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126-576: Shortly after the establishment of Charles University in 1348, the young institution encountered several organizational problems. One of the major complications was the lack of lecture and accommodation rooms for teachers and students. Emperor Charles IV, apparently inspired by the organization of the Sorbonne college in Paris and by the newly founded universities in Kraków (1364) and Vienna (1365), decided to donate to

252-551: A Bull of 1231 to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not only did he settle the dispute, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes). Most importantly, the pope granted the university the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction. The pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to collect

378-648: A century, people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study. The defeat of 1870 at the hands of Prussia was partially blamed on the growth of the superiority of the German university system of the 19th century, and led to another serious reform of the French university. In the 1880s, the "licence" (bachelor) degree is divided into, for the Faculty of Letters: Letters, Philosophy, History, Modern Languages, with French, Latin and Greek being requirements for all of them; and for

504-514: A ceremony which had been omitted during the Revolution. The sculpture on the pediment by Jean Guillaume Moitte , called The Fatherland crowning the heroic and civic virtues was replaced by a religious-themed work by David d'Angers . The reliquary of Saint Genevieve had been destroyed during the Revolution, but a few relics were found and restored to the church (They are now in the neighboring Church of Saint-Etienne-du-Mont ). In 1822 François Gérard

630-404: A chair in theology, the candidate had to be thirty years of age, with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools under the direction of a master. In Paris, one was regarded as a scholar only by studies with particular masters. Lastly, purity of morals

756-499: A choir, and two towers. The design was not finalised until 1777. The foundations were laid in 1758, but due to economic problems work proceeded slowly. In 1780, Soufflot died and was replaced by his student Jean-Baptiste Rondelet . The re-modelled Abbey of St. Genevieve was finally completed in 1790, shortly after the beginning of the French Revolution . The building is 110 metres long by 84 metres wide, and 83 metres high, with

882-674: A leader of the abolitionist movement, Victor Schœlcher ; early leader of Free France and colonial administrator Félix Éboué ; and Louis Braille , inventor of the Braille writing system, in 1952. Under the Fifth Republic of President Charles de Gaulle , the first person to be buried in the Panthéon was the Resistance leader Jean Moulin . Modern figures buried in recent years include Nobel Peace Prize winner René Cassin (1987) known for drafting

1008-484: A mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. His action followed a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub. In 1215, the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon , issued new rules governing who could become a professor. To teach the arts, a candidate had to be at least twenty-one, to have studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For

1134-418: A moderate fee for the conferring of the license of professorship. Also, for the first time, the scholars had to pay tuition fees for their education: two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund. The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector . The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion , legate of

1260-558: A new University of Paris was re-founded as a grouping of the Paris faculties of science, literature , law , medicine, Protestant theology and the École supérieure de pharmacie de Paris. It was inaugurated on November 19, 1896, by French President Félix Faure . In 1970, after the civil unrest of May 1968 , the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities, which today are the Sorbonne University , Panthéon-Sorbonne University ,

1386-557: A plaque in the Panthéon to more than 2,600 people recognised as Righteous Among the Nations by the Yad Vashem memorial in Israel for saving the lives of Jews who would otherwise have been deported to concentration camps. The tribute in the Panthéon underlines the fact that around three-quarters of the country's Jewish population survived the war, often thanks to ordinary people who provided help at

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1512-510: A result of being forced to pursue their studies in such shabby conditions. In 1966, after a student revolt in Paris, Christian Fouchet , minister of education, proposed "the reorganisation of university studies into separate two- and four-year degrees, alongside the introduction of selective admission criteria" as a response to overcrowding in lecture halls. Dissatisfied with these educational reforms, students began protesting in November 1967, at

1638-459: A statue representing Fame. The project was however abandoned. Between 1830 and 1851, a flag was put instead. The cross returned after Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte restored the building to church use. The cross was replaced with a red flag during the Paris Commune in 1871. A cross returned subsequently. Looking up from the crossing of the transept beneath the dome, the painting by Jean-Antoine Gros ,

1764-692: Is centred around Louis XVIII , the last King of the Restoration, and his niece, looking up into the clouds at the martyred Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette . The angels in the scene are carrying the Chartre , the document by which Louis XVIII re-established the church after the French Revolution. The four pendentives, or arches, which support the dome are decorated with paintings from the same period by François Gérard depicting Glory , Death , The Nation and Justice (1821–37). The façade and peristyle on

1890-533: Is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scots college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville . The Collège de Montaigu

2016-444: Is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently, the schools of Saint-Victor might well have contributed to its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. This is debatable and through the period, theology was taught. The chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased if his abbey had no part in

