in Ganja by which the latter agreed to withdraw all of their troops from Iranian territory, those which had not been ceded back by
14065-459: The orders of Yusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi , governor of Iraq, in 741/42. Under the Abbasid Caliphate the administration, partly under the increasing influence of Iranian culture, became more elaborate and complex. As part of this process, the dīwāns increased in number and sophistication, reaching their apogee in the 9th–10th centuries. At the same time, the office of vizier ( wazīr )
14210-496: The origin of the word to the latter form. The variant pronunciation dēvān however did exist, and is the form surviving to this day in Tajiki Persian . In Arabic, the term was first used for the army registers, then generalized to any register, and by metonymy applied to specific government departments. The sense of the word evolved to "custom house" and "council chamber", then to "long, cushioned seat", such as are found along
14355-521: The peace in Iran. Having heard rumours that his father had died, he had made preparations for assuming the crown. These included the murder of the former shah Tahmasp and his family, including the nine-year-old Abbas III. On hearing the news, Reza's wife, who was Tahmasp's sister, committed suicide. Nader was not impressed with his son's waywardness and reprimanded him, but he took him on his expedition to conquer territory in Transoxiana . In 1740, he conquered
14500-520: The period. Indeed, at the turn of the 11th century, there were two ʿariḍs , one for the Turks and one for the Daylamites, hence the department was often called "department of the two armies" ( dīwān al-jayshayn ). A number of junior departments, like the dīwān al-zimām , the dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ , or the dīwān al-barīd were directly inherited from the Abbasid government. Under Adud al-Dawla (r. 978–983), however,
14645-419: The pilgrimage trade. Nader's other primary aim in his religious reforms was to weaken the Safavids further since Shia Islam had always been a major element in support for the dynasty. He had a Shia mullah of Iran strangled after he was heard expressing support for the Safavids. Among his reforms was the introduction of what came to be known as the kolah-e Naderi . This was a hat with four peaks which symbolised
14790-443: The poor. Throughout his career, he was only interested in his own advancement. Legend has it that in 1704, when he was about 17, a band of marauding Uzbeks invaded the province of Khorasan, where Nader lived with his mother. They killed many peasants. Nader and his mother were among those who were carried off into slavery. His mother died in captivity. According to another story, Nader managed to convince Turkmens by promising help in
14935-401: The proposal of Nader becoming the new king, many—if not most—enthusiastically, the rest fearing Nader's anger if they showed support for the deposed Safavids. Nader was crowned Shah of Iran on 8 March 1736, a date his astrologers had chosen as being especially favorable, in attendance of an "exceptionally large assembly" composed of the military, religious and nobility of the nation, as well as
15080-578: The retreating Persians up to Derbent. Kalushkin reported that "shah was so cruelly beaten that he was forced to turn back three times to defend himself". As it was written: "Salutes were given In Istanbul. In Petersburg people could not conceal their joy". In 1743 Muhammad-bek, son of Surkhay-khan I, took over the throne of Gazikumukh Khanate. Sefi-Mirza II known as Sam-Mirza a "miraculously saved Sefevid prince" arrived from Turkey to Muhammad-khan. Some Persian nobles swore allegiance to Sam-Mirza. Muhammad-khan decided to take over Shirvan and help Sam-Mirza reach
15225-480: The ruler of Bukhara as his vassal, imitating previous great conquerors of Mongol - Timurid descent. According to a British scholar Peter Avery, Nader's attitude towards Bukhara was irredentist to an extent that he "may even have thought that, if only the Ottoman power in the west could be contained, he might make Bukhara a base for conquests further afield in Central Asia". Nader dispatched numerous artisans to Merv in
15370-482: The same time, the Abdali Afghans rebelled and besieged Mashhad, forcing Nader to suspend his campaign and save his brother, Ebrahim. It took Nader fourteen months to crush this uprising. Relations between Nader and the Shah had declined as the latter grew jealous of his general's military successes. While Nader was absent in the east, Tahmasp tried to assert himself by launching a foolhardy campaign to recapture Yerevan . He ended up losing all of Nader's recent gains to
15515-421: The same time: the office charged with the redress of grievances ( dīwān al-maẓālim ), the state treasury ( bayt al-māl ) and the sultan's private treasury ( bayt al-māl al-khaṣṣ ), confiscations ( dīwān al-muṣādara ), the land tax office ( dīwān al-kharāj ) and the department of religious endowments or waqfs ( dīwān al-awqāf ). A postal department ( dīwān al-barīd ) also existed but fell into disuse. The system
15660-466: The spring of 1747 Muhammad-khan with allies invaded Kura, Derbent and Quba. Gadjiev V. writes that in 1747 "shah decided to punish Muhammad-khan by all means. However, Nader-shah was killed in a coup at the palace". As the Georgian historian Vakhushti had written: "Nader-shah was not able to defeat the Lezgins (Dagestanis) as he wished". In 1748 Surkhay-khan I died in Gazi-Kumukh. The mother of Surkhay-khan I
15805-439: The state religion of Iran. Nader may have been brought up as a Shiite on the basis of his name and background but later replaced Shia law with a version that was more sympathetic and compatible with Sunni law he called the "Ja'fari school" in an effort to disassociate radical Shia Islam from the state in part to please his supporters and also to improve relationships with other Sunni powers. as he gained power and began to push into
15950-563: The state was in serious decline and the reigning shah, Soltan Hoseyn , was a weak ruler. When Soltan Husayn attempted to quell a rebellion by the Ghilzai Afghans in Kandahar , the governor he sent ( Gurgin Khan ) was killed. Under their leader Mahmud Hotaki , the rebellious Afghans moved westwards against the shah himself and in 1722 they defeated a force at the Battle of Gulnabad and then besieged
16095-527: The sticks he gathered for firewood, which he transported to the market. Many years later, when he was returning in triumph from his conquest of Delhi , he led the army to his birthplace and made a speech to his generals about his early life of deprivation. He said, "You now see to what height it has pleased the Almighty to exalt me; from hence, learn not to despise men of low estate." Nader's early experiences did not, however, make him particularly compassionate toward
16240-514: The time of his death, who relied on the eyewitness testimony of Chuki, one of Nader's favourite concubines : Around fifteen of the conspirators were impatient or merely eager to distinguish themselves, and so turned up prematurely at the agreed meeting place. They entered the enclosure of the royal tent, pushing and smashing their way through any obstacles, and penetrated into the sleeping quarters of that ill-starred monarch. The noise they made on entering woke him up: 'Who goes there?' he shouted out in
16385-738: The traditional practices of book-keeping, seals and time-keeping, only Arabic and the Islamic calendar were to be used henceforth. The process of Arabization was gradual: in Iraq, the transition was carried out by Salih ibn Abd al-Rahman under the auspices of the governor al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf in 697, in Syria by Sulayman ibn Sa'd al-Khushani in 700, in Egypt under Caliph al-Walid I 's governor Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik in 706, and in Khurasan by Ishaq ibn Tulayq al-Nahshali on
16530-541: The transfer of the capital of shamkhalate to Tarki, in Gazi-Kumukh was ruled by the supreme council. In 1642 Alibek II, son of Tuchilav, son of Alibek I, son of Chopan-shamkhal, son of Budai-shamkhal, was elected the ruler of Gazi-Kumukh, with the title "khalklavchi". In 1700, the Laks gave their ruler a popular title – khan . The council of chiefs elected Surkhay-bek (1680–1748), son of Garey-bek, son of khalklavchi Alibek II from
16675-420: The treasury's balance sheets, was eventually branched off from it, while the treasury domains were placed under the dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ , of which there appear at times to have been several. In addition, a department of confiscated property ( dīwān al-musādarīn ) and confiscated estates ( dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ al-maqbūḍa ) existed. Caliph al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902) grouped the branches of the provincial dīwāns present in
