Katherine Mary Dunham (June 22, 1909 – May 21, 2006) was an American dancer , choreographer , anthropologist, and social activist. Dunham had one of the most successful dance careers of the 20th century and directed her own dance company for many years. She has been called the "matriarch and queen mother of black dance."
206-562: While a student at the University of Chicago , Dunham also performed as a dancer, ran a dance school and earned an early bachelor's degree in anthropology . Receiving a postgraduate academic fellowship, she went to the Caribbean to study the African diaspora , ethnography and local dance. She returned to graduate school and submitted a master's thesis to the anthropology faculty. She did not complete
412-661: A 15-day sit-in at the college's administration building in a protest over the university's segregationist off-campus rental policies. After continued turmoil, a university committee in 1967 issued what became known as the Kalven Report. The report, a two-page statement of the university's policy in "social and political action," declared that "To perform its mission in the society, a university must sustain an extraordinary environment of freedom of inquiry and maintain an independence from political fashions, passions, and pressures." The report has since been used to justify decisions such as
618-739: A coup d'état . Dunham's dance career first began in Chicago when she joined the Little Theater Company of Harper Avenue. In 1928, while still an undergraduate, Dunham began to study ballet with Ludmilla Speranzeva, a Russian dancer who had settled in Chicago, after having come to the United States with the Franco-Russian vaudeville troupe Le Théâtre de la Chauve-Souris, directed by impresario Nikita Balieff. Dunham also studied ballet with Mark Turbyfill and Ruth Page , who became prima ballerina of
824-596: A "culture of dislocation." For Iton, the traditional approach to the African diaspora focuses on the ruptures associated with the Atlantic slave trade and Middle Passage , notions of dispersal, and "the cycle of retaining, redeeming, refusing, and retrieving 'Africa.'" This conventional framework for analyzing the diaspora is dangerous, according to Iton, because it presumes that diaspora exists outside of Africa, thus simultaneously disowning and desiring Africa. Further, Iton suggests
1030-560: A bastion of conservatism, the show was banned in 1944 after only one performance. Although it was well received by the audience, local censors feared that the revealing costumes and provocative dances might compromise public morals. After the tour, in 1945, the Dunham company appeared in the short-lived Blue Holiday at the Belasco Theater in New York, and in the more successful Carib Song at
1236-617: A book about her work ( Katherine Dunham: Her dancers, singers and musicians (Ballet Productions, 1949). This book was printed but never on sale due to Buckle's financial problems; the British Library holds a copy. Dunham and her company appeared in the Hollywood movie Casbah (1948) with Tony Martin , Yvonne De Carlo , and Peter Lorre , and in the Italian film Botta e Risposta , produced by Dino de Laurentiis. Also that year they appeared in
1442-772: A category for ideological reasons. As of 2020, there were approximately 1,000,000 Afro-Germans . This number is difficult to estimate because the German census does not use race as a category. Some black people of unknown origin (Though perceived as Ethiopians ) once inhabited southern Abkhazia ; today, they have been assimilated into the Abkhaz population. African emigrants to Italy include Italian citizens and residents originally from Africa; immigrants from Africa officially residing in Italy in 2015 numbered over 1 million residents. There are an estimated 500,000 African or mixed African people in
1648-606: A challenge to the existing slave systems in the region. Continuous waves of slave rebellions , such as the Baptist War led by Samuel Sharpe in British Jamaica , created the conditions for the incremental abolition of slavery in the region, with Great Britain abolishing it in the 1830s . The Spanish colony of Cuba was the last Caribbean island to emancipate its slaves. During the 20th century, Afro-Caribbean people began to assert their cultural, economic and political rights on
1854-423: A copy of every book and journal published by the University of Chicago Press at no cost. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice. Several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program was ended by 1910. In 1929,
2060-586: A dancer during this period included the Abbott and Costello comedy Pardon My Sarong (1942) and the black musical Stormy Weather (1943), which featured a stellar range of actors, musicians and dancers. The company returned to New York. The company was located on the property that formerly belonged to the Isadora Duncan Dance in Caravan Hill but subsequently moved to W 43rd Street. In September 1943, under
2266-491: A different interview, Dunham describes her technique "as a way of life," a sentiment that seems to be shared by many of her admiring students. Many of Dunham students who attended free public classes in East St. Louis Illinois speak highly about the influence of her open technique classes and artistic presence in the city. Her classes are described as a safe haven for many and some of her students even attribute their success in life to
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#17330936201322472-719: A first-class hotel in São Paulo , the Hotel Esplanada, frequented by many American businessmen. Understanding that the fact was due to racial discrimination, she made sure the incident was publicized. The incident was widely discussed in the Brazilian press and became a hot political issue. In response, the Afonso Arinos law was passed in 1951 that made racial discrimination in public places a felony in Brazil. In 1992, at age 83, Dunham went on
2678-466: A grand reading room for the university library and prevents the need for an off-campus book depository. The site of Chicago Pile-1 is a National Historic Landmark and is marked by the Henry Moore sculpture Nuclear Energy . Robie House , a Frank Lloyd Wright building acquired by the university in 1963, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site as well as a National Historic Landmark, as is room 405 of
2884-486: A greater mixture in the south-western departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca . In these mestizo areas the African culture has had a great influence. Some European countries make it illegal to collect demographic census information based on ethnicity or ancestry (e.g. France), but some others do query along racial lines (e.g. the UK). Of 42 countries surveyed by a European Commission against Racism and Intolerance study in 2007, it
3090-498: A highly publicized hunger strike to protest the discriminatory U.S. foreign policy against Haitian boat-people . Time reported that, "she went on a 47-day hunger strike to protest the U.S.'s forced repatriation of Haitian refugees. "My job", she said, "is to create a useful legacy." During her protest, Dick Gregory led a non-stop vigil at her home, where many disparate personalities came to show their respect, such as Debbie Allen , Jonathan Demme , and Louis Farrakhan , leader of
3296-401: A hope that time and the "war for tolerance and democracy" (this was during World War II) would bring a change. One historian noted that "during the course of the tour, Dunham and the troupe had recurrent problems with racial discrimination, leading her to a posture of militancy which was to characterize her subsequent career." In Hollywood, Dunham refused to sign a lucrative studio contract when
3502-670: A joint production of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and the Morehouse College chorus in Atlanta, conducted by Robert Shaw . This work was never produced in Joplin's lifetime, but since the 1970s, it has been successfully produced in many venues. In 1978 Dunham was featured in the PBS special, Divine Drumbeats: Katherine Dunham and Her People , narrated by James Earl Jones , as part of
3708-518: A large study space and an automated book storage and retrieval system. The John Crerar Library contains more than 1.4 million volumes in the biological, medical and physical sciences and collections in general science and the philosophy and history of science, medicine, and technology. The university also operates a number of special libraries, including the D'Angelo Law Library, the Social Service Administration Library, and
3914-605: A liberal arts curriculum that would be a foundation for further college work. One of her fellow professors, with whom she collaborated, was architect Buckminster Fuller . The following year, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson nominated Dunham to be technical cultural adviser—a sort of cultural ambassador—to the government of Senegal in West Africa. Her mission was to help train the Senegalese National Ballet and to assist President Leopold Senghor with arrangements for
4120-676: A location on the University of Chicago campus. Since 1983, the University of Chicago has maintained the University of Chicago School Mathematics Project , a mathematics program used in urban primary and secondary schools. The university runs a program called the Council on Advanced Studies in the Humanities and Social Sciences, which administers interdisciplinary workshops to provide a forum for graduate students, faculty, and visiting scholars to present scholarly work in progress. The university also operates
4326-507: A major role in the development of many academic disciplines, including economics, law, literary criticism, mathematics, physics, religion, sociology, and political science, establishing the Chicago schools of thought in various fields. Chicago's Metallurgical Laboratory produced the world's first human-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction in Chicago Pile-1 beneath the viewing stands of
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#17330936201324532-508: A medal of Haiti's highest honor. University of Chicago The University of Chicago ( UChicago , Chicago , U of C , or UChi ) is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois , United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side , near the shore of Lake Michigan about 7 miles (11 km) from the Loop . The university is composed of
4738-622: A member of the Baptist clergy who believed that a great university should maintain the study of faith as a central focus. To fulfill this commitment, he brought the Baptist seminary that had begun as an independent school "alongside" the Old University of Chicago and separated from the old school decades earlier to Morgan Park. This became the Divinity School in 1891, the first professional school at
4944-700: A minor controversy in the press. After the national tour of Cabin in the Sky , the Dunham company stayed in Los Angeles , where they appeared in the Warner Brothers short film Carnival of Rhythm (1941). The next year, after the US entered World War II, Dunham appeared in the Paramount musical film Star Spangled Rhythm (1942) in a specialty number, "Sharp as a Tack," with Eddie "Rochester" Anderson . Other movies she performed in as
5150-590: A nearby particle physics laboratory, as well as a stake in the Apache Point Observatory in Sunspot, New Mexico . Faculty and students at the adjacent Toyota Technological Institute at Chicago collaborate with the university. In 2013, the university formed an affiliation with the formerly independent Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Mass. The National Opinion Research Center maintains an office at