2142-527: The Decretum Gratiani brought about a division of the theology department. Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was taught. In France, first Orléans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law. Before

2268-453: The Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux , Abélard , and Peter Lombard . Humanistic instruction comprised grammar , rhetoric , dialectics , arithmetic , geometry , music, and astronomy ( trivium and quadrivium ). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology , whose source

2394-617: The Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve (1811–1834), is visible through the opening in the lowest cupola. The triangle in the center symbolizes the Trinity, surrounded by a halo of light. The Hebrew characters spell the name of God. The only character seen in full is Saint Genevieve herself, seated on a rocky promontory. The groups around the painting, made during the Restoration of the Monarchy, represent Kings of France who played an important role in protecting

2520-968: The Assas University , the Sorbonne Nouvelle University , the Paris Cité University , the PSL University , the Saclay University , the Nanterre University , the Sorbonne Paris North University , the Paris-East Créteil University and the Paris 8 University . The Chancellerie des Universités de Paris inherited the heritage assets of the University of Paris, including the Sorbonne building,

2646-625: The Foucault Pendulum of astronomer Léon Foucault was hung beneath the dome to illustrate the rotation of the earth. However, on complaints from the Church, it was removed in December of the same year. Louis Napoléon , nephew of the Emperor, was elected President of France in December 1848, and in 1852 staged a coup-d'état and made himself Emperor. Once again the Pantheon was returned to the church, with

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2772-578: The Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations . Henry of Unna was proctor of the University of Paris in the 14th century, beginning his term on January 13, 1340. The "nations" appeared in

2898-468: The Sorbonne ( French: [sɔʁbɔn] ), was the leading university in Paris , France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during the French Revolution . Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated with the cathedral school of Paris, it was considered the second-oldest university in Europe . Officially chartered in 1200 by King Philip II and recognised in 1215 by Pope Innocent III , it

3024-467: The Sorbonne the next day, and many students were arrested in the following week. Barricades were erected throughout the Latin Quarter , and a massive demonstration took place on 13 May, gathering students and workers on strike. The number of workers on strike reached about nine million by 22 May. As explained by Bill Readings: De Gaulle responded on May 24 by calling for a referendum, and [...]

3150-565: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ; Jean Monnet (1988) who was a moving force in the creation of the ECSC , the forerunner of the EU , was interred in the 100th anniversary of his birth; Nobel laureates physicists and chemists Marie Curie and Pierre Curie (1995); the writer and culture minister André Malraux (1996); and the lawyer, politician Simone Veil (2018). In 2021, Josephine Baker

3276-569: The University of Bologna ) became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure , to signify they were under the protection of the church. Students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the king's laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, and its official had to appeal to Church courts for justice. Students were often very young, entering

3402-400: The faculty of arts or letters . The territories covered by the four nations were: To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris gradually divided into faculties. Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups. The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But

3528-513: The " La Sorbonne " brand, control of the inter-university libraries, and management of the staff of the Paris universities (until 2007). In 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the cathedral school of Paris . The earliest historical reference to it is found in Matthew Paris 's reference to the studies of his own teacher (an abbot of St Albans ) and his acceptance into "the fellowship of

3654-640: The "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school." Thus a certain Adam , who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont "; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change " ( Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris, I, 272). The number of students in

3780-403: The 13th, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). Thus the University of Paris assumed its basic form. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Men who had studied at Paris became an increasing presence in the high ranks of the Church hierarchy; eventually, students at

3906-598: The 1962–63 academic year to 500,000 in 1967–68, but at the start of the decade, there were only 16 public universities in the entire country. To accommodate this rapid growth, the government hastily developed bare-bones off-site faculties as annexes of existing universities (roughly equivalent to American satellite campuses ). These faculties did not have university status of their own and lacked academic traditions and amenities to support student life or resident professors. One-third of all French university students ended up in these new faculties, and were ripe for radicalization as

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4032-426: The 21st century, and a major restoration project to replace them was carried out between 2010 and 2020. The dome is actually three domes, fitting within each other. The first, lowest dome, has a coffered ceiling with rosettes, and is open in the centre. Looking through this dome, the second dome is visible, decorated with the fresco The Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve by Antoine Gros . The outermost dome, visible from

4158-479: The Assembly decreed "that this religious church become a temple of the nation, that the tomb of a great man become the altar of liberty." They also approved a new text over the entrance: "A grateful nation honors its great men." On the same day the declaration was approved, the funeral of Mirabeau was held in the church. The ashes of Voltaire were placed in the Panthéon in a lavish ceremony on 11 July 1791, followed by