16820-561: The two as the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti , becoming the first Georgian ruler in three centuries to preside over a politically unified eastern Georgia, and due to the frantic turn of events in mainland Iran he would be able to maintain its autonomy until the advent of the Iranian Qajar dynasty . The rest of the Iranian territories in the Caucasus, comprising modern-day Azerbaijan , Armenia , and Dagestan broke away into various khanates . Until
16965-663: The uprising in Shirvan. Surkhay-khan I gathered the Gazi-Kumukh army and advanced to Shirvan, to help the shah. Not far from Kabala, Surkhay-khan I was stopped by the Sunni delegation of Shirvan led by Haji-Dawood who urged Surkhay-khan I to support the Sunnis than the Shias. Utsmy Ahmed-khan was in alliance with Haji-Dawood against the "rafidas". Surkhay-khan I decided to support the sunnis of Shirvan. In 1721 on July 21, Surkhay-khan I and Haji-Dawood invaded
17110-581: The uprising. In 1709 in Azerbaijan, Haji-Dawood also rebelled against the Persians. Utsmy Ahmed-khan called on the people to fight the Persian shias. In 1710 an agreement was signed between Gazikumukh Khanate and Avar Khanate that proclaimed a political-military alliance. Surkhay-khan I forming the Gazikumukh army and like the shamkhal of Tarki became an ally of the Shah of Persia. In 1720 the Shah of Persia, Sultan Husayn , called his allies to assist and suppress
17255-487: The village of Sogratl in Andalal at the age of 83. His son Nukh-bek migrated to Turkey where he died in 1828. Being part of Russia highlanders ran into state organised serfdom . Russian management toughened exploitation of peasants. This situation led to a powerful social unrest and revolt. Laks were such political figures of Caucasian war as Haji Yahya-bek, Muhammad-Efendi Guyminski, Buk-Muhammad and Bashir-bek (naibs of Imam Shamil). Direct descendant of khans of Gazi-Kumukh
17400-405: The vizier assumed an even greater prominence, concentrating the direction of civil, military and religious affairs in his own bureau, the "supreme dīwān" ( dīwān al-aʿlā ). The dīwān al-aʿlā was further subdivided into a chancery ( dīwān al-inshāʾ wa’l-ṭughrā , also called dīwān al-rasāʾil ) under the ṭughrāʾī or munshī al-mamālik , an accounting department ( dīwān al-zimām wa’l-istīfāʾ ) under
17545-489: The walls in Middle-Eastern council chambers. The latter is the sense that entered European languages as divan (furniture) . The modern French, Dutch, Spanish, and Italian words douane , aduana , and dogana , respectively (meaning " customs house "), also come from diwan . The first dīwān was created under Caliph Umar ( r. 634–644 CE) in 15 A.H. (636/7 CE) or, more likely, 20 A.H. (641 CE). It comprised
17690-469: The western provinces ( dīwān al-maghrib ), and of the Iraq ( dīwān al-sawād ), although under al-Muqtadir (r. 908–932) the dīwān al-dār still existed, with the three territorial departments considered sections of the latter. In 913/4, the vizier Ali ibn Isa established a new department for charitable endowments ( dīwān al-birr ), whose revenue went to the upkeep of holy places, the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina , and on volunteers fighting in
17835-484: The wretched monarch, covered in his own blood, attempted – but was too weak – to get up, and cried out, 'Why do you want to kill me? Spare my life and all I have shall be yours!' He was still pleading when Salah Khan ran up, sword in hand and severed his head, which he dropped into the hands of a waiting soldier. Thus perished the wealthiest monarch on earth. After his death, he was succeeded by his nephew Ali Qoli, who renamed himself Adel Shah ("righteous king"). Adel Shah
17980-423: Was Avar, sister of Umma-khan of Avaria. "Daughter of Surkhay-khan II, Gulandash-khanum, was married to Mustafa-khan of Shirvan, a relative of Surkhay-khan II". Ahmed-khan Sultan of Tsakhur, son of Alkhaz-bek, was married to the daughter of Surkhay-khan II. Sultan of Elisu Daniyal-bek was grandson of Surkhay-khan II. During 1796 Surkhay-khan II was an influential ruler in Dagestan having an army of 25 thousand men. At
18125-420: Was Muhammad-Amin (Imam of Abkhazia and Cherkessia 1848-1859). In 1832 Russian administration appointed Aslan-khan a temporary ruler of Avaria. Mother of Aslan-khan, Aymesey, was sister of Umma-khan of Avaria. In 1836 Nutsal Aga-bek, the eldest son of Aslan-khan, was appointed the ruler of Gazi-Kumukh. Nutsal Aga-khan arrived at the funeral of his father as a legitimate khan, appointed by Russian Tsar. Kura Khanate
18270-456: Was a remarkable man. He was tall and had a formidable appearance especially in an old age. In the mountains he was famous for extensive teachings in the Muslim spirit, and due to his ancient family had great connections throughout Dagestan and was respected by all the neighboring people". Surkhay-khan II had two wives: the first was Lak and from her there were four sons and a daughter, the second wife
18415-401: Was also created to coordinate government. The administrative history of the Abbasid dīwāns is complex, since many were short-lived, temporary establishments for specific needs, while at times the sections of larger dīwān might also be termed dīwāns , and often a single individual was placed in charge of more than one department. Caliph al-Saffah (r. 749–754) established a department for
18560-614: Was apparently partly copied in provincial centres as well. Following the Ottoman conquest of North Africa, the Maghreb was divided into three provinces, Algiers , Tunis , and Tripoli . After 1565, administrative authority in Tripoli was vested in a Pasha directly appointed by the Sultan in Constantinople. The sultan provided the pasha with a corps of Janissaries , which was in turn divided into
18705-427: Was arguably the most powerful empire in the world. Following his assassination in 1747, his empire quickly disintegrated and Iran fell into a civil war. His grandson Shahrokh Shah was the last of his dynasty to rule, ultimately being deposed in 1796 by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar , who crowned himself shah the same year. Nader Shah has been described as "the last great Asiatic military conqueror". Nader belonged to
18850-539: Was called Umamat, she was a sister Omar-khan of Avaria. Daughter of Surkhay-khan I was married to a son of Avar khan. Muhammad-khan had three wives. The first wife was the daughter of Khasbulat-shamkhal of Tarki, from her he had four sons. Second wife was the daughter of Tishsiz-Bammat of Kazanish, the khan of Mekhtula Khanate, and had one son from her. Third wife was Istadjalu, the daughter of Abdal Gani-khan Afghani. Soon Fatali-khan captured Kura, Derbent, Quba and Shemakha. Eldar-bek and Shahmardan-bek of Gazi-Kumukh following
18995-707: Was captured and further Gazi-Kumukh. In 1820 after 25 years of war of Surkhay-khan II, the Gazikumukh Khanate was conquered by Russian empire. Ermolov wrote after capturing Gazi-Kumukh: "Russian army appeared in this place for the first time". In August 1820 Surkhay-khan II left for Persia to Fat′h Ali-shah. Surkhay-khan II gave many battles of which the largest were at Tiflis, Derbent, Khosrekh, Chirakh, Kurakh, Kartukh, Alazani , Quba , Akhaltsikhe , Akhalkalaki , Kartli , Kakheti , fortress Surkhayli in Cherkessia, Ganja , Yerevan , Kars , Ardagan and Erzurum . After
19140-657: Was conquered by the Lezgins (Dagestani) swords and not given to him by Turkey as a gift, and that neither Sultan of Turkey nor Ahmed of Baghdad have the right to request him to hand over this territory". Surkhay-khan I reflected the will of Dagestanis and Shirvanis who were categorically against the Persian takeover of Shirvan. In 1734 on August 17 general Nader moving in different directions captured Shemakha, Qabala , Khachmaz , Derbent and Kura. Surkhay-khan I clashed with Nader in Deve-Batan, not far from Qabala, where highlanders and
19285-579: Was for many years the council of ministers of the Ottoman Empire . It consisted of the Grand Vizier , who presided, and the other viziers , the kadi'askers , the nisanci , and the defterdars . The Assemblies of the Danubian Principalities under Ottoman rule were also called "divan" ("Divanuri" in Romanian) (see Akkerman Convention , ad hoc Divan ). In Javanese and related languages,
19430-409: Was given in marriage to Nader's son. Nader pursued and defeated Ashraf, who was murdered by his own followers. In 1738 Nader Shah besieged and destroyed the last Hotaki seat of power at Kandahar . He built a new city near Kandahar, which he named " Naderabad ". In the spring of 1730, Nader attacked Iran's archrival the Ottomans and regained most of the territory lost during the recent chaos. At
19575-413: Was headed by three great departments: the dīwān al-wazīr , charged with finances, the dīwān al-rasāʾil as the state chancery, and the dīwān al-jaysh for the army. The Buyid regime was a military regime, its ruling caste composed of Turkish and Daylamite troops. As a result, the army department was of particular importance, and its head, the ʿariḍ al-jaysh , is frequently mentioned in the sources of
19720-513: Was increasingly drawing from Sunni Afghans, Kurds , Turkmens , Baloch , and others who were happy with a less sectarian Persia. Externally he presented Persia as completely sympathetic to Sunnis. He probably did this for political reasons in order to increase his legitimacy within the Muslim world; he would have never been accepted if he remained a radical Shia Muslim like the Safavid Shahs . Though as stated countless times before, internally, he
19865-483: Was killed. Muhammad-khan moved further and captured Agsu , the new capital of Shirvan. During 1743-1745 Muhammad-khan resided in Shirvan. In 1745 Nasrulla-Mirza, son of Nader-shah, led the shah's army on Muhammad-khan at Agsu. Nader-shah sent Ashur-khan Afshar, Karim-khan, Fatali-khan Afshar and prince Nasrullah-Mirza to fight with Muhammad-khan and his supporters. After the battle Muhammad-khan retreated to Gazi-Kumukh. Shah's army once again occupied Derbent and Kura. In
20010-520: Was not able to win over the shah. In 1816 Ermolov was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasus region. In 1818 rulers of Gazikumukh, Avaria, Mekhtula, Tabasaran and Kaitag, unite against general Ermolov. In 1819 October 19 Surkhay-khan II with a 3 thousand army attacked the Chirakh garrison but didn't succeed and ordered to retreat. Major General Vrede fortified tsar's troops in Beduk, Richa and Chirag, against
20155-566: Was passing through the forest of Mazanderan on his way to fight the Dagestanis, an assassin took a shot at him but Nader was only lightly wounded. He began to suspect his son was behind the attempt and confined him to Tehran . Nader's increasing ill health made his temper ever worse. Perhaps it was his illness that made Nader lose the initiative in his war against the Lezgin tribes of Dagestan. Frustratingly for him, they resorted to guerrilla warfare and
20300-415: Was probably agnostic. Whenever Nader laid siege to a city, he would construct a city of his own outside the walls. His encampment was filled with markets, mosques, bathhouses, coffeehouses, and stables. He did this to show the besieged his army would be there for the long haul, to prevent diseases from spreading within his troops' ranks, and to occupy his troops' time. Nader became increasingly cruel as
20445-467: Was probably involved in the assassination plot. Adel Shah was deposed within a year. During the struggle between Adel Shah, his brother Ibrahim Khan and Nader's grandson Shah Rukh and almost all provincial governors declared independence , established their own states, and the entire Empire of Nader Shah fell into anarchy . Oman and the Uzbek khanates of Bukhara and Khiva regained independence, while
20590-511: Was ruled by Garun-bek, son of Tagir-bek, brother of Aslan-khan. In 1836 Muhammad Mirza-khan was appointed the khan of Gazi-Kumukh. Muhammad Mirza-khan was promoted to the rank of colonel and got a letter of investiture from the Russian Tsar. In 1838 the ruler of the Gazi-kumukh became Ummu Kulsum-beke, the wife of Aslan-khan. Representatives of Gazi-Kumukh clergy came to Ummu Kulsum-beke with
20735-546: Was standing with Turkish forces near Erevan. Crimean Kaplan Girey-khan, by the order of Turkish sultan, removed Khazbulat-shamkhal and appointed Eldar-bek of Kazanish, an ally of Surkhay-khan I, as new shamkhal. These events triggered the second Persian invasion of Dagestan. In November 1735 Nader overcoming the resistance captured Ganja, Djaria, Sheki, Shirvan, Shemakha, and Derbent. In December Nader advanced to Madjalis where "people of Akusha stubbornly defended themselves but were defeated", noted Bakikhanov. Persians besieged
20880-443: Was the "guardian of the rights of bayt al-māl [the treasury] and the people". The dīwān al-nafaḳāt played a similar role with regards to expenses by the individual dīwāns , but by the end of the 9th century its role was mostly restricted to the finances of the caliphal palace. Under al-Muktafi (r. 902–908) the dīwān al-dār was broken up into three departments, the bureaux of the eastern provinces ( dīwān al-mashriq ), of
21025-654: Was the founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Iran and one of the most powerful rulers in Iranian history , ruling as shah of Iran (Persia) from 1736 to 1747, when he was assassinated during a rebellion. He fought numerous campaigns throughout the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia, such as the battles of Herat , Mihmandust , Murche-Khort , Kirkuk , Yeghevārd , Khyber Pass , Karnal , and Kars . Because of his military genius, some historians have described him as
#447552