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128-451: In the course of their studies in Europe, some members of the new Ottoman elite concluded that the secret of Europe's success rested not only with its technical achievements but also with its political organizations. Moreover, the process of reform itself had imbued a small segment of the elite with the belief that constitutional government would be a desirable check on autocracy and provide it with

256-697: A Serbian version available in [ Bosnia Vilayet ]". Arsenije Zdravković published a Serbian translation after the Young Turk Revolution . There were versions made in French and English. The former was intended for diplomats and was created by the Translation Office ( Terceme odası ). Strauss stated that a draft copy of the French version had not been located and there is no evidence that states that one had ever been made. The French version has some terminology originating from Ottoman Turkish. A 1908 issue of

384-671: A surety by the Ottoman government for borrowing loans from British and French banks. Abdulaziz gave special emphasis on modernizing the Ottoman Navy . In 1875, the Ottoman Navy had 21 battleships and 173 warships of other types, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies. His passion for the Navy, ships and sea can be observed in the wall paintings and pictures of

512-680: A Multilingual Empire: Translations of the Kanun-ı Esasi and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages", wrote that the Constitution of Belgium and the Constitution of Prussia (1850) "seem to have influenced the Ottoman Constitution". The Ottoman Porte believed that once the Christian population was represented in the legislative assembly, no foreign power could legitimize the promotion of her national interests under pretext of representing

640-506: A better opportunity to influence policy. Sultan Abdulaziz 's chaotic rule led to his deposition in 1876 and, after a few troubled months, to the proclamation of an Ottoman constitution that the new sultan, Abdul Hamid II, pledged to uphold. The Ottoman Constitution was introduced after a series of reforms were promulgated in 1839 during the Tanzimat era. The goal of the Tanzimat era was to reform

768-666: A cause for some concern. Before the Constitution was enacted and made official, many of the Ulema were against it because they deemed it to be going against the Shari'a. However, throughout the Ottoman Empire, the people were extremely happy and looking forward to life under this new regime. Many people celebrated and joined in Muslim-Christian relations which formed, and there now seemed to be

896-663: A different change of government or no longer being autonomous from the Empire. Yet the most important reaction, only second to that of the people, was that of the Europeans. Their reactions were quite to the contrary from the people; in fact they were completely against it—so much so that the United Kingdom was against supporting the Sublime Porte and criticized their actions as reckless. Many across European saw this constitution as unfit or

1024-514: A document. Abdülaziz's family was also convinced that he was murdered, according to the statements of one of his consorts Neşerek Kadın and his daughter Nazime Sultan . Abdülaziz had six consorts: In addition to these, Abdülaziz planned to marry the Egyptian princess Tawhida Hanim , daughter of the Egyptian Khedive Isma'il Pasha . His Grand Vizier, Mehmed Fuad Pasha ,

1152-671: A fleet in September 1860. Fearing that a unilateral intervention would increase French influence in the region at their expense, the British joined the French expedition . Faced with further European pressure, the Sultan agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was to be submitted by the Sultan and approved by the European powers. The Cretan Revolt , which began in 1866, resulted from

1280-718: A last attempt to save the Empire. In fact only two small nations were in favor of the constitution but only because they disliked the Russians as well. Others considered the Ottomans to be grasping for straws in trying to save the Empire; they also labeled it as a fluke of the Sublime Porