Mujahideen of Cham people , Churu Muslims, Cambodian Muslim fighters.
72-592: Katip Sumat uprising ( Vietnamese : Phong trào Hồi Giáo của Katip Sumat ) was a revolt in 19th century Southern Vietnam . It was led by Cham Muslim leader Katip Sumat. This is the only ever-recorded jihad war involving Vietnam. The remnant of the Champa Kingdom in a small enclave in Southeast part of Mainland Southeast Asia, Panduranga , known to the Vietnamese as Principality of Thuận Thành , had been annexed by
144-567: A Chams related ethnic group living mainly in Lâm Đồng , and Bình Thuận provinces of Central Vietnam . They speak Chru , a Malayo-Polynesian language . The word Churu means Land Expander in their language. The Churu's population was 23,242 in 2019. Some Churu villages have close ties with the Kaho people, so they speak Koho fluently, and even prefer Koho to Chru. During the French colonial period,
216-437: A logographic script using Chinese characters ( chữ Hán ) to represent Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and some native Vietnamese words, together with many locally invented characters representing other words. Early linguistic work in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ( Logan 1852, Forbes 1881, Müller 1888, Kuhn 1889, Schmidt 1905, Przyluski 1924, and Benedict 1942) classified Vietnamese as belonging to
288-636: A minor syllable occurred). These fricatives were not present in Proto-Viet–Muong, as indicated by their absence in Mường , but were evidently present in the later Proto-Vietnamese stage. Subsequent loss of the minor-syllable prefixes phonemicized the fricatives. Ferlus 1992 proposes that originally there were both voiced and voiceless fricatives, corresponding to original voiced or voiceless stops, but Ferlus 2009 appears to have abandoned that hypothesis, suggesting that stops were softened and voiced at approximately
360-540: A Cambodian Cham khaṭīb who had studied Islam in Kelantan , Malay Peninsula , was outraged upon hearing the news that Champa had been annexed by the Hue court in 1832 and that the Vietnamese were oppressive rules over the old Panduranga. Cham sources did not assert a specific biography for Sumat, so it is unclear whether was he actually a cleric or only a religious student. He left Kelantan and returned to Cambodia in early 1833, which at
432-753: A general uprising in a large area in Southern Vietnam, from Ninh Thuan to Dong Nai: Tuan Lik in Phan Rí , Kuac Riwa in Long Hương ( Bà Rịa ), and Ja Thak Wa in Phan Rang , all raised flags with two Cham words Po Rasak (figuratively: His Great Glorious Wonderful, an implication for either Allāh and prophet Mohammed) enlarged on them. The uprising arose in many towns, attacking Vietnamese tax register centers and military garrisons. Sumat's main goals were first to liberate Champa from Vietnamese rule, then spread Islam further in
504-447: A main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel offglide /j/ or /w/ . There are restrictions on the high offglides: /j/ cannot occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and /w/ cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus. The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide /j/ is usually written as i ; however, it may also be represented with y . In addition, in
576-591: A new land. And they were the first immigrants who gave themselves the name Churu as it is today. They were the people who brought with them rice farming and pottery making of the Chams. In Les Jungles Moï (The Montagnard Jungles), Henri Maitre commented that the Chams began to penetrate the Central Highlands since 1150 under the reign of Jaya Harivarman I , who defeated the Jarai people and Rhade people . After
648-448: A paper published in 1856. Later, in 1920, French-Polish linguist Jean Przyluski found that Mường is more closely related to Vietnamese than other Mon–Khmer languages, and a Viet–Muong subgrouping was established, also including Thavung , Chut , Cuoi , etc. The term "Vietic" was proposed by Hayes (1992), who proposed to redefine Viet–Muong as referring to a subbranch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and Mường . The term " Vietic "
720-532: A process of tonogenesis , in which distinctions formerly expressed by final consonants became phonemic tonal distinctions when those consonants disappeared. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, Tsat (a member of the Malayo-Polynesian group within Austronesian ), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. After