5356-658: A new authenticity. She was also consulted on costuming for the Egyptian and Ethiopian dress. Dana McBroom-Manno still teaches Dunham Technique in New York City and is a Master of Dunham Technique. In 1964, Dunham settled in East St. Louis , and took up the post of artist-in-residence at Southern Illinois University in nearby Edwardsville . There she was able to bring anthropologists, sociologists, educational specialists, scientists, writers, musicians, and theater people together to create
5562-615: A new school could go by the name of the city. In 1890, the American Baptist Education Society incorporated a new University of Chicago as a coeducational institution, using $ 400,000 donated to the ABES to supplement a $ 600,000 donation from Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller , and land donated by Marshall Field . While the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it
5768-481: A new starting principle for the use of diaspora: "the impossibility of settlement that correlates throughout the modern period with the cluster of disturbances that trouble not only the physically dispersed but those moved without traveling." Iton adds that this impossibility of settlement—this "modern matrix of strange spaces—outside the state but within the empire"—renders notions of black citizenship fanciful, and in fact, "undesirable". Iton argues that we citizenship,
5974-547: A part of the Federal Theater Project in Chicago. Based on her research in Martinique, this three-part performance integrated elements of a Martinique fighting dance into American ballet. In 1939, Dunham's company gave additional performances in Chicago and Cincinnati and then returned to New York. Dunham had been invited to stage a new number for the popular, long-running musical revue Pins and Needles 1940 , produced by
6180-408: A performing career rather than academic studies, Dunham revived her dance ensemble. In 1937 she traveled with them to New York to take part in A Negro Dance Evening , organized by Edna Guy at the 92nd Street YMHA. The troupe performed a suite of West Indian dances in the first half of the program and a ballet entitled Tropic Death , with Talley Beatty , in the second half. Upon returning to Chicago,
6386-427: A set of class exercises she labeled as "processions". Each procession builds on the last and focuses on conditioning the body to prepare for specific exercises that come later. Video footage of Dunham technique classes show a strong emphasis on anatomical alignment, breath, and fluidity. Dancers are frequently instructed to place weight on the balls of their feet, lengthen their lumbar and cervical spines, and breathe from
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6592-506: A state of statelessness thereby deconstructing colonial sites and narratives in an effort to "de-link geography and power," putting " all space into play" (emphasis added) For Iton, diaspora's potential is represented by a "rediscursive albeit agonistic field of play that might denaturalize the hegemonic representations of modernity as unencumbered and self-generating and bring into clear view its repressed, colonial subscript". African diaspora populations include but are not limited to: It
6798-749: A teenager, she won a scholarship to the Dunham school and later became a dancer with the company, before beginning her successful singing career. Dunham and Kitt collaborated again in the 1970s in an Equity Production of the musical Peg, based on the Irish play, Peg O' My Heart. Dunham Company member Dana McBroom-Manno was selected as a featured artist in the show, which played on the Music Fair Circuit. Others who attended her school included James Dean , Gregory Peck , Jose Ferrer , Jennifer Jones , Shelley Winters , Sidney Poitier , Shirley MacLaine and Warren Beatty . Marlon Brando frequently dropped in to play
7004-731: A tour of venues in South America, Europe, and North Africa. They had particular success in Denmark and France. In the mid-1950s, Dunham and her company appeared in three films: Mambo (1954), made in Italy; Die Grosse Starparade (1954), made in Germany; and Música en la Noche (1955), made in Mexico City. The Dunham company's international tours ended in Vienna in 1960. They were stranded without money because of bad management by their impresario. Dunham saved
7210-415: Is Katherine Baicker since March 2023. The current president of the University of Chicago is chemist Paul Alivisatos , who assumed the role on September 1, 2021. Robert Zimmer , the previous president, transitioned into the new role of chancellor of the university. The university's endowment was the 12th largest among American educational institutions and state university systems in 2013 and as of 2020
7416-490: Is a technical dance form developed from elements of indigenous African and Afro-Caribbean dances . Strongly founded in her anthropological research in the Caribbean, Dunham technique introduces rhythm as the backbone of various widely known modern dance principles including contraction and release, groundedness, fall and recover, counterbalance, and many more. Using some ballet vernacular, Dunham incorporates these principles into
7622-711: Is considered inclusive of the African, Afro-Caribbean, and African-American black communities in Canada. At an intermediate level, in South America and in the former plantations in and around the Indian Ocean, descendants of enslaved people are a bit harder to define because many people are mixed in demographic proportion to the original slave population. In places that imported relatively few slaves (like Chile ), few if any are considered "black" today. In places that imported many enslaved people (like Brazil or Dominican Republic ),
7828-612: Is illegal for the French State to collect data on ethnicity and race. The first Africans in the Americas arrived in the region during the initial period of European colonization . In 1492, Afro-Spanish sailor Pedro Alonso Niño served as a pilot on the voyages of Christopher Columbus ; though he returned to the Americas in 1499, Niño did not settle in the region. By the early 16th century, more Africans began to arrive in Spanish colonies in
8034-521: Is largely patrilineal with an estimated 19% of African American ancestors being European males, and 5% being European females. The interracial mixing occurred before the Civil War and largely in the American South , beginning during the colonial era . The states with the highest percentages of people of African descent are Mississippi (36%), and Louisiana (33%). While not a state, the population of
8240-463: Is the largest gift in the university's history and the largest gift ever to any business school. In 2009, planning or construction on several new buildings, half of which cost $ 100 million or more, was underway. Since 2011, major construction projects have included the Jules and Gwen Knapp Center for Biomedical Discovery, a ten-story medical research center, and further additions to the medical campus of
8446-506: Is the worldwide collection of communities descended from people from Africa , predominantly in the Americas . The African populations in the Americas are descended from haplogroup L genetic groups of native Africans. The term most commonly refers to the descendants of the native West and Central Africans who were enslaved and shipped to the Americas via the Atlantic slave trade between
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8652-456: The Adelphi Theatre . The finale to the first act of this show was Shango , a staged interpretation of a Vodun ritual, which became a permanent part of the company's repertory. In 1946, Dunham returned to Broadway for a revue entitled Bal Nègre , which received glowing notices from theater and dance critics. Early in 1947 Dunham choreographed the musical play Windy City , which premiered at
8858-560: The Americas during the transatlantic slave trade , 645,000 were shipped to the British colonies on the North American mainland and the United States . In 2000, African Americans comprised 12.1 percent of the total population in the United States, constituting the largest racial minority group. The African-American population is concentrated in the southern states and urban areas. In
9064-506: The Atlantic , Trans-Saharan , Red Sea and Indian Ocean slave trades. The earliest recorded evidence of Africans as slaves outside of Africa comes from Ancient Greece and Rome . In the Greco-Roman world , almost all native Africans were known primarily as Aithiopians , a term that means "burnt face" (αἴθω, aíthō , 'I burn' + ὤψ, ṓps , 'face'), rather than referring to the geographical location of Ethiopia . Most Aithiopian slaves in
9270-578: The Bantu peoples of Southeast Africa , along with Habesha immigrants. Some were merchants, sailors, indentured servants , slaves and mercenaries. The Siddi population is currently estimated at 850,000 individuals, with Karnataka , Gujarat and Telangana states in India and Makran and Karachi in Pakistan as the main population centres. Siddis are primarily Muslims, although some are Hindus and others belong to
9476-865: The Canaries . There are about 2,500,000 (4.2%) people identifying as Black British (not including British Mixed ), among which are Afro-Caribbeans . They live mostly in urban areas in England . The first Black people in Russia were the result of the slave trade of the Ottoman Empire and their descendants still live on the coasts of the Black Sea . Czar Peter the Great was advised by his friend Lefort to bring in Africans to Russia for hard labor. Alexander Pushkin 's great-grandfather
9682-485: The Cape Verde Islands , started to arrive in a voluntary immigration wave to seek employment as whalers in Massachusetts . This migration continued until restrictive laws were enacted in 1921 that in effect closed the door on non-Europeans. By that time, men of African ancestry were already a majority in New England 's whaling industry, with African Americans working as sailors, blacksmiths, shipbuilders, officers, and owners. The internationalism of whaling crews, including
9888-407: The Catholic Church . Although often economically and socially marginalised as a community today, Siddis once ruled Bengal as the Habshi dynasty of the Bengal Sultanate , while the famous Siddi, Malik Ambar , effectively controlled the Ahmadnagar Sultanate . He played a major role, politically and militarily, in Indian history by slowing down the penetration of the Delhi-based Mughals into
10094-405: The Chicago Opera . Additionally, she worked closely with Vera Mirova who specialized in "Oriental" dance. Through her ballet teachers, she was also exposed to Spanish, East Indian, Javanese, and Balinese dance forms. In 1931, at the age of 21, Dunham formed a group called Ballets Nègres, one of the first black ballet companies in the United States. The group performed Dunham's Negro Rhapsody at
10300-407: The Dalaman , Menderes and Gediz valleys, Manavgat , and Çukurova . In the 19th century, contemporary records mention African quarters of İzmir , including Sabırtaşı, Dolapkuyu, Tamaşalık, İkiçeşmelik, and Ballıkuyu. Africans in Turkey are around 100.000 people. There are a number of communities in South Asia that are descended from African slaves, traders or soldiers. These communities are
10506-619: The Dance in America series. Alvin Ailey later produced a tribute for her in 1987–88 at Carnegie Hall with his American Dance Theater , entitled The Magic of Katherine Dunham. In 1945, Dunham opened and directed the Katherine Dunham School of Dance and Theatre near Times Square in New York City. Her dance company was provided with rent-free studio space for three years by an admirer and patron, Lee Shubert ; it had an initial enrollment of 350 students. The program included courses in dance, drama, performing arts, applied skills, humanities, cultural studies, and Caribbean research. In 1947 it