4284-543: The Collège de Navarre; in 1677 it was awarded possession of the Collège des Lombards. A new Irish College was built in 1769 in rue du Cheval Vert (now rue des Irlandais), which exists today as the Irish Chaplaincy and Cultural centre. In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville , a cardinal and Apostolic legate , reformed the university, correcting its perceived abuses and introducing various modifications. This reform

4410-569: The Commune soldiers and the French Army. During the early years of the Third Republic , under conservative governments, it functioned as a church, but the interior walls were largely bare. Beginning in 1874, the interior was redecorated with new murals and sculptural groups linking French history and the history of the church, by notable artists including Puvis de Chavannes and Alexandre Cabanel , and

4536-550: The Dominican Republic, Gabon, Guinea, Iraq, Jordan, Kosovo, Tunisia, and Niger among others. Panth%C3%A9on The Panthéon ( French: [pɑ̃.te.ɔ̃] , from Ancient Greek πάνθειον (pántheion)  '[temple] to all the gods') is a monument in the 5th arrondissement of Paris , France. It stands in the Latin Quarter (Quartier latin), atop the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève , in

4662-609: The Emperor Josef II expressed his dissatisfaction with the state of the "seat of muses" . It was even planned to sell the building, but in 1802 it was decided that Karolinum would remain in the hands of the Charles University. The decision was apparently influenced by renewed romantic and patriotic enthusiasm, (regarding the historical building as a significant monument for education in Bohemia). From 1879 to 1881, several parts of

4788-584: The Faculty of Science, into: Mathematics, Physical Sciences and Natural Sciences; the Faculty of Theology is abolished by the Republic. At this time, the building of the Sorbonne was fully renovated. The student revolts of the late 1960s were caused in part by the French government's failure to plan for a sudden explosion in the number of university students as a result of the postwar baby boom . The number of French university students skyrocketed from only 280,000 during

4914-562: The French Revolution, the university was closed and, by Item 27 of the Revolutionary Convention, the college endowments and buildings were sold. A new University of France replaced it in 1806 with four independent faculties: the Faculty of Humanities ( French : Faculté des Lettres ), the Faculty of Law (later including Economics), the Faculty of Science, the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Theology (closed in 1885). In 1896,

5040-616: The French Revolution; a statue of Mirabeau , the first man interred in the Pantheon, by Jean-Antoine Ingabert; (1889–1920); and two patriotic murals in the apse Victory Leading the Armies of the Republic to Towards Glory by Édouard Detaille , and Glory Entering the Temple, Followed by Poets, Philosophers, Scientists and Warriors , by Marie-Désiré-Hector d'Espouy (1906). The short-lived Fourth Republic (1948–1958) following World War II pantheonized two physicists, Paul Langevin and Jean Perrin ;

5166-697: The Marquis de Vilette proposed that it be made a temple devoted to liberty, on the model of the Pantheon in Rome. "Let us install statues of our great men and lay their ashes to rest in its underground recesses." The idea was formally adopted in April, 1791, after the death of the prominent revolutionary figure, The Comte de Mirabeau , the President of the National Constituent Assembly on April 2, 1791. On April 4, 1791,

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5292-469: The Middle Ages. Her relics were kept in the church, and were brought out for solemn processions when dangers threatened the city. King Louis XV vowed in 1744 that if he recovered from his illness he would replace the dilapidated church of the Abbey of St Genevieve with a grander building worthy of the patron saint of Paris. He did recover, but ten years passed before the reconstruction and enlargement of

5418-635: The Narthex, depicting the lives of Saint Denis , the patron saint of Paris, and longer series on the life of Saint Genevieve , by Puvis de Chavannes , Alexandre Cabanel , Jules Eugène Lenepveu and other notable history painters of the 19th century. The paintings of the Southern nave and Northern Nave continue this series on the Christian heroes of France, including scenes from the lives of Charlemagne , Clovis , Louis IX of France and Joan of Arc . From 1906 to 1922

5544-439: The Pantheon who had not been dead at least ten years. Soon after the church was transformed into a mausoleum, the Assembly approved architectural changes to make the interior darker and more solemn. The architect Quatremère de Quincy bricked up the lower windows and frosted the glass of the upper windows to reduce the light, and removed most of the ornament from the exterior. The architectural lanterns and bells were removed from

5670-407: The Panthéon is an early example of Neoclassicism , surmounted by a dome that owes some of its character to Bramante 's Tempietto . In 1851, Léon Foucault conducted a demonstration of diurnal motion at the Panthéon by suspending a pendulum from the ceiling, a copy of which is still visible today . As of December 2021 the remains of 81 people (75 men and six women) had been transferred to

5796-516: The Panthéon was the site of Auguste Rodin 's famous sculpture The Thinker . In 1851, physicist Léon Foucault demonstrated the rotation of the Earth by constructing a 67-metre (220 ft) pendulum beneath the central dome. The original sphere from the pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon in the 1990s (starting in 1995) during renovations at the Musée des Arts et Métiers . The original pendulum