792-626: A representative on the Government Council for Nationalities, an advisory body of the Czech Government for matters of policy towards national minorities and their members. It also grants the community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and in courts anywhere in the country. Vietnamese is taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam, a large part contributed by its diaspora . In countries with Vietnamese-speaking communities Vietnamese language education largely serves as
SECTION 10
#1732885141059864-481: A role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. In neighboring countries and vicinities near Vietnam such as Southern China, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, Vietnamese as a foreign language is largely due to trade, as well as recovery and growth of the Vietnamese economy. Since the 1980s, Vietnamese language schools ( trường Việt ngữ/ trường ngôn ngữ Tiếng Việt ) have been established for youth in many Vietnamese-speaking communities around
936-511: A stage commonly termed Middle Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt trung đại ). The pronunciation of the "rime" of the syllable, i.e. all parts other than the initial consonant (optional /w/ glide, vowel nucleus, tone and final consonant), appears nearly identical between Middle Vietnamese and modern Hanoi pronunciation. On the other hand, the Middle Vietnamese pronunciation of the initial consonant differs greatly from all modern dialects, and in fact
1008-546: A third of the Vietnamese lexicon in all realms, and may account for as much as 60% of the vocabulary used in formal texts. Vietic languages were confined to the northern third of modern Vietnam until the "southward advance" ( Nam tiến ) from the late 15th century. The conquest of the ancient nation of Champa and the conquest of the Mekong Delta led to an expansion of the Vietnamese people and language, with distinctive local variations emerging. After France invaded Vietnam in
1080-624: A vassal state. His successor, Minh Mang, an absolutist, wanted to annex and assimilate the last Cham entity. However, he met challenges from the Viceroyalties of Saigon and Hanoi, and increasing Cham resistance. Islam began proliferating in Champa from the 11th century, growing more popular after the 1471 Vietnamese conquest of Champa. It replaced or blended with traditional Hindu-Chamic customs. The majority of Cham Muslims in Central Vietnam, including
1152-516: Is also spoken by the Jing people traditionally residing on three islands (now joined to the mainland) off Dongxing in southern Guangxi Province , China . A large number of Vietnamese speakers also reside in neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos . In the United States, Vietnamese is the sixth most spoken language , with over 1.5 million speakers, who are concentrated in a handful of states. It
1224-460: Is highly analytic and is tonal . It has head-initial directionality, with subject–verb–object order and modifiers following the words they modify. It also uses noun classifiers . Its vocabulary has had significant influence from Middle Chinese and loanwords from French . Although it is often mistakenly thought as being an monosyllabic language, Vietnamese words typically consist of from one to many as eight individual morphemes or syllables;
1296-580: Is no longer popular today. Gathering is the work of women who traditionally go around with Austroasiatic carrying baskets on their back for various types of harvest. Wild vegetables and field vegetables make up the main part of the dishes. Bamboo shoots and some wild fruits are also commonly used foods. Dioscorea hamiltonii (Vietnamese: củ mài ) are used as the main source of food in times of failed crop. The Churu also collect other forest products such as: Auricularia auricula-judae , mushrooms, honey, and Wurfbainia villosa . The traditional religion of
1368-415: Is notated i or y (with the difference between the two often indicating differences in the quality or length of the preceding vowel), and after /ð/ and /β/ , where it is notated ĕ . This ĕ , and the /j/ it notated, have disappeared from the modern language. Note that b [ɓ] and p [p] never contrast in any position, suggesting that they are allophones. The language also has three clusters at
1440-522: Is often mistaken for a tilde in modern reproductions of early Vietnamese writing. As a result of emigration , Vietnamese speakers are also found in other parts of Southeast Asia , East Asia , North America , Europe , and Australia . Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the Czech Republic . As the national language, Vietnamese is the lingua franca in Vietnam. It
1512-464: Is pronounced with one of six inherent tones , centered on the main vowel or group of vowels. Tones differ in: Tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel (most of the tone diacritics appear above the vowel; except the nặng tone dot diacritic goes below the vowel). The six tones in the northern varieties (including Hanoi), with their self-referential Vietnamese names, are: Churu people The Churu (or Chru ) people are