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#173309362013210712-626: The Deccan Plateau of South central India. Some Pan-Africanists also consider other peoples as diasporic African peoples. These groups include, among others, Negritos , such as in the case of the peoples of the Malay Peninsula ( Orang Asli ); New Guinea (Papuans); Andamanese ; certain peoples of the Indian subcontinent , and the aboriginal peoples of Melanesia and Micronesia . Most of these claims are rejected by mainstream ethnologists as pseudoscience and pseudo-anthropology, as part of ideologically motivated Afrocentrist irredentism , touted primarily among some extremist elements in
10918-417: The District of Columbia is more than 50% black. Recent African immigrants represent a minority of black people nationwide. The U.S. Bureau of the Census categorizes the population by race based on self-identification. The census surveys have no provision for a "multiracial" or "biracial" self-identity, but since 2000, respondents may check off more than one box and claim multiple ethnicity that way. Much of
11124-416: The First Pan-African World Festival of Negro Arts in Dakar (1965–66). Later Dunham established a second home in Senegal, and she occasionally returned there to scout for talented African musicians and dancers. In 1967, Dunham opened the Performing Arts Training Center (PATC) in East St. Louis in an effort to use the arts to combat poverty and urban unrest. The restructuring of heavy industry had caused
11330-414: The George Herbert Jones Laboratory , where Glenn T. Seaborg and his team were the first to isolate plutonium. Hitchcock Hall , an undergraduate dormitory, is on the National Register of Historic Places . The campus is soon to be the home of the Obama Presidential Center , the Presidential Library for the 44th president of the United States with expected completion in 2026. The Obamas settled in
11536-557: The Great Depression . Nonetheless, in 1933, Hutchins proposed an unsuccessful plan to merge the University of Chicago and Northwestern University . During World War II, the university's Metallurgical Laboratory made ground-breaking contributions to the Manhattan Project . The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, self-sustained nuclear reaction by Enrico Fermi in 1942. The university did not provide standard oversight of Bruno Bettelheim and his tenure as director of
11742-485: The Greco-Roman world came from Kush (modern-day Sudan ), after they became prisoners of war in altercations with nearby Egypt . Archaeological evidence shows that a very small proportion of slaves in the Greco-Roman world were Aithiopian , in part due to the distance required for import. Aithiopian slaves were primarily engaged in domestic and entertainment work, leading archaeologists to believe that they were considered an expensive luxury. In one ostentatious display,
11948-431: The Indian Ocean as part of the Indian Ocean slave trade , roughly eight million were shipped northwards as part of the Trans-Saharan slave trade , and roughly eleven million were transported to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade . Their descendants are now found around the globe, but because of intermarriage they are not necessarily readily identifiable. Many scholars have challenged conventional views of
12154-404: The International Ladies' Garment Workers Union . As this show continued its run at the Windsor Theater, Dunham booked her own company in the theater for a Sunday performance. This concert, billed as Tropics and Le Hot Jazz , included not only her favorite partners Archie Savage and Talley Beatty , but her principal Haitian drummer, Papa Augustin . Initially scheduled for a single performance,
12360-531: The John U. Nef Committee on Social Thought . The university contains eight professional schools: the University of Chicago Law School , the Pritzker School of Medicine , the Booth School of Business , the University of Chicago Divinity School , the University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy , the University of Chicago School of Social Service Administration , the Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies (which offers non-degree courses and certificates as well as degree programs) and
12566-482: The Miller–Urey experiment , was conducted at the university. REM sleep was discovered at the university in 1953 by Nathaniel Kleitman and Eugene Aserinsky . The University of Chicago (Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics) operated the Yerkes Observatory in Williams Bay, Wisconsin from 1897 until 2018, where the largest operating refracting telescope in the world and other telescopes are located. African diaspora The global African diaspora
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#173309362013212772-403: The Nation of Islam . This initiative drew international publicity to the plight of the Haitian boat-people and U.S. discrimination against them. Dunham ended her fast only after exiled Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide and Jesse Jackson came to her and personally requested that she stop risking her life for this cause. In recognition of her stance, President Aristide later awarded her
12978-404: The Orthogenic School for Disturbed Children from 1944 to 1973. In the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood. In response, the university became a major sponsor of a controversial urban renewal project for Hyde Park , which profoundly affected both the neighborhood's architecture and street plan. During this period
13184-472: The Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering . The Law School is accredited by the American Bar Association , the Divinity School is accredited by the Commission on Accrediting of the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada , and Pritzker is accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education . The university runs a number of academic institutions and programs apart from its undergraduate and postgraduate schools. It operates
13390-500: The Siddi , Sheedi , Makrani and Sri Lanka Kaffirs . In some cases, they became very prominent, such as Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut , Hoshu Sheedi , Malik Ambar , or the rulers of Janjira State . The Mauritian creole people are the descendants of African slaves similar to those in the Americas. The Siddi ( pronounced [sɪd̪d̪i] ), also known as the Sheedi , Sidi , Siddhi , or Habshi , are an ethnic group inhabiting India and Pakistan . Members are mostly descended from
13596-405: The Underground Railroad , a system supported by both blacks and whites to assist fugitive slaves. After achieving independence, northern states in the U.S. had begun to abolish slavery as early as 1793, but slavery was not abolished in the South until 1865, following the American Civil War . Black immigration to Canada in the twentieth century consisted mostly of Caribbean descent. As a result of
13802-403: The United States who do not reflect on the mainstream African-American community. Mainstream anthropologists determine that the Andamanese and others are part of a network of autochthonous ethnic groups present in South Asia that trace their genetic ancestry to a migratory sequence that culminated in the Australian Aboriginals rather than from Africa directly. Genetic testing has shown
14008-476: The University of Chicago Laboratory Schools (a private day school for K-12 students and day care ), and a public charter school with four campuses on the South Side of Chicago administered by the university's Urban Education Institute. In addition, the Hyde Park Day School, a school for students with learning disabilities, and the Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School , a residential treatment program for those with behavioral and emotional problems, maintains
14214-403: The University of Chicago Medical Center . In 2014 the university launched the public phase of a $ 4.5 billion fundraising campaign. In September 2015, the university received $ 100 million from The Pearson Family Foundation to establish The Pearson Institute for the Study and Resolution of Global Conflicts and The Pearson Global Forum at the Harris School of Public Policy . In 2019,
14420-761: The University of Chicago Press , and the University of Chicago Medical Center , and oversees several laboratories, including Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) , Argonne National Laboratory , and the Marine Biological Laboratory . The university is accredited by The Higher Learning Commission . The university runs on a quarter system in which the academic year is divided into four terms: Summer (June–August), Autumn (September–December), Winter (January–March), and Spring (April–June). Full-time undergraduate students take three to four courses every quarter for approximately nine weeks before their quarterly academic breaks. The school year typically begins in late September and ends in late May. After its foundation in
14626-469: The University of Chicago Press , the largest university press in the United States. The University of Chicago Library system encompasses six libraries that contain a total of 11 million volumes, the 9th most among library systems in the United States. The university's main library is the Regenstein Library , which contains one of the largest collections of print volumes in the United States. The Joe and Rika Mansueto Library , built in 2011, houses
14832-568: The racially segregated South . Dunham refused to hold a show in one theater after finding out that the city's black residents had not been allowed to buy tickets for the performance. On another occasion, in October 1944, after getting a rousing standing ovation in Louisville, Kentucky , she told the all-white audience that she and her company would not return because "your management will not allow people like you to sit next to people like us." She expressed
15038-489: The 1510s and participated in the siege of Tenochtitlan . Africans had been present in Asia and Europe long before Columbus's travels. In the late 20th century, Africans began to emigrate to Europe and the Americas in increasing numbers, constituting new African diaspora communities not directly connected with the slave trade. The African Union defined the African diaspora as "[consisting] of people of African origin living outside
15244-489: The 16th and 19th centuries, with their largest populations in Brazil , the United States , Colombia and Haiti . However, the term can also be used to refer to African descendants who immigrated to other parts of the world. Scholars identify "four circulatory phases" of this migration out of Africa. The phrase African diaspora gradually entered common usage at the turn of the 21st century. The term diaspora originates from
15450-519: The 1890s, the university, fearful that its vast resources would injure smaller schools by drawing away good students, affiliated with several regional colleges and universities: Des Moines College , Kalamazoo College , Butler University , and Stetson University . In 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. Under the terms of the affiliation, the schools were required to have courses of study comparable to those at
15656-711: The 1930s and 40s has been described as holistic, interdisciplinary, with a philosophy of liberal humanism, and principles of racial equality and cultural relativity. Dunham officially joined the department in 1929 as an anthropology major, while studying dances of the African diaspora . As a student, she studied under anthropologists such as A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, Edward Sapir , Melville Herskovits , Lloyd Warner and Bronisław Malinowski. Under their tutelage, she showed great promise in her ethnographic studies of dance. Redfield, Herskovits, and Sapir's contributions to cultural anthropology , exposed Dunham to topics and ideas that inspired her creatively and professionally. For example, she
15862-535: The 2018 Illinois Bicentennial, the University of Chicago Quadrangles were selected as one of the Illinois 200 Great Places by the American Institute of Architects Illinois component (AIA Illinois). After the 1940s, the campus's Gothic style began to give way to modern styles. In 1955, Eero Saarinen was contracted to develop a second master plan, which led to the construction of buildings both north and south of
16068-439: The 22 of June in 1909 in a Chicago hospital. Her father, Albert Millard Dunham, was a descendant of slaves from West Africa and Madagascar . Her mother, Fanny June Dunham, who, according to Dunham's memoir, possessed Indian, French Canadian, English, and probably African ancestry, died when Dunham was four years old. She had an older brother, Albert Jr., with whom she had a close relationship. After her mother died, her father left
16274-440: The African diaspora as a mere dispersion of African people. For them, it is a movement of liberation that opposes the implications of racialization . Their position assumes that Africans and their descendants abroad struggle to reclaim power over their lives through voluntary migration, cultural production and political conceptions and practices. It also implies the presence of cultures of resistance with similar objectives throughout
16480-726: The African god who was still considered an important presence in West Indian religious culture. Early in 1936, she arrived in Haiti , where she remained for several months, the first of her many extended stays in that country through her life. While in Haiti, Dunham investigated Vodun rituals and made extensive research notes, particularly on the dance movements of the participants. She recorded her findings through ethnographic fieldnotes and by learning dance techniques, music and song, alongside her interlocutors. This style of participant observation research
16686-580: The African-American community nationwide. About 57 percent immigrated between 1990 and 2000. Immigrants born in Africa constitute 1.6 percent of the black population. People of the African immigrant diaspora are the most educated population group in the United States—50 percent have bachelor's or advanced degrees, compared to 23 percent of native-born Americans. The largest African immigrant communities in
16892-418: The Americas , sometimes as free people of color , but the majority were enslaved . Demand of African labor increased as the indigenous population of the Americas experienced a massive population decline due to the introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases (such as smallpox ) to which they had no natural immunity . The Spanish Crown granted asientos (monopoly contracts) to merchants granting them
17098-558: The Americas as part of the transatlantic slave trade . Beginning in 1791, the Haitian Revolution , a slave rebellion by self-emancipated slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue eventually led to the creation of the Republic of Haiti . The new state, led by Jean Jacques Dessalines was the first nation in the Americas to be established from a successful slave revolt and represented
17304-641: The Americas, as well as relocations within the Americas, have brought people of African descent to North America. According to the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture , the first African populations came to North America in the 16th century via Mexico and the Caribbean to the Spanish colonies of Florida , Texas and other parts of the South. Out of the 12 million people from Africa who were shipped to
17510-714: The Andamani to belong to the Y-Chromosome Haplogroup D-M174 , which is in common with Australian Aboriginals and the Ainu people of Japan rather than the actual African diaspora. The Kingdom of Aksum was an ancient empire in what is now northern Ethiopia . There were four invasions and subsequent settlements of Aksumites in Himyar , located across the Red Sea in modern-day Yemen . These invasions and settlements led to one of
17716-630: The Byzantine Empire against Persia . The overtures made by the Byzantine Empire to influence Himyar demonstrate that the Aksumite settlers in Himyar, due to their sustained residence and political organization, constituted a "stable community in exile," which historian Carlton Wilson deems a necessary condition to classify a settlement as a diaspora. Justinian had two wishes for this proposed alliance: first, for Aksum to purchase and distribute Indian silk to
17922-503: The Caribbean. Beyond the region, a new Afro-Caribbean diaspora, including such figures as Stokely Carmichael and DJ Kool Herc in the United States, was influential in the creation of the black power and hip hop movements. Influential political theorists such as Walter Rodney , Frantz Fanon and Stuart Hall contributed to anti-colonial theory and movements in Africa, as well as cultural developments in Europe. Several migration waves to
18128-538: The Chicago Beaux Arts Ball. After this well-received performance in 1931, the group was disbanded. Encouraged by Speranzeva to focus on modern dance instead of ballet, Dunham opened her first dance school in 1933, calling it the Negro Dance Group. It was a venue for Dunham to teach young black dancers about their African heritage. In 1934–1936, Dunham performed as a guest artist with the ballet company of
18334-587: The Chicago Opera. Ruth Page had written a scenario and choreographed La Guiablesse ("The Devil Woman"), based on a Martinican folk tale in Lafcadio Hearn 's Two Years in the French West Indies . It opened in Chicago in 1933, with a black cast and with Page dancing the title role. The next year the production was repeated with Katherine Dunham in the lead and with students from Dunham's Negro Dance Group in
18540-604: The Chicago firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill . Another master plan, designed in 1999 and updated in 2004, produced the Gerald Ratner Athletics Center (2003), the Max Palevsky Residential Commons (2001), South Campus Residence Hall and dining commons (2009), a new children's hospital, and other construction, expansions, and restorations. In 2011, the university completed the glass dome-shaped Joe and Rika Mansueto Library , which provides
18746-502: The Chicago production of Run Li'l Chil'lun , performed at the Goodman Theater. She also created several other works of choreography, including The Emperor Jones (a response to the play by Eugene O'Neill ) and Barrelhouse . At this time Dunham first became associated with designer John Pratt, whom she later married. Together, they produced the first version of her dance composition L'Ag'Ya , which premiered on January 27, 1938, as
18952-538: The Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master's degree. However, fully aware of her passion for both dance performance, as well as anthropological research, she felt she had to choose between the two. Although Dunham was offered another grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to pursue her academic studies, she chose dance. She did this for many reasons. However, one key reason
19158-622: The Eckhart Library for mathematics and computer science. Harper Memorial Library is now a reading and study room. According to the National Science Foundation , University of Chicago spent $ 423.9 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 60th in the nation. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" and is a founding member of the Association of American Universities and
19364-515: The Great Northern Theater in Chicago. Later in the year she opened a cabaret show in Las Vegas , during the first year that the city became a popular entertainment as well as gambling destination. Later that year she took her troupe to Mexico, where their performances were so popular that they stayed and performed for more than two months. After Mexico, Dunham began touring in Europe, where she
19570-562: The Greek διασπορά ( diaspora , "scattering") which gained popularity in English in reference to the Jewish diaspora before being more broadly applied to other populations. Less commonly, the term has been used in scholarship to refer to more recent emigration from Africa. The African Union (AU) defines the African diaspora as consisting: "of people of native or partial African origin living outside
19776-521: The Hyde Park campus and is affiliated with multiple academic centers and institutes. The University of Chicago has been the site of some important experiments and academic movements. In economics, the university has played an important role in shaping ideas about the free market and is the namesake of the Chicago school of economics , the school of economic thought supported by Milton Friedman and other economists. The university's sociology department
19982-608: The Law . The university has an extensive record of producing successful business leaders and billionaires. The College of the University of Chicago grants Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees in 51 academic majors and 33 minors. The college's academics are divided into five divisions: the Biological Sciences Collegiate Division, the Physical Sciences Collegiate Division,
20188-547: The Main Quadrangles were designed by Cobb, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge , Holabird & Roche , and other architectural firms in a mixture of the Victorian Gothic and Collegiate Gothic styles, patterned on the colleges of the University of Oxford. (Mitchell Tower, for example, is modeled after Oxford's Magdalen Tower , and the university Commons, Hutchinson Hall , replicates Christ Church Hall. ) In celebration of
20394-464: The Met Ballet Company. Among her dancers selected were Marcia McBroom, Dana McBroom, Jean Kelly, and Jesse Oliver. The Met Ballet Company dancers studied Dunham Technique at Dunham's 42nd Street dance studio for the entire summer leading up to the season opening of Aida. Lyndon B. Johnson was in the audience for opening night. Dunham's background as an anthropologist gave the dances of the opera
20600-683: The Midway, including the Laird Bell Law Quadrangle (a complex designed by Saarinen); a series of arts buildings; a building designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe for the university's School of Social Service Administration, a building which is to become the home of the Harris School of Public Policy by Edward Durrell Stone , and the Regenstein Library , the largest building on campus, a brutalist structure designed by Walter Netsch of
20806-694: The Netherlands and the Dutch Antilles . They mainly live in the islands of Aruba , Bonaire , Curaçao and Saint Martin , the latter of which is also partly French-controlled. Many Afro-Dutch people reside in the Netherlands . As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Native African immigrant background living in Portugal . They mainly live in the regions of Lisbon , Porto , Coimbra . As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity,
21012-422: The Old University of Chicago are recognized as alumni of the University of Chicago. William Rainey Harper became the university's president on July 1, 1891, and the Hyde Park campus opened for classes on October 1, 1892. Harper worked on building up the faculty and in two years he had a faculty of 120, including eight former university or college presidents. Harper was an accomplished scholar ( Semiticist ) and