5922-486: The Panthéon's purpose resulted in modifications of the pedimental sculptures and the capping of the dome by a cross or a flag; some of the originally existing windows were blocked up with masonry in order to give the interior a darker and more funereal atmosphere, which compromised somewhat Soufflot's initial attempt at combining the lightness and brightness of the Gothic cathedral with classical principles. The architecture of

6048-573: The Panthéon. More than half of all the panthéonisations were made under Napoleon 's rule during the First Empire . The site of the Panthéon had great significance in Paris history, and was occupied by a series of monuments. It was on Mount Lucotitius, a height on the Left Bank where the forum of the Roman town of Lutetia was located. It was also the original burial site of Saint Genevieve , who had led

6174-624: The Panthéon. Draped in a blue-velvet cloth inscribed with the Musketeers' motto " Un pour tous, tous pour un " ("One for all, all for one"), the remains had been transported from their original interment site in the Cimetière de Villers-Cotterêts in Aisne , France. In his speech, President Jacques Chirac stated that an injustice was being corrected with the proper honouring of one of France's greatest authors. In January 2007, President Jacques Chirac unveiled

6300-409: The Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for the knowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men". Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution

6426-433: The University of Paris saw it as a right that they would be eligible to benefices. Church officials such as St. Louis and Clement IV lavishly praised the university. Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other collegia provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students:

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6552-467: The University of Paris. A few of the colleges of the time are still visible close to the Panthéon and Jardin du Luxembourg : Collège des Bernardins (18 rue de Poissy, 5th arr. ), Hôtel de Cluny (6 Place Paul Painlevé, 5th arr.), Collège Sainte-Barbe (4 rue Valette, 5th arr.), Collège d'Harcourt (44 Boulevard Saint-Michel, 6th arr. ), and Cordeliers (21 rue École de Médecine, 6th arr.). In 1793, during

6678-450: The applicant deserved it. The school of Saint-Victor, under the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter. The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their chancellor , gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction. Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, there were several schools on

6804-545: The army (Jourdain, Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle , 132–34; Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique ). The ancient university disappeared with the ancien régime in the French Revolution . On 15 September 1793, petitioned by the Department of Paris and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primary schools, "there should be established in

6930-508: The artist Antoine-Auguste-Ernest Hébert, who made a mosaic under the vault of the apsidal chapel called Christ Showing the Angel of France the Destiny of Her People . In 1881, a decree was passed to transform the Church of Saint Genevieve into a mausoleum again. Victor Hugo was the first to be placed in the crypt afterwards. The subsequent governments approved the entry of literary figures, including

7056-470: The assurance of military support, announced [general] elections [within] forty days. [...] Over the next two months, the strikes were broken (or broke up) while the election was won by the Gaullists with an increased majority. Following the disruption, de Gaulle appointed Edgar Faure as minister of education; Faure was assigned to prepare a legislative proposal for reform of the French university system, with

7182-475: The building a few years later. The Panthéon was twice restored to church usage in the course of the 19th century—although Soufflot's remains were transferred inside it in 1829—until the French Third Republic finally decreed the building's exclusive use as a mausoleum in 1881. The placement of Victor Hugo 's remains in the crypt in 1885 was its first entombment in over 50 years. The successive changes in

7308-713: The building were rebuilt in the Neo-Gothic style by the architect Josef Mocker . Following the World War I and the establishment of the Czechoslovak state , the buildings of Karolinum remained a property of the Charles University. Karolinum is a National Cultural Monument of the Czech Republic . The official publishing house of Charles University is named Karolinum. University of Paris The University of Paris (French: Université de Paris ), known metonymically as

7434-406: The campus of the University of Paris in Nanterre ; indeed, according to James Marshall, these reforms were seen "as the manifestations of the technocratic-capitalist state by some, and by others as attempts to destroy the liberal university". After student activists protested against the Vietnam War , the campus was closed by authorities on 22 March and again on 2 May 1968. Agitation spread to

7560-456: The case of the Flagellants . Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis   XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in

7686-406: The centre of the Place du Panthéon , which was named after it. The edifice was built between 1758 and 1790, from designs by Jacques-Germain Soufflot , at the behest of King Louis XV of France ; the king intended it as a church dedicated to Saint Genevieve , Paris's patron saint, whose relics were to be housed in the church. Neither Soufflot nor Louis XV lived to see the church completed. By