SECTION 20
#17328851410591584-410: Is significantly closer to the modern Saigon dialect than the modern Hanoi dialect. The following diagram shows the orthography and pronunciation of Middle Vietnamese: ^1 [p] occurs only at the end of a syllable. ^2 This letter, ⟨ ꞗ ⟩ , is no longer used. ^3 [j] does not occur at the beginning of a syllable, but can occur at the end of a syllable, where it
1656-652: Is the official language . Vietnamese is spoken natively by around 85 million people, several times as many as the rest of the Austroasiatic family combined. It is the native language of ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh), as well as the second or first language for other ethnicities of Vietnam , and used by Vietnamese diaspora in the world. It belongs to the Vietic subgroup of the Austroasiatic language family. Like many languages in Southeast Asia and East Asia , Vietnamese
1728-460: Is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's ethnic minority groups . In the Czech Republic , Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants the Vietnamese community in the country
1800-634: Is the third-most spoken language in Texas and Washington; fourth-most in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia; and fifth-most in Arkansas and California. Vietnamese is the third most spoken language in Australia other than English, after Mandarin and Arabic. In France, it is the most spoken Asian language and the eighth most spoken immigrant language at home. Vietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It
1872-413: Is used, among others, by Gérard Diffloth , with a slightly different proposal on subclassification, within which the term "Viet–Muong" refers to a lower subgrouping (within an eastern Vietic branch) consisting of Vietnamese dialects, Mường dialects, and Nguồn (of Quảng Bình Province ). Austroasiatic is believed to have dispersed around 2000 BC. The arrival of the agricultural Phùng Nguyên culture in
1944-446: Is written with two Chinese characters or in a composite character made of two different characters. This conveys the transformation of the Vietnamese lexicon from sesquisyllabic to fully monosyllabic under the pressure of Chinese linguistic influence, characterized by linguistic phenomena such as the reduction of minor syllables; loss of affixal morphology drifting towards analytical grammar; simplification of major syllable segments, and
2016-953: The Mon–Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family (which also includes the Khmer language spoken in Cambodia , as well as various smaller and/or regional languages , such as the Munda and Khasi languages spoken in eastern India, and others in Laos , southern China and parts of Thailand). In 1850, British lawyer James Richardson Logan detected striking similarities between the Korku language in Central India and Vietnamese. He suggested that Korku , Mon , and Vietnamese were part of what he termed "Mon–Annam languages" in
2088-531: The Red River Delta at that time may correspond to the Vietic branch. This ancestral Vietic was typologically very different from later Vietnamese. It was polysyllabic, or rather sesquisyllabic , with roots consisting of a reduced syllable followed by a full syllable, and featured many consonant clusters. Both of these features are found elsewhere in Austroasiatic and in modern conservative Vietic languages south of
2160-597: The Vietnamese orthography with the phonetic pronunciation to the right. Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a digraph (like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q"). In some cases, they are based on their Middle Vietnamese pronunciation; since that period, ph and kh (but not th ) have evolved from aspirated stops into fricatives (like Greek phi and chi ), while d and gi have collapsed and converged together (into /z/ in
2232-446: The Cham aristocracy carried out exploiting their fellow laborers very badly. They forced the laborers to go deep into the forest to find ivory , rhino horn or go down to the river panning gold to tribute. Forced coolie recruit, soldier recruit constantly made the life of Cham farmers very hard. To avoid that heavy oppression and exploitation, some were forced to leave their homeland to find
Katip Sumat uprising - Misplaced Pages Continue
2304-514: The Chams who were suspected to be supporters of Duyet. Several Cham officials were jailed, sent to exile, or executed, and their properties were confiscated. Shortly after the purge, the Khâm Mạng office ordered the Cham to abandon their culture and practice Vietnamese customs. They forbade the Cham Bani and Sunnis to exercise Ramadhan month and Cham Hindus to worship their ancestors, completely removing