21218-679: The Roman Emperor Nero filled a theater with Aithiopian slaves to demonstrate the wealth and power of Rome to a visiting foreign king. At the beginning of the 8th century, Arabs took African slaves from the central and eastern portions of the African continent (where they were known as the Zanj ) and sold them into markets in the Middle East , the Indian subcontinent , and the Far East , for slavery in
21424-622: The Social Sciences Collegiate Division, the Humanities Collegiate Division, and the New Collegiate Division. The first four are sections within their corresponding graduate divisions, while the New Collegiate Division administers interdisciplinary majors and studies which do not fit in one of the other four divisions. Undergraduate students are required to take a distribution of courses to satisfy
21630-514: The U.S. State Department. She had incurred the displeasure of departmental officials when her company performed Southland , a ballet that dramatized the lynching of a black man in the racist American South. Its premiere performance on December 9, 1950, at the Teatro Municipal in Santiago, Chile , generated considerable public interest in the early months of 1951. The State Department was dismayed by
21836-614: The Umayyad Caliphate , the Abbasid Caliphate , the Mamluk Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire . Beginning in the early 15th century, Europeans captured or bought African slaves from West Africa and brought them first to Europe and then, after the start of European colonization there in the late 15th century, to the Americas. The Atlantic slave trade ended in the 19th century. The dispersal through slave trading represents
22042-567: The United States and in Europe. In 1966, she served as a State Department representative for the United States to the first ever World Festival of Negro Arts in Dakar, Senegal. In 1967 she officially retired, after presenting a final show at the famous Apollo Theater in Harlem, New York . Even in retirement Dunham continued to choreograph: one of her major works was directing the premiere full, posthumous production Scott Joplin 's opera Treemonisha in 1972,
22248-554: The United States are in New York , followed by California , Texas , and Maryland . Due to the legacy of slavery in the colonial history of the United States , the average African American has a significant European component to his DNA. According to a study conducted in 2011, the African American DNA consists on average of 73.2% West African, 24% European and 0.8% Native American DNA. The European ancestry of African Americans
22454-505: The United States, there was historically a greater European colonial population in relation to African slaves , especially in the Northern Tier . There was considerable racial intermarriage in colonial Virginia , and other forms of racial mixing during the slavery and post- Civil War years. Jim Crow and anti-miscegenation laws passed after the 1863–1877 Reconstruction era in the South in
22660-449: The United States. The university's students, faculty, and staff has included 101 Nobel laureates . The university's faculty members and alumni also include 10 Fields Medalists, 4 Turing Award winners, 52 MacArthur Fellows , 26 Marshall Scholars , 54 Rhodes Scholars , 27 Pulitzer Prize winners, 20 National Humanities Medalists , 29 living billionaire graduates, and 8 Olympic medalists . The first University of Chicago
22866-417: The University of Chicago Hospitals (now called the University of Chicago Medical Center ) finished construction and enrolled their first medical students. Also, the philosophy oriented Committee on Social Thought , an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through
23072-553: The University of Chicago announced plans to establish the Milton Friedman Institute , which attracted both support and controversy from faculty members and students. The institute would cost around $ 200 million and occupy the buildings of the Chicago Theological Seminary . During the same year, investor David G. Booth donated $ 300 million to the university's Booth School of Business , which
23278-601: The University of Chicago are known for their demanding standards, heavy workload and academic difficulty; according to Uni in the USA , "Among the academic cream of American universities – Harvard, Yale, Princeton, MIT, and the University of Chicago – it is UChicago that can most convincingly claim to provide the most rigorous, intense learning experience." The university graduate schools and committees are divided into four divisions: Biological Sciences, Humanities, Physical Sciences, and Social Sciences, and eight professional schools. In
23484-468: The University of Chicago consists of 217 acres (87.8 ha) in the Chicago neighborhoods of Hyde Park and Woodlawn , approximately eight miles (13 km) south of downtown Chicago . The northern and southern portions of campus are separated by the Midway Plaisance , a large, linear park created for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition . In 2011, Travel+Leisure listed the university as one of
23690-462: The University of Chicago. Harper recruited acclaimed Yale baseball and football player Amos Alonzo Stagg from the Young Men's Christian Association training school at Springfield to coach the school's football program. Stagg was given a position on the faculty, the first such athletic position in the United States. While coaching at the university, Stagg invented the numbered football jersey and
23896-461: The University of Chicago. A student or faculty member of an affiliated school was entitled to free tuition at the University of Chicago, and Chicago students were eligible to attend an affiliated school on the same terms and receive credit for their work. The University of Chicago also agreed to provide affiliated schools with books and scientific apparatus and supplies at cost; special instructors and lecturers without cost except for travel expenses; and
24102-449: The University of Chicago. After noticing that Katherine enjoyed working and socializing with people, her brother suggested that she study Anthropology . University of Chicago's anthropology department was fairly new and the students were still encouraged to learn aspects of sociology, distinguishing it from other anthropology departments in the US that focused almost exclusively on non-Western peoples. The Anthropology department at Chicago in
24308-461: The abdomen and not the chest. There is also a strong emphasis on training dancers in the practices of engaging with polyrhythms by simultaneously moving their upper and lower bodies according to different rhythmic patterns. These exercises prepare the dancers for African social and spiritual dances that are practiced later in the class including the Mahi, Yonvalou, and Congo Paillette. According to Dunham,
24514-806: The age of 15, she organized "The Blue Moon Café", a fundraising cabaret to raise money for Brown's Methodist Church in Joliet, where she gave her first public performance. While still a high school student, she opened a private dance school for young black children. After completing her studies at Joliet Junior College in 1928, Dunham moved to Chicago to join her brother Albert at the University of Chicago . During her time in Chicago, Dunham enjoyed holding social gatherings and inviting visitors to her apartment. Such visitors included ethnomusicologist Alan Lomax , novelist and anthropologist Zora Neale Hurston , Robert Redfield , Bronisław Malinowski , A.R. Radcliffe-Brown , Fred Eggan , and many others that she met in and around
24720-468: The ashes, a reference to the fire and foreclosure of the Old University of Chicago. A single stone from the rubble of the original Douglas Hall on 34th Place was set into the wall of the Classics Building. The dean of the college and University of Chicago and professor of history John Boyer has argued that the University of Chicago has "a plausible genealogy as a pre–Civil War institution". Alumni from
24926-741: The autumn quarter of 2022, the university enrolled 10,546 graduate students on degree-seeking courses: 569 in the Biological Sciences Division, 612 in the Humanities Division, 2,103 in the Physical Sciences Division, 972 in the Social Sciences Division, and 6,290 in the professional schools (including the Graham School). The university is home to several committees for interdisciplinary scholarship, including
25132-549: The board of trustees and donor of the Ryerson Physical Laboratory) Adolphus Clay Bartlett and Leon Mandel, who funded the construction of the gymnasium and assembly hall, and George C. Walker of the Walker Museum, a relative of Cobb who encouraged his inaugural donation for facilities. The new university acknowledged its predecessor. The university's coat of arms has a phoenix rising from
25338-470: The bongo drums, and jazz musician Charles Mingus held regular jam sessions with the drummers. Known for her many innovations, Dunham developed a dance pedagogy, later named the Dunham Technique, a style of movement and exercises based in traditional African dances, to support her choreography. This won international acclaim and is now taught as a modern dance style in many dance schools. By 1957, Dunham
25544-532: The center of forces that created the modern world. Paul Gilroy describes the suppression of blackness due to imagined and created ideals of nations as "cultural insiderism." Cultural insiderism is used by nations to separate deserving and undeserving groups and requires a "sense of ethnic difference" as mentioned in his book The Black Atlantic . Recognizing their contributions offers a comprehensive appreciation of global history. Cultural and political theorist Richard Iton suggested that diaspora be understood as
25750-692: The chance to study in Russia; over 40 years, 400,000 African students came, and some settled there. Afro-Turks are people of Zanj ( Bantu ) descent living in Turkey . Like the Afro-Abkhazians , they trace their origins to the Ottoman slave trade . Beginning several centuries ago, a number of Africans came to the Ottoman Empire , usually via Zanzibar as Zanj and from places such as present-day Niger , Saudi Arabia , Libya , Kenya and Sudan ; they settled by
25956-409: The character Daggoo , an African harpooneer, is recorded in the 1851 novel Moby-Dick . They eventually took their trade to California . Today 1.7 million people in the United States are descended from voluntary immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa, most of whom arrived in the late twentieth century. African immigrants represent 6 percent of all immigrants to the United States and almost 5 percent of
26162-425: The children were able to settle into a home for a few years. However, after her father remarried, Albert Sr. and his new wife, Annette Poindexter Dunham, took in Katherine and her brother. The family moved to a predominantly white neighborhood in Joliet, Illinois . There, her father ran a dry-cleaning business. Dunham became interested in both writing and dance at a young age. In 1921, a short story she wrote when she
26368-477: The children with their aunt Lulu on Chicago's South Side . At the time, the South Side of Chicago was experiencing the effects of the Great Migration where Black southerners attempted to escape the Jim Crow South and poverty. Along with the Great Migration, came White flight and her aunt Lulu's business suffered and ultimately closed as a result. This led to a custody battle over Katherine and her brother, brought on by their maternal relatives. This meant neither of
26574-506: The company met with enthusiastic audiences in every city. Despite these successes, the company frequently ran into periods of financial difficulties, as Dunham was required to support all of the 30 to 40 dancers and musicians. Richard Buckle's memoir The Adventures of a Ballet Critic (Cresset Press, 1953) contains extended descriptions of his association with Dunham and John Pratt during her company's residency in London in 1948 with A Caribbean Rhapsody , and Buckle's collaboration with Dunham on
26780-457: The company performed at the Goodman Theater and at the Abraham Lincoln Center. Dunham created Rara Tonga and Woman with a Cigar at this time, which became well known. With choreography characterized by exotic sexuality, both became signature works in the Dunham repertory. After her company performed successfully, Dunham was chosen as dance director of the Chicago Negro Theater Unit of the Federal Theatre Project . In this post, she choreographed
26986-466: The continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union". Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union". Many Africans dispersed throughout North America , South America , Europe , and Asia during
27192-477: The continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union." Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union." Between 1500 and 1900, approximately four million enslaved Africans were transported to island plantations in
27398-435: The cultural equation in American dance. Years later, after extensive studies and initiations in Haiti, she became a mambo in the Vodun religion. She also became friends with, among others, Dumarsais Estimé , then a high-level politician, who became president of Haiti in 1949. Somewhat later, she assisted him, at considerable risk to her life, when he was persecuted for his progressive policies and sent in exile to Jamaica after
27604-421: The dance forms of the Caribbean. One example of this was studying how dance manifests within Haitian Vodou . Dunham also received a grant to work with Professor Melville Herskovits of Northwestern University , whose ideas about retention of African culture among African Americans served as a base for her research in the Caribbean. After her research tour of the Caribbean in 1935, Dunham returned to Chicago in
27810-455: The day by arranging for the company to be paid to appear in a German television special, Karibische Rhythmen , after which they returned to the United States. Dunham's last appearance on Broadway was in 1962 in Bamboche! , which included a few former Dunham dancers in the cast and a contingent of dancers and drummers from the Royal Troupe of Morocco. It was not a success, closing after only eight performances. A highlight of Dunham's later career
28016-419: The development of her technique came out of a need for specialized dancers to support her choreographic visions and a greater yearning for technique that "said the things that [she] wanted to say." Dunham explains that while she admired the narrative quality of ballet technique, she wanted to develop a movement vocabulary that captured the essence of the Afro-Caribbean dancers she worked with during her travels. In
28222-450: The downtown Streeterville neighborhood of Chicago. The Center in Paris, a campus located on the left bank of the Seine in Paris, hosts various undergraduate and graduate study programs. In fall 2010, the university opened a center in Beijing, near Renmin University 's campus in Haidian District . The most recent additions are a center in New Delhi , India, which opened in 2014, and a center in Hong Kong which opened in 2018. In 2024,
28428-469: The earliest black presence in Canada came from the newly independent United States after the American Revolution; the British resettled African Americans (known as Black Loyalists ) primarily in Nova Scotia . These were primarily former slaves who had escaped to British lines for promised freedom during the Revolution. Later during the antebellum years, other individual African Americans escaped to Canada, mostly to locations in Southwestern Ontario , via
28634-433: The ensemble. Her dance career was interrupted in 1935 when she received funding from the Rosenwald Foundation which allowed her to travel to Jamaica, Martinique, Trinidad, and Haiti for eighteen months to explore each country's respective dance cultures. The result of this trip was Dunham's Master's thesis entitled "The Dances of Haiti". Having completed her undergraduate work at the University of Chicago and decided to pursue
28840-417: The establishment of the African diaspora, the transatlantic slave trade is often considered the defining element, but people of African descent have engaged in eleven other migration movements involving North America since the 16th century, many being voluntary migrations, although undertaken in exploitative and hostile environments. In the 1860s, people from sub-Saharan Africa , mainly from West Africa and
29046-449: The estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of an African country or people who have acquired Portuguese citizenship from 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are now Portuguese citizens . As of 2021, there were 1,206,701 Africans. They mainly live in the regions of Andalusia , Catalonia , Madrid and
29252-482: The first ever, hour-long American spectacular televised by NBC , when television was first beginning to spread across America. This was followed by television spectaculars filmed in London, Buenos Aires, Toronto, Sydney, and Mexico City. In 1950, Sol Hurok presented Katherine Dunham and Her Company in a dance revue at the Broadway Theater in New York, with a program composed of some of Dunham's best works. It closed after only 38 performances. The company soon embarked on
29458-412: The first large-scale African diasporas in the ancient world. In 517 AD, the Himyarite king Ma'adikarib was overthrown by Dhu Nuwas , a Jewish leader who began persecuting Christians and confiscating trade goods between Aksum and the Byzantine Empire , both of which were Christian nations. According to the Book of the Himyarites , a man identified as Bishop Thomas journeyed to Aksum to report on
29664-448: The global diaspora. Thinkers like W. E. B. Dubois and more recently Robin Kelley , for example, have argued that black politics of survival reveal more about the meaning of the African diaspora than labels of ethnicity and race, and degrees of skin hue. From this view, the daily struggle against what they call the "world-historical processes" of racial colonization, capitalism , and Western domination defines blacks' links to Africa. In
29870-409: The global top 10 for eleven consecutive years (from 2012 to 2022). The university's law and business schools rank among the top three professional schools in the United States. The business school is currently ranked first in the US by US News & World Report and first in the world by The Economist , while the law school is ranked third by US News & World Report and first by Above
30076-400: The gold mines of the Department of Antioquia. After this was no longer a profitable business, these slaves slowly moved to the Pacific coast, where they have remained unmixed with the white or Indian population until today. The whole Department of Chocó remains a black area. Mixture with white population happened mainly in the Caribbean coast, which is a mestizo area until today. There was also
30282-415: The huddle. Stagg is the namesake of the university's Stagg Field . The business school was founded in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902. Harper died in 1906 and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support and interpret archeological work in what was then called the Near East. In
30488-457: The largest forced migrations in human history. The economic effect on the African continent proved devastating, as generations of young people were taken from their communities and societies were disrupted. Some communities formed by descendants of African slaves in the Americas, Europe, and Asia have survived to the present day. In other cases, native Ethnic groups of Africans intermarried with non-native Africans, and their descendants blended into
30694-399: The last decades, studies on the African diaspora have shown an interest in the roles that Africans played in bringing about modernity. This trend also opposes the traditional eurocentric perspective that has dominated history books showing Africans and its diasporans as primitive victims of slavery, and without historical agency. According to historian Patrick Manning , blacks toiled at
30900-605: The late 19th century, the University of Chicago quickly became established as one of the wealthiest and, according to Henry S. Webber, one of the most prestigious universities in America. To elevate higher education standards and practices, the university was a founder of the Association of American Universities in 1900. According to Jonathan R. Cole , universities such as Chicago leveraged endowments to fund research, attracting accomplished faculty and producing academic advancements, leading to sustained growth and maintenance of their institutional profile such that Chicago has been among
31106-447: The late spring of 1936. In August she was awarded a bachelor's degree, a Ph.B., bachelor of philosophy, with her principal area of study being social anthropology . She was one of the first African-American women to attend this college and to earn these degrees. In 1938, using materials collected ethnographic fieldwork , Dunham submitted a thesis, The Dances of Haiti: A Study of Their Material Aspect, Organization, Form, and Function, . to
31312-463: The late-19th century, plus waves of vastly increased immigration from Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries, maintained much distinction between racial groups. In the early-20th century, to institutionalize racial segregation , most southern states adopted the " one drop rule ", which defined and recorded anyone with any discernible African ancestry as "black", even those of obvious majority native European or of majority-Native-American ancestry. One of
31518-412: The local population. In the Americas, the confluence of multiple ethnic groups from around the world contributed to multi-ethnic societies. In Central and South America , most people are descended from European, Native American , and African ancestry. In 1888, in Brazil nearly half the population descended from African slaves, the variation of physical characteristics extends across a broad range. In
31724-408: The loss of many working-class jobs, and unemployment was high in the city. After the 1968 riots following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. , Dunham encouraged gang members in the ghetto to come to the center to use drumming and dance to vent their frustrations. The PATC teaching staff was made up of former members of Dunham's touring company, as well as local residents. While trying to help
31930-441: The management of the impresario Sol Hurok , her troupe opened in Tropical Review at the Martin Beck Theater . Featuring lively Latin American and Caribbean dances, plantation dances, and American social dances, the show was an immediate success. The original two-week engagement was extended by popular demand into a three-month run, after which the company embarked on an extensive tour of the United States and Canada. In Boston, then
32136-413: The most beautiful college campuses in the United States. The first buildings of the campus, which make up what is now known as the Main Quadrangles, were part of a master plan conceived by two University of Chicago trustees and plotted by Chicago architect Henry Ives Cobb . The Main Quadrangles consist of six quadrangles , each surrounded by buildings, bordering one larger quadrangle. The buildings of