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7812-419: The church was begun. In 1755 The Director of the King's public works, Abel-François Poisson, marquis de Marigny , chose Jacques-Germain Soufflot to design the church. Soufflot (1713–1780) had studied classical architecture in Rome over 1731–38. Most of his early work was done in Lyon. Saint Genevieve became his life's work; it was not finished until after his death. His first design was completed in 1755, and

7938-402: The church. To the left of Saint Genevieve is a group including Clovis , the first King to convert to Christianity. The second group is centred around Charlemagne , who created the first universities. The third group is centred around Louis IX of France , or Saint Louis, with the Crown of Thorns which he brought back from the Holy Land to place in the church of Sainte-Chapelle . The last group

8064-399: The church; it showed the Genevieve being conducted to heaven by angels, in the presence of great leaders of France, from Clovis I and Charlemagne to Napoleon and the Empress Josephine . During the reign of Napoleon, the remains of forty-one illustrious Frenchmen were placed in the crypt. They were mostly military officers, senators and other high officials of the Empire, but also included

8190-421: The corporation to operate under ecclesiastic law which would be governed by the elders of the Notre-Dame Cathedral school , and assured all those completing courses there that they would be granted a diploma. The university had four faculties : Arts , Medicine, Law, and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of

8316-462: The crypt beneath of the same size. The ceiling was supported by isolated columns, which supported an array of barrel vaults and transverse arches . The massive dome was supported by pendentives rested upon four massive pillars. Critics of the plan contended that the pillars could not support such a large dome. Soufflot strengthened the stone structure with a system of iron rods, a predecessor of modern reinforced buildings. The bars had deteriorated by

8442-406: The department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of the university. It

8568-510: The east side, modeled after a Greek temple, features Corinthian columns and pedimental sculpture by David d'Angers , completed in 1837. The sculpture on this pediment, replacing an early pediment with religious themes, represents "The Nation distributing crowns handed to her by Liberty to great men, civil and military, while history inscribes their names". To the left are figures of distinguished scientists, philosophers, and statesmen, including Rousseau , Voltaire , Lafayette , and Bichat . To

8694-496: The elect Masters" there in about 1170, and it is known that Lotario dei Conti di Segni, the future Pope Innocent III , completed his studies there in 1182 at the age of 21. Its first college was the Collège des Dix-Huit , established in 1180 by an Englishman named Josse and endowed for 18 poor scholars. The corporation was formally recognised as an " Universitas " in an edict by King Philippe-Auguste in 1200: in it, among other accommodations granted to future students, he allowed

8820-461: The end of the twelfth century, the Decretals of Gerard La Pucelle , Mathieu d'Angers , and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris , were added to the Decretum Gratiani. However, civil law was not included at Paris. In the twelfth century, medicine began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit . Professors were required to have measurable knowledge and be appointed by

8946-408: The explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville and the painter Joseph-Marie Vien , the teacher of Napoleon's official painter, Jacques-Louis David . During the Bourbon Restoration which followed the fall of Napoleon, in 1816 Louis XVIII of France restored the entire Panthéon, including the crypt, to the Catholic Church. The church was also at last officially consecrated in the presence of the King,

9072-540: The façade. All of the religious friezes and statues were destroyed in 1791; it was replaced by statuary and murals on patriotic themes. Napoleon Bonaparte , when he became First Consul in 1801, signed a Concordat with the Pope, agreeing to restore former church properties, including the Panthéon. The Panthéon was under the jurisdiction of the canons of the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris . Celebrations of important events, such as

9198-433: The four faculties were already formally established by 1254, when the university described in a letter "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties—e.g., they were the first to adopt an official seal. The faculties of theology, canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of " Dean " as designating

9324-455: The head of a faculty, came into use by 1268 in the faculties of law and medicine, and by 1296 in the faculty of theology. It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, law and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually

9450-403: The help of academics. Their proposal was adopted on 12 November 1968; in accordance with the new law, the faculties of the University of Paris were to reorganize themselves. This led to the division of the University of Paris into 13 universities. In 2017, Paris 4 and Paris 6 universities merged to form the Sorbonne University . In 2019, Paris 5 and Paris 7 universities merged to form

9576-549: The higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin: France, Normandy, Picardy, and England. The last came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English–German nation included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of

9702-531: The injury. Besides its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part in several disputes: in the Church, during the Great Schism ; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and divisions; in the State, during national crises. Under the domination of England it played a role in the trial of Joan of Arc . Proud of its rights and privileges, the University of Paris fought energetically to maintain them, hence

9828-610: The links between the crowns of France and Navarre, it quickly accepted students from other nations. The establishment of the College of Navarre was a turning point in the university's history: Navarra was the first college to offer teaching to its students, which at the time set it apart from all previous colleges, founded as charitable institutions that provided lodging, but no tuition. Navarre's model combining lodging and tuition would be reproduced by other colleges, both in Paris and other universities . The German College, Collegium alemanicum

9954-478: The long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits , who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made extensive use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in

10080-433: The name University . Henry Denifle and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. He excludes Saint-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of Saint-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was largely founded about 1208, as

10206-625: The new Paris Cité University , leaving the number of successor universities at 11. The successor universities to the University of Paris are now split over of the Île-de-France region. Most of these successor universities have joined several groups of universities and higher education institutions in the Paris region, created in the 2010s. The Sorbonne has educated 11 French presidents , almost 50 French heads of government, three Popes ( Innocent III , Celestine II , and Adrian IV ), and many other political and social figures. The Sorbonne has also educated leaders of Albania, Canada,

10332-812: The oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum , founded in 1257. Swedish students could, during the 13th and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense , the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense , named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala , Skara and Linköping . The Collège de Navarre was founded in 1305, originally aimed at students from Navarre , but due to its size, wealth, and

10458-413: The outside, is built of stone bound together with iron cramps and covered with lead sheathing, rather than of carpentry construction, as was the common French practice of the period. Concealed buttresses inside the walls give additional support to the dome. The Church of Saint Genevieve was nearly complete, with only the interior decoration unfinished, when the French Revolution began in 1789. In 1790,

10584-410: The owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); meaning not centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses. Each had a special goal, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science. Often, masters lived in each college and oversaw its activities. Four colleges appeared in the 12th century; they became more numerous in

10710-511: The purposes of the school. The architectural shape of Karolinum changed significantly during its history. In the early 18th century, it was rebuilt in Baroque style, according to the plans of the architect František Maxmilián Kaňka . However, the reconstruction was only provisional and the structural condition of the building in the following decades was very bad. In 1786, during a visit in Karolinum,

10836-616: The queen led to suspension of the courses. The pope intervened with a bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX , "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university, but by the end of 1230 they had accomplished nothing. Gregory IX then addressed

10962-424: The remains of Voltaire were stolen by religious fanatics in 1814 and thrown into a garbage heap is false. Such rumours resulted in the coffin being opened in 1897, which confirmed that his remains were still present. On 30 November 2002, in an elaborate but solemn procession, six Republican Guards carried the coffin of Alexandre Dumas (1802–1870), the author of The Three Musketeers and other famous novels, to

11088-607: The remains of several revolutionaries, including Jean-Paul Marat , replacing Mirabeau and of the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau . In the rapid shifts of power of the Revolutionary period, two of the first men honored in Pantheon, Mirabeau and Marat, were declared enemies of the Revolution, and their remains were removed. Finally, the new government of the French Convention decreed in February, 1795 that no one should be placed in

11214-506: The resistance to the Huns when they threatened Paris in 451. In 508, Clovis , King of the Franks, constructed a church there, where he and his wife were later buried in 511 and 545. The church, originally dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul, was rededicated to Saint Genevieve, who became the patron saint of Paris. It was at the centre of the Abbey of Saint Genevieve , a centre of religious scholarship in

11340-543: The revolutionaries, led by informal action committees, attacked and burned the Paris Stock Exchange in response. The Gaullist government then held talks with union leaders, who agreed to a package of wage-rises and increases in union rights. The strikers, however, simply refused the plan. With the French state tottering, de Gaulle fled France on May 29 for a French military base in Germany. He later returned and, with

11466-496: The right is Napoleon Bonaparte , along with soldiers from each military service and students in uniform from the École Polytechnique . Below is the inscription: "To the great men, from a grateful nation" ("Aux grands hommes la patrie reconnaissante"). This was added in 1791, when the Panthéon was created. It was removed during the Restoration of the monarchy, then put back in 1830. Below the peristyle are five sculpted bas-reliefs;

11592-521: The risk of their own life. This plaque says: Sous la chape de haine et de nuit tombée sur la France dans les années d'Occupation, des lumières, par milliers, refusèrent de s'éteindre. Nommés " Justes parmi les nations " ou restés anonymes, des femmes et des hommes, de toutes origines et de toutes conditions, ont sauvé des juifs des persécutions antisémites et des camps d'extermination. Bravant les risques encourus, ils ont incarné l'honneur de la France, ses valeurs de justice, de tolérance et d'humanité. Under

11718-527: The school a new college. In 1366, the university received the house of the Jew Lazar, located in the Prague's Old Town. However, the school was donated really representative rooms only in the early 1380s by Wenceslaus , the son of Charles IV. For this purpose, Wenceslaus chose a residence of the wealthy German merchant Johlin (Jan) Rotlev. Rotlev's son Martin (who financed the second oldest German translation of Bible )