2376-623: The Chams", seeking sorts of divisions and sectarian disputes among the Cham, which provided him supports from moderate Cham Bani and Cham Hindus, thus weakening the Islamic movement's position. Among the leadership of the Katip Sumat uprising, fragile began growing. A leader of the movement, awal Ja Thak Wa–a moderate Cham Shi'a Bani cleric–protested against the radical zealot faction of katip Sumat. Cham documents assert that disputes between Ja Thak Wa and Sumat were related to critics of Sumat's snatching of
2448-512: The French colonial era. The following diagram shows the phonology of Proto–Viet–Muong (the nearest ancestor of Vietnamese and the closely related Mường language ), along with the outcomes in the modern language: ^1 According to Ferlus, * /tʃ/ and * /ʄ/ are not accepted by all researchers. Ferlus 1992 also had additional phonemes * /dʒ/ and * /ɕ/ . ^2 The fricatives indicated above in parentheses developed as allophones of stop consonants occurring between vowels (i.e. when
2520-617: The Hue court and the Islamist revolt, Cham civilians became targets of Vietnamese atrocities. Vietnamese troops unleashed havoc on the areas, burning Cham villages to the ground (particularly coastal villages to prevent civilians to flee overseas) and massacred innocent civilians in great numbers. Vietnamese Kinh militia-civilians and marauding bands, took advantage of the chaotic moment, murdering Cham civilians on their own to "redeem" personal and ethnic hostility, seizing and burning Cham farmlands. The death toll and scale of destruction were horrific,
2592-561: The Indochina peninsula, seek to establish an Islamic Vietnam by using "militant Islamism" (Jihadism) ideology, which at the time was relatively new in the Southeast Asia context. Minh Mang's instant response was sending 1,000 well-equipped royal troops to suppress the rebellion, along with mobilizing Kinh civilians in Binh Thuan into militia units to join with government forces. Caught between
2664-567: The Qur'an and disseminating Islamism, gathering Muslims from various backgrounds. Then, Sumat sent his followers to the Central Highlands to teach Islam among Churu and Jarai villagers and recruit more fighters, demanding from his followers "absolute loyalty to Allah and Islam." His forces also murdered and kidnapped Cham Bani leaders who spoke against his radical propagation of Islam. Having refused all of Minh Mang's requests to surrender, in summer or unknown month of 1833, Katip Sumat and his forces began
2736-710: The Red River Delta and into the adjacent uplands, possibly to escape Chinese encroachment. The oldest layer of loans from Chinese into northern Vietic (which would become the Viet–Muong subbranch) date from this period. The northern Vietic varieties thus became part of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , in which languages from genetically unrelated families converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and similar syllable structure. Many languages in this area, including Viet–Muong, underwent
2808-519: The Red River area. The language was non-tonal, but featured glottal stop and voiceless fricative codas. Borrowed vocabulary indicates early contact with speakers of Tai languages in the last millennium BC, which is consistent with genetic evidence from Dong Son culture sites. Extensive contact with Chinese began from the Han dynasty (2nd century BC). At this time, Vietic groups began to expand south from
2880-437: The Vietnamese court. In response, Minh Mang immediately asked all alleged Cham supporters of Katip Sumat to be arrested, but it turned out to be poor intelligence gathering of the Hue court, in which later all suspects were released and Thuac was executed by the Vietnamese court for "making false accusation." Nevertheless, Sumat was frustrating and thought that "some of Cham gentlemen are betraying him," and he intended to give up
2952-495: The Vietnamese court. The rebellion of Ja Thak Wa was considered more popular and dangerous to the Hue court. Lacking unity and popular support, by late 1833 or early 1834, the Katip Sumat uprising either had been dissipated by itself or crushed by government forces, and Sumat himself disappeared from the scene. Vietnamese language Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt ) is an Austroasiatic language spoken primarily in Vietnam where it
Katip Sumat uprising - Misplaced Pages Continue
3024-529: The Vietnamese from the Nguyen lord's domain in 1692, who vassalized it instead of incorporating. During the Tayson rebellion (1771-1789) as the Nguyen were overthrown, Panduranga king Po Tisuntiraidapuran switched alliance to the Tayson rebels. By 1793, Panduranga effectively became a vassal client state of the Nguyen, who later conquered all of Vietnam in 1802. The first Nguyen emperor, Gia Long, tried to keep Panduranga as
3096-399: The area and most of its villages and towns were greatly devastated. Minh Mang at the same time was imposing an isolationist closed-door policy, blocking people from getting out, restricting foreign trade and missionaries. The outside world was completely unaware of the bloodbath that occurring in former Champa. Believing that Po Ouwalah Allāh will always bless and safeguard them for victory,
3168-471: The beginning of syllables, which have since disappeared: Most of the unusual correspondences between spelling and modern pronunciation are explained by Middle Vietnamese. Note in particular: De Rhodes's orthography also made use of an apex diacritic, as in o᷄ and u᷄ , to indicate a final labial-velar nasal /ŋ͡m/ , an allophone of /ŋ/ that is peculiar to the Hanoi dialect to the present day. This diacritic
3240-488: The change of suprasegment instruments. For example, the modern Vietnamese word "trời" (heaven) was read as *plời in Old/Ancient Vietnamese and as blời in Middle Vietnamese. The writing system used for Vietnamese is based closely on the system developed by Alexandre de Rhodes for his 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum . It reflects the pronunciation of the Vietnamese of Hanoi at that time,
3312-466: The daughter languages from distinctions in the initial and final consonants. Vietnamese tones developed as follows: Glottal-ending syllables ended with a glottal stop /ʔ/ , while fricative-ending syllables ended with /s/ or /h/ . Both types of syllables could co-occur with a resonant (e.g. /m/ or /n/ ). At some point, a tone split occurred, as in many other mainland Southeast Asian languages . Essentially, an allophonic distinction developed in
3384-463: The death of his foremost enemy, Viceroy of Saigon – Le Van Duyet , Minh Mang of Vietnam triumphantly annexed Panduranga and held the last Cham king Po Phaok The as royal hostage in Hue court. Minh Mang forced the Chams to integrate, as well as purging dissents and supporters of Le Van Duyet. A Khâm Mạng (generalized as "temporary assigned") official was sent to Panduranga as the new magistrate and to punish
3456-442: The diphthongs [āj] and [āːj] the letters y and i also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ă + /j/ , ai = a + /j/ . Thus, tay "hand" is [tāj] while tai "ear" is [tāːj] . Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ă + /w/ , ao = a + /w/ . Thus, thau "brass" is [tʰāw] while thao "raw silk" is [tʰāːw] . The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in
3528-1022: The fall of Vijaya at the end of Champa–Đại Việt War (1471) , the rest of Vijaya royal family and clansman fled to Panduranga and started to conquer then govern the Raglai , Churu and Koho people in the nearby highlands. Encouraged by Touneh Hàn Đăng , the Churu adopted some economic innovations from the Chams in the fields of weaving, pottery, and plowing in 1907. The Churu are mainly residents of wet rice cultivation, unlike other Lâm Đồng indigenous residents who cultivate slash-and-burn agriculture. The Churu have long known to turn animal husbandry into an active support for agricultural farming. Large cattle such as buffaloes, cows and horses are not only used for sacrifice but also bring benefits of plowing power and fertilizer. They also know how to make production tools such as plows ( Chru : lơngar ), harrows (Chru: sơkăm ) out of wood or metal. The Churu also appreciate
3600-400: The importance of irrigation . The system of dams, large ditches, auxiliary ditches, leading to the fields of each family, clan, and the whole village is regularly repaired, renovated and upgraded. They often build dams by using soil, stones, and wood to block a stream or a tributary to store and actively water irrigation. The Churu people catch fish in several ways, one of which is pounding
3672-506: The katip and his forces were unprepared for the court's paranoid retaliation and terrors that unleashed, and retreated to the highlands in the west, but still ordered revolts in lowland to keep fighting against government's soldiers. In such circumstances, Minh Mang then sought to ease his assimilation progress of the Cham, switching to condemn the rapid spreading of Islam and militant Islamism in Southern Vietnam. His agenda became "preventing Islamic extremism" instead of previously "assimilating
SECTION 50
#17328851410593744-446: The late 19th century, French gradually replaced Literary Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as đầm ('dame', from madame ), ga ('train station', from gare ), sơ mi ('shirt', from chemise ), and búp bê ('doll', from poupée ), resulting in a language that was Austroasiatic but with major Sino-influences and some minor French influences from
3816-427: The main syllable). When a minor syllable occurred, the main syllable's initial consonant was intervocalic and as a result suffered lenition , becoming a voiced fricative. The minor syllables were eventually lost, but not until the tone split had occurred. As a result, words in modern Vietnamese with voiced fricatives occur in all six tones, and the tonal register reflects the voicing of the minor-syllable prefix and not
3888-461: The majority of Vietnamese vocabulary are disyllabic and trisyllabic words. Vietnamese is written using the Vietnamese alphabet ( chữ Quốc ngữ ). The alphabet is based on the Latin script and was officially adopted in the early 20th century during French rule of Vietnam . It uses digraphs and diacritics to mark tones and some phonemes . Vietnamese was historically written using chữ Nôm ,
3960-580: The most influential highland leaders in Đà Lạt area were Churu. They were said to be the most advanced among the highlanders because of their historical links to the Chams . According to most of village elders of the Churu people in Lâm Đồng, their people were originally a group of close descendants of the Chams who lived in the South Central Coast of Vietnam. Amid constant wars with Khmer Empire and Đại Việt ,
4032-443: The movement in reluctance. But his supporters tried to convince him to continue taking lead in the uprising. Finally, the katip agreed to renew the movement, but took a more radical Islamist path over the original national liberation goal, under an Islamic banner. To prepare for the uprising, katip Sumat gathered his followers on a cinder-core mount called Aih Amrak in Đồng Nai province as his sang masjid operational base, preaching
4104-643: The national liberation movement and turned it into his own campaign to spread Islam and establish an Islamic state in Vietnam while Ja Thak Wa's goals were to reestablish the Cham state along with Hindu-Bani traditions. Sumat turned against and maneuvered to expel Ja Thak Wa out of the movement by appealing the Hue court to arrest Ja Thak Wa. Sumat also attacked other leaders of the movement in a power struggle. Ja Thak Wa soon later decided to split from Sumat and formed his resistance front focusing on Cham emancipation from Vietnamese rules, and his movement rallied all peoples regardless of religion and ethnicity to revolt against
4176-497: The north and /j/ in the south). Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written language). See the language variation section for further elaboration. Syllable-final orthographic ch and nh in Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final ch , nh as being phonemes /c/, /ɲ/ contrasting with syllable-final t , c /t/, /k/ and n , ng /n/, /ŋ/ and identifies final ch with
4248-405: The plain-voiced stops became voiceless and the allotones became new phonemic tones. The implosive stops were unaffected, and in fact developed tonally as if they were unvoiced. (This behavior is common to all East Asian languages with implosive stops.) As noted above, Proto-Viet–Muong had sesquisyllabic words with an initial minor syllable (in addition to, and independent of, initial clusters in
4320-408: The roots of trees with poisonous resins and mixing them with spring water. In the idle farming months, Churu men go to the forest to hunt animals. They have a lot of experience in making poison arrows and traps for wild animals. Animals hunted with trap or crossbow include: pig, deer, monkey, weasel and other small animals. The form of collective hunting is often organized in many villages, but hunting
4392-586: The royal family, were followers of Bani or localized Cham Shiites and still keep practicing Hindu-Chamic traditions, while on the other hand, the Cham Muslims in the Mekong Delta and Cambodia were majority Sunni. The dynamic omnipresence of the Cham people and their diaspora communities scattered throughout Southeast Asia remains a great challenge posing to every ruler of Vietnam as well as Cambodia. In August 1832, after
SECTION 60
#17328851410594464-546: The same except that ơ [əː] is of normal length while â [ə] is short – the same applies to the vowels long a [aː] and short ă [a] . The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ư, u). They are generally spelled as ia, ưa, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, ươ, uô, respectively, when they are followed by a consonant. In addition to single vowels (or monophthongs ) and centering diphthongs, Vietnamese has closing diphthongs and triphthongs . The closing diphthongs and triphthongs consist of
4536-465: The same time, according to the following pattern: ^3 In Middle Vietnamese , the outcome of these sounds was written with a hooked b (ꞗ), representing a /β/ that was still distinct from v (then pronounced /w/ ). See below. ^4 It is unclear what this sound was. According to Ferlus 1992, in the Archaic Vietnamese period (c. 10th century AD, when Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary
4608-534: The split from Muong around the end of the first millennium AD, the following stages of Vietnamese are commonly identified: After expelling the Chinese at the beginning of the 10th century, the Ngô dynasty adopted Classical Chinese as the formal medium of government, scholarship and literature. With the dominance of Chinese came wholesale importation of Chinese vocabulary. The resulting Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary makes up about
4680-505: The syllable-initial ch /c/ . The other analysis has final ch and nh as predictable allophonic variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /ŋ/ that occur after the upper front vowels i /i/ and ê /e/ ; although they also occur after a , but in such cases are believed to have resulted from an earlier e /ɛ/ which diphthongized to ai (cf. ach from aic , anh from aing ). (See Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final ch , nh for further details.) Each Vietnamese syllable
4752-411: The time was in a state of anarchy and being occupied by Vietnam. Sumat assembled his followers, mostly made up of Cambodian Chams and Malays secretly crossed into Panduranga, to organize an uprising against the Hue court and reclaim Cham independence. However his plan was compromised shortly after when a Cham Hindu official named Po Kabait Thuac , fearing retaliation, reported Sumat's potential uprising to
4824-567: The tones, whereby the tones in syllables with voiced initials were pronounced differently from those with voiceless initials. (Approximately speaking, the voiced allotones were pronounced with additional breathy voice or creaky voice and with lowered pitch. The quality difference predominates in today's northern varieties, e.g. in Hanoi , while in the southern varieties the pitch difference predominates, as in Ho Chi Minh City .) Subsequent to this,
4896-433: The traditional Cham social hierarchy. The Vietnamese office further ordered total rapid assimilation of the Chams, integrating Panduranga into Vietnamese administration, heavy taxes, social structures, land, military services were implemented, and issued brutal punishments for those who dare to oppose. Still, these policies were just to increase Cham dissatisfaction and resistance to Vietnamese brutal subjugation. Katip Sumat,
4968-422: The voicing of the main-syllable stop in Proto-Viet–Muong that produced the fricative. For similar reasons, words beginning with /l/ and /ŋ/ occur in both registers. (Thompson 1976 reconstructed voiceless resonants to account for outcomes where resonants occur with a first-register tone, but this is no longer considered necessary, at least by Ferlus.) Old Vietnamese/Ancient Vietnamese was a Vietic language which
5040-452: The world such as in the United States , Germany and France . Vietnamese has a large number of vowels . Below is a vowel diagram of Vietnamese from Hanoi (including centering diphthongs ): Front and central vowels (i, ê, e, ư, â, ơ, ă, a) are unrounded , whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â [ə] and ă [a] are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ơ and â are basically pronounced
5112-487: Was borrowed) it was * r̝ , distinct at that time from * r . The following initial clusters occurred, with outcomes indicated: A large number of words were borrowed from Middle Chinese , forming part of the Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary . These caused the original introduction of the retroflex sounds /ʂ/ and /ʈ/ (modern s , tr ) into the language. Proto-Viet–Muong did not have tones. Tones developed later in some of
5184-812: Was separated from Viet–Muong around the 9th century, and evolved into Middle Vietnamese by 16th century. The sources for the reconstruction of Old Vietnamese are Nom texts, such as the 12th-century/1486 Buddhist scripture Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh ("Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents"), old inscriptions, and a late 13th-century (possibly 1293) Annan Jishi glossary by Chinese diplomat Chen Fu (c. 1259 – 1309). Old Vietnamese used Chinese characters phonetically where each word, monosyllabic in Modern Vietnamese,
#58941