32342-457: The most distinguished research universities in the US for more than a century. The university is described by the Encyclopedia Britannica as "one of the United States' most outstanding universities". ARWU has consistently placed the University of Chicago among the top 10 universities in the world, and the 2021 QS World University Rankings placed the university in 9th place worldwide. THE World University Rankings has ranked it among
32548-437: The most fascinating thing in the world to learn". Her field work in the Caribbean began in Jamaica , where she lived for several months in the remote Maroon village of Accompong , deep in the mountains of Cockpit Country . (She later wrote Journey to Accompong , a book describing her experiences there.) Then she traveled to Martinique and to Trinidad and Tobago for short stays, primarily to do an investigation of Shango ,
32754-550: The negative view of American society that the ballet presented to foreign audiences. As a result, Dunham would later experience some diplomatic "difficulties" on her tours. The State Department regularly subsidized other less well-known groups, but it consistently refused to support her company (even when it was entertaining U.S. Army troops), although at the same time it did not hesitate to take credit for them as "unofficial artistic and cultural representatives". In 1950, while visiting Brazil , Dunham and her group were refused rooms at
32960-524: The new Aksumite king Kaleb first sent a group of Himyarite refugees in his Aksumite kingdom back into Himyar to stir up underground resistance against Dhu Nuwas. These discontented Himyarites then united under nobleman Sumyafa Ashwa . Kaleb successfully invaded Himyar with an Aksumite army in 525 and installed Sumyafa Ashwa to rule. More Aksumite soldiers remained in Himyar to claim land. The Byzantine ruler Justinian learned of this development and sent an ambassador, Julianus, to ally Aksum and Himyar with
33166-436: The number is larger, though most identify themselves as being of mixed, rather than strictly African, ancestry. In places like Brazil and the Dominican Republic, blackness is performed in more taboo ways than it is in, say, the United States. The idea behind Trey Ellis Cultural Mulatto comes into play as there are blurred lines between what is considered as black. In Colombia , the African slaves were first brought to work in
33372-443: The number of required courses from 21 to 15. When The New York Times , The Economist , and other major news outlets picked up this story, the university became the focal point of a national debate on education. The changes were ultimately implemented, but the controversy played a role in Sonnenschein's decision to resign in 2000. From the mid-2000s, the university began a number of multimillion-dollar expansion projects. In 2008,
33578-406: The only self-supported American black dance troupe at that time. Over her long career, she choreographed more than ninety individual dances. Dunham was an innovator in African-American modern dance as well as a leader in the field of dance anthropology , or ethnochoreology . She also developed the Dunham Technique, a method of movement to support her dance works. Katherine Mary Dunham was born on
33784-421: The other requirements for that degree, however, as she realized that her professional calling was performance and choreography. At the height of her career in the 1940s and 1950s, Dunham was renowned throughout Europe and Latin America and was widely popular in the United States. The Washington Post called her "dancer Katherine the Great." For almost 30 years she maintained the Katherine Dunham Dance Company ,
33990-493: The persecution of Christians in Himyar to the Aksumite Kingdom. As a result, the Aksumite king Ahayawa invaded Himyar. Dhu Nuwas fled this first invasion, and at least 580 Aksumite soldiers remained in Himyar. Himyarites who opposed Aksumite settlement united under Dhu Nuwas, and the formerly expelled king traveled back to kill the Aksumite soldiers and continue the oppression of Christians, forcing some settlers back into Aksum. In response to Dhu Nuwas's Christian persecution,
34196-416: The president are the provost, fourteen vice presidents (including the chief financial officer, chief investment officer , and vice president for campus life and student services), the directors of Argonne National Laboratory and Fermilab , the secretary of the university, and the student ombudsperson . As of May 2022, the current chairman of the board of trustees is David Rubenstein . The current provost
34402-431: The producer said she would have to replace some of her darker-skinned company members. She and her company frequently had difficulties finding adequate accommodations while on tour because in many regions of the country, black Americans were not allowed to stay at hotels. While Dunham was recognized as "unofficially" representing American cultural life in her foreign tours, she was given very little assistance of any kind by
34608-446: The prominence of Caribbean immigration, the term "African Canadian", while sometimes used to refer to the minority of Canadian blacks who have direct African or African-American heritage, is not normally used to denote black Canadians. Blacks of Caribbean origin are usually denoted as "West Indian Canadian", "Caribbean Canadian" or more rarely "Afro-Caribbean Canadian", but there remains no widely used alternative to "Black Canadian" which
34814-410: The results of this implementation was the loss of records of Native-identified groups, who were classified only as black because of being mixed-race. From the very onset of Spanish exploration and colonial activities in the Americas, Africans participated both as voluntary expeditionary and as slave laborers. Juan Garrido was such an African conquistador . He crossed the Atlantic as a freedman in
35020-591: The right to supply enslaved Africans in to Spanish colonies in the Americas, regulating the trade. As other European nations began establishing colonies in the Americas, these new colonies began importing enslaved Africans as well. During the 17th and 18th centuries, most European colonies in the Caribbean operated on plantation economies fueled by slave labor, and the resulting importation of enslaved Africans meant that Afro-Caribbeans soon far outnumbered their European enslavers in terms of population. Roughly eleven to twelve million enslaved Africans were transported to
35226-436: The show was so popular that the troupe repeated it for another ten Sundays. Based on this success, the entire company was engaged for the 1940 Broadway production Cabin in the Sky , staged by George Balanchine and starring Ethel Waters . With Dunham in the sultry role of temptress Georgia Brown, the show ran for 20 weeks in New York. It next moved to the West Coast for an extended run of performances there. The show created
35432-420: The structure and artistry of her technical institution. Dunham technique is also inviting to the influence of cultural movement languages outside of dance including karate and capoeira . Dunham is still taught at widely recognized dance institutions such as The American Dance Festival and The Ailey School . The Katherine Dunham Company toured throughout North America in the mid-1940s, performing as well in
35638-426: The student movement. In 1978, history scholar Hanna Holborn Gray , then the provost and acting president of Yale University , became president of the University of Chicago, a position she held for 15 years. She was the first woman in the United States to hold the presidency of a major university. In 1999, then-President Hugo Sonnenschein announced plans to relax the university's famed core curriculum , reducing
35844-797: The undergraduate College of the University of Chicago and four graduate research divisions: Biological Science, Humanities, Physical Science, and Social Science, which also include various organized institutes. In addition, the university includes eight professional schools, which also house academic research: the Booth School of Business ; Crown Family School of Social Work, Policy, and Practice ; Divinity School ; Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies ; Harris School of Public Policy ; Law School ; Pritzker School of Medicine ; and Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering . The university has additional campuses and centers in London, Paris, Beijing, Delhi, and Hong Kong, as well as in downtown Chicago. University of Chicago scholars have played
36050-402: The university agreed to pay $ 13.5 million to settle a lawsuit that it and other universities conspired to limit financial aid to students. The academic bodies of the University of Chicago consist of the College , four divisions of graduate research, seven professional schools, and the Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies . The university also contains a library system,
36256-444: The university created its first school in three decades, the Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering . On April 29, 2024, students at the University of Chicago set up an encampment on the university's main quad as a part of the nationwide movement in support of Palestine at institutions of higher learning across the country. The encampment was cleared by the University of Chicago Police Department on May 7. The main campus of
36462-433: The university opened the John W. Boyer Center in Paris, designed by architectural firm Studio Gang and nearly tripling the size of the Center in Paris which had opened in 2003. The university is governed by a board of trustees. The board of trustees oversees the long-term development and plans of the university and manages fundraising efforts, and is composed of 55 members including the university president. Directly beneath
36668-426: The university's Stagg Field . Advances in chemistry led to the "radiocarbon revolution" in the carbon-14 dating of ancient life and objects. The university research efforts include administration of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and Argonne National Laboratory , as well as the Marine Biological Laboratory . The university is also home to the University of Chicago Press , the largest university press in
36874-762: The university's Hyde Park neighborhood where they raised their children and where Barack Obama began his political career. Michelle Obama served as an administrator at the university and founded the university's Community Service Center. In November 2021, a university graduate was robbed and fatally shot on a sidewalk in a residential area in Hyde Park near campus; a total of three University of Chicago students were killed by gunfire incidents in 2021. These incidents prompted student protests and an open letter to university leadership signed by more than 300 faculty members. The university also maintains facilities apart from its main campus. The university's Booth School of Business maintains campuses in Hong Kong , London , and
37080-458: The university's fifth president, 30-year-old legal philosophy scholar Robert Maynard Hutchins , took office. The university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. Hutchins reformed the undergraduate college's liberal-arts curriculum known as the Common Core, organized the university's graduate work into four divisions, and eliminated varsity football from the university in an attempt to emphasize academics over athletics. During his term,
37286-406: The university's general education requirements, commonly known as the Core Curriculum. In 2012–2013, the Core classes at Chicago were limited to 17 courses, and are generally led by a full-time professor (as opposed to a teaching assistant ). As of the 2013–2014 school year, 15 courses and demonstrated proficiency in a foreign language are required under the Core. Undergraduate courses at