11844-464: The school at 13 or 14 years of age and staying for six to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris: the palatine or palace school , the school of Notre-Dame , and that of Sainte-Geneviève Abbey . The latter two, although ancient, were initially eclipsed by the palatine school, until the decline of royalty brought about its decline. The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève

11970-596: The school of the capital grew constantly, so that lodgings were insufficient. French students included princes of the blood , sons of the nobility, and ranking gentry. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them. Popes Celestine II , Adrian IV and Innocent III studied at Paris, and Alexander III sent his nephews there. Noted German and English students included Otto of Freisingen , Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz , St. Thomas of Canterbury , and John of Salisbury ; while Ste-Geneviève became practically

12096-425: The second dome. The dome is 83.0 metres (272 ft) high, compared with the tallest dome in the world , St. Peter's Basilica at 136.57 metres (448.1 ft). The dome is capped by a cross. However, a statue of Saint Genevieve was initially supposed to sit at the top of the dome. A cross was put temporarily in 1790. After the transformation into a mausoleum in 1791, it was planned that the cross would be replaced by

12222-632: The second half of the twelfth century. They were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222. Later, they formed a distinct body. By 1249, the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries: the nations were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War, the English nation was replaced by the Germanic. The four nations constituted

12348-435: The seminary for Denmark . The chroniclers of the time called Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens , Alexandria , Rome, and other cities: "At that time, there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world." ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets extolled

12474-401: The students demanded lower. This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation. It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens. The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from

12600-500: The superior faculties included only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the faculty of arts. At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees , the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate and the DEA became intermediate degrees. The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult. Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while

12726-545: The time the construction was finished, the French Revolution had started; the National Constituent Assembly voted in 1791 to transform the Church of Saint Genevieve into a mausoleum for the remains of distinguished French citizens, modelled on the Pantheon in Rome which had been used in this way since the 17th century. The first panthéonisé was Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau , although his remains were removed from

12852-507: The title of "National Basilica". The remaining relics of Saint Genevieve were restored to the church, and two groups of sculpture commemorating events in the life of the Saint were added. The crypt remained closed. The Basilica suffered damage from German shelling during the 1870 Franco-Prussian War . During the brief reign of the Paris Commune in May 1871, it suffered more damage during fighting between

12978-468: The two reliefs over the main doors, commissioned during the Revolution, represent the two main purposes of the building: "Public Education" (left) and "Patriotic Devotion" (right). The façade originally had large windows, but they were replaced when the church became a mausoleum, to make the interior darker and more somber. The primary decoration of the Western Nave is a series of paintings, beginning in

13104-528: The university in their verses, comparing it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world. To allow poor students to study the first college des dix-Huit was founded by a knight returning from Jerusalem called Josse of London for 18 scholars who received lodgings and 12 pence or denarii a month. As the university developed, it became more institutionalized. First, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris , John of Celles , twenty-first Abbot of St Albans , England,

13230-402: The university organization. In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris," which affirmed that students were subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless to transfer him to ecclesiastical authority. The king's officers could not intervene with any member unless having

13356-403: The university. Applicants had to be assessed by examination ; if successful, the examiner, who was the head of the school, and known as scholasticus , capiscol , and chancellor, appointed an individual to teach. This was called the licence or faculty to teach. The licence had to be granted freely. No one could teach without it; on the other hand, the examiner could not refuse to award it when

13482-448: The victory of Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz , were held there. However, the crypt of the church kept its official function as the resting place for illustrious Frenchmen. A new entrance directly to the crypt was created via the eastern porch (1809–1811). The artist Antoine-Jean Gros was commissioned to decorate the interior of the cupola. It combined the secular and religious aspects of

13608-433: The writer Émile Zola (1908), and, after World War I , leaders of the French socialist movement, including Léon Gambetta (1920) and Jean Jaurès (1924). The Third Republic governments also decreed that the building should be decorated with sculpture representing "the golden ages and great men of France." The principal works remaining from this period include the sculptural group called The National Assembly , commemorating

13734-685: Was Hubold , who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège , he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres ; Drogo of Paris ; Manegold of Germany ; and Anselm of Laon . These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów , Bishop of Kraków; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg ; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux ; Robert d'Arbrissel , founder of

13860-460: Was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses ( Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban ). The masters, as well as the students, were divided according to national origin,. Alban wrote that Henry II, King of England , in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wanted to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This

13986-404: Was as important as reading. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent. In 1229, a denial of justice by

14112-447: Was buried with his wife Mme Sophie Berthelot. Marie Curie was interred in 1995, the first woman interred on merit. Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz and Germaine Tillion , heroines of the French resistance , were interred in 2015. Simone Veil was interred in 2018, and her husband Antoine Veil was interred alongside her so that they would not be separated. The widely repeated story that