37492-455: The university's refusal to divest from South Africa in the 1980s and Darfur in the late 2000s. In 1969, more than 400 students, angry about the dismissal of a popular professor, Marlene Dixon , occupied the Administration Building for two weeks. After the sit-in ended, when Dixon turned down a one-year reappointment, 42 students were expelled and 81 were suspended, the most severe response to student occupations of any American university during
37698-467: The university, like Shimer College and 10 others, adopted an early entrant program that allowed very young students to attend college; also, students enrolled at Shimer were enabled to transfer automatically to the University of Chicago after their second year, having taken comparable or identical examinations and courses. The university experienced its share of student unrest during the 1960s, beginning in 1962 when then-freshman Bernie Sanders helped lead
37904-433: The university, to notify the university early of any contemplated faculty appointments or dismissals, to make no faculty appointment without the university's approval, and to send copies of examinations for suggestions. The University of Chicago agreed to confer a degree on any graduating senior from an affiliated school who made a grade of A for all four years, and on any other graduate who took twelve weeks additional study at
38110-418: The university—and a number of National Resource Centers , including the Center for Middle Eastern Studies . Chicago also operates or is affiliated with several research institutions apart from the university proper. The university manages Argonne National Laboratory , part of the United States Department of Energy 's national laboratory system, and co-manages Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) ,
38316-479: The world stage. The Jamaican Marcus Garvey formed the UNIA movement in the United States, continuing with Aimé Césaire 's négritude movement, which was intended to create a pan-African movement across national lines. From the 1960s, the decolonization of the Americas led to various Caribbean countries gaining their independence from European colonial rule. They were pre-eminent in creating new cultural forms such as calypso , reggae music , and Rastafari within
38522-402: The world. She established the Katherine Dunham Centers for Arts and Humanities in East St. Louis to preserve Haitian and African instruments and artifacts from her personal collection. In 1976, Dunham was guest artist-in-residence and lecturer for Afro-American studies at the University of California, Berkeley . A photographic exhibit honoring her achievements, entitled Kaiso! Katherine Dunham,
38728-417: The young people in the community, Dunham was arrested. This gained international headlines and the embarrassed local police officials quickly released her. She also continued refining and teaching the Dunham Technique to transmit that knowledge to succeeding generations of dance students. She lectured every summer until her death at annual Masters' Seminars in St. Louis, which attracted dance students from around
38934-468: Was 12 years old, called "Come Back to Arizona", was published in volume 2 of The Brownies' Book . She graduated from Joliet Central High School in 1928, where she played baseball, tennis, basketball, and track; served as vice-president of the French Club, and was on the yearbook staff. In high school she joined the Terpsichorean Club and began to learn a kind of modern dance based on the ideas of Europeans [Émile Jaques-Dalcroze] and [Rudolf von Laban]. At
39140-532: Was a member of the Committee on Institutional Cooperation from 1946 through June 29, 2016, when the group's name was changed to the Big Ten Academic Alliance . The University of Chicago is not a member of the rebranded consortium, but will continue to be a collaborator. The university operates more than 140 research centers and institutes on campus. Among these are the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, West Asia & North Africa —a museum and research center for Near Eastern studies owned and operated by
39346-537: Was an immediate sensation. In 1948, she opened A Caribbean Rhapsody , first at the Prince of Wales Theatre in London, and then took it to the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris. This was the beginning of more than 20 years during which Dunham performed with her company almost exclusively outside the United States. During these years, the Dunham company appeared in some 33 countries in Europe, North Africa, South America, Australia, and East Asia. Dunham continued to develop dozens of new productions during this period, and
39552-460: Was expanded and granted a charter as the Katherine Dunham School of Cultural Arts. The school was managed in Dunham's absence by Syvilla Fort , one of her dancers, and thrived for about 10 years. It was considered one of the best learning centers of its type at the time. Schools inspired by it were later opened in Stockholm, Paris, and Rome by dancers who had been trained by Dunham. Her alumni included many future celebrities, such as Eartha Kitt . As
39758-410: Was found that 29 collected official statistics on country of birth, 37 on citizenship, 24 on religion, 26 on language, 6 on country of birth of parents, and 22 on nationality or ethnicity. Estimates of 3 to 5 million of African descent, although one quarter of the Afro-French population live in overseas territories. This number is difficult to estimate because the French census does not use race as
39964-415: Was founded by a small group of Baptist educators in 1856 through a land endowment from Senator Stephen A. Douglas . It closed in 1886 after years of financial struggle and a final annus horribilis in which the campus was badly damaged by fire and the school was foreclosed on by its creditors. Several years later, its trustees elected to change the school's name to the " Old University of Chicago " so that
40170-472: Was highly influenced both by Sapir's viewpoint on culture being made up of rituals, beliefs, customs and artforms, and by Herkovits' and Redfield's studies highlighting links between African and African American cultural expression. It was in a lecture by Redfield that she learned about the relationship between dance and culture, pointing out that Black Americans had retained much of their African heritage in dances. Dunham's relationship with Redfield in particular
40376-460: Was highly influential. She wrote that he "opened the floodgates of anthropology" for her. He showed her the connection between dance and social life giving her the momentum to explore a new area of anthropology, which she later termed "Dance Anthropology". In 1935, Dunham was awarded travel fellowships from the Julius Rosenwald and Guggenheim foundations to conduct ethnographic fieldwork in Haiti , Jamaica , Martinique , and Trinidad studying
40582-431: Was mounted at the Women's Center on the campus. In 1978, an anthology of writings by and about her, also entitled Kaiso! Katherine Dunham , was published in a limited, numbered edition of 130 copies by the Institute for the Study of Social Change. Dunham technique is a codified dance training technique developed by Katherine Dunham in the mid 20th century. Commonly grouped into the realm of modern dance techniques, Dunham
40788-468: Was not yet common within the discipline of anthropology . However, it has now became a common practice within the discipline. She was one of the first researchers in anthropology to use her research of Afro-Haitian dance and culture for remedying racist misrepresentation of African culture in the miseducation of Black Americans. She felt it was necessary to use the knowledge she gained in her research to acknowledge that Africanist esthetics are significant to
40994-469: Was published in 1974. Throughout her career, Dunham occasionally published articles about her anthropological research (sometimes under the pseudonym of Kaye Dunn) and sometimes lectured on anthropological topics at universities and scholarly societies. In 1963 Dunham was commissioned to choreograph Aida at New York's Metropolitan Opera Company , with Leontyne Price in the title role. Members of Dunham's last New York Company auditioned to become members of
41200-446: Was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The Hyde Park campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans such as Silas B. Cobb , who provided the funds for the campus's first building, Cobb Lecture Hall , and matched Marshall Field's pledge of $ 100,000. Other early benefactors included businessmen Charles L. Hutchinson (trustee, treasurer and donor of Hutchinson Commons ), Martin A. Ryerson (president of
41406-556: Was that she knew she would be able to reach a broader public through dance, as opposed to the inaccessible institutions of academia. Never completing her required coursework for her graduate degree, she departed for Broadway and Hollywood . Despite her choosing dance, Dunham often voiced recognition of her debt to the discipline: "without [anthropology] I don't know what I would have done….In anthropology, I learned how to feel about myself in relation to other people…. You can't learn about dances until you learn about people. In my mind, it's
41612-440: Was the African princeling Abram Petrovich Gannibal , who became Peter's protégé, was educated as a military engineer in France, and eventually became general-en-chef, responsible for the building of sea forts and canals in Russia. During the 1930s fifteen Black American families moved to the Soviet Union as agricultural experts. As African states became independent in the 1960s, the Soviet Union offered their citizens
41818-533: Was the first independent sociology department in the United States and gave birth to the Chicago school of sociology . In physics, the university was the site of the Chicago Pile-1 (the first controlled, self-sustaining human-made nuclear chain reaction, part of the Manhattan Project ), of Robert Millikan 's oil-drop experiment that calculated the charge of the electron, and of the development of radiocarbon dating by Willard F. Libby in 1947. The chemical experiment that tested how life originated on early Earth,
42024-541: Was the invitation from New York's Metropolitan Opera to stage dances for a new production of Aida , starring soprano Leontyne Price . In 1963, she became the first African American to choreograph for the Met since Hemsley Winfield set the dances for The Emperor Jones in 1933. The critics acknowledged the historical research she did on dance in ancient Egypt, but they were not appreciative of her choreography as staged for this production. Subsequently, Dunham undertook various choreographic commissions at several venues in
42230-451: Was under severe personal strain, which was affecting her health. She decided to live for a year in relative isolation in Kyoto, Japan , where she worked on writing memoirs of her youth. The first work, entitled A Touch of Innocence: Memoirs of Childhood , was published in 1959. A continuation based on her experiences in Haiti , Island Possessed , was published in 1969. A fictional work based on her African experiences, Kasamance: A Fantasy ,
42436-418: Was valued at $ 10 billion. Since 2016, the university's board of trustees has resisted pressure from students and faculty to divest its investments from fossil fuel companies. Part of former university President Zimmer's financial plan for the university was an increase in accumulation of debt to finance large building projects. This drew both support and criticism from many in the university community. In 2023
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