14238-451: Was clearly influenced by the work of Bramante he had studied in Italy. It took form of a Greek cross , with four naves of equal length, and monumental dome over the crossing in the centre, and a classical portico with Corinthian columns and a peristyle with a triangular pediment on the main façade. The design was modified five times over the following years, with the addition of a narthex ,

14364-548: Was closely linked with the court and supported the reformist tendencies of the university. Though it is known that Martin Rotlev inherited the palace, the way by which it passed into the possession of the university remains unknown. The coat of arms of the Rotlev family is a part of the decoration of an oriel window of the college. In addition to the Rotlev Palace, King Wenceslaus also bought the surrounding buildings and rebuilt them for

14490-460: Was commissioned to decorate the pendentives of the dome with new works representing Justice, Death, the Nation, and Fame. Jean-Antoine Gros was commissioned to redo his fresco on the inner dome, replacing Napoleon with Louis XVIII , as well as figures of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette . The new version of the cupola was inaugurated in 1824 by Charles X . As to the crypt where the tombs were located, it

14616-657: Was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck , when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Ignatius of Loyola ) and those who subsequently became Protestants ( John Calvin and John Knox ). At this time, the university also went the controversy of the condemnations of 1210–1277 . The Irish College in Paris originated in 1578 with students dispersed between Collège Montaigu, Collège de Boncourt, and

14742-485: Was inducted into the Pantheon. The final plan of the dome was accepted in 1777, and it was completed in 1790. It was designed to rival those of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and St Paul's Cathedral in London. Unlike the dome of Les Invalides in Paris, which has a wooden framework, the dome is constructed entirely of stone. It is actually three domes, one within the other, with the painted ceiling, visible from below, on

14868-817: Was later returned to the Musée des Arts et Métiers , and a copy is now displayed at the Panthéon. It has been listed since 1920 as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture . Interment in the crypt of the Panthéon is severely restricted and is allowed only by a parliamentary act for "National Heroes". Similar high honours exist in Les Invalides for historical military leaders such as Napoléon , Turenne and Vauban . Among those buried in its necropolis are Voltaire , Rousseau , Victor Hugo , Émile Zola , Jean Moulin , Louis Braille , Jean Jaurès and Soufflot, its architect. In 1907 Marcellin Berthelot

14994-446: Was less an innovation than a recall to observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government with regard to the three higher faculties. Nonetheless, and as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod , Plato , Demosthenes , Cicero , Virgil , and Sallust . The prohibition from teaching civil law

15120-501: Was likely the start of the division according to "nations," which was later to play an important part in the university. Celestine III ruled that both professors and students had the privilege of being subject only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts. The three schools: Notre-Dame, Sainte-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, may be regarded as the triple cradle of the Universitas scholarium , which included masters and students; hence

15246-399: Was locked and closed to visitors. The French Revolution of 1830 placed Louis Philippe I on the throne. He expressed sympathy for Revolutionary values, and on 26 August 1830, the church once again became the Pantheon. However, the crypt remained closed to the public, and no new remains were added. The only change made was to the main pediment, which had been remade with a radiant cross; it

15372-421: Was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV officially authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals . The "faculty of law" hence replaced the "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying

15498-550: Was nicknamed after its theological College of Sorbonne , founded by Robert de Sorbon and chartered by King Louis IX around 1257. Highly reputed internationally for its academic performance in the humanities ever since the Middle Ages – particularly in theology and philosophy – it introduced academic standards and traditions that have endured and spread, such as doctoral degrees and student nations . Notable popes , royalty , scientists, and intellectuals were educated at

15624-461: Was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, no more than those of the provinces. The university was re-established by Napoleon on 1 May 1806. All the faculties were replaced by a single centre, the University of France . The decree of 17 March 1808 created five distinct faculties: Law, Medicine, Letters/Humanities, Sciences, and Theology; traditionally, Letters and Sciences had been grouped together into one faculty, that of "Arts". After

15750-565: Was remade again by D'Angers with a patriotic work called The Nation Distributing Crowns Handed to Her by Liberty, to Great Men, Civil and Military, While History Inscribes Their Names. Louis Philippe was overthrown in 1848 and replaced by the elected government of the Second French Republic , which valued revolutionary themes. The new government designated the Pantheon "The Temple of Humanity", and proposed to decorate it with sixty new murals honouring human progress in all fields. In 1851

15876-622: Was the Scriptures and the Patristic Fathers. It was completed by the study of Canon law . The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève. It was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor. Its most famous professors are Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor . The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere. A Bolognese compendium of canon law called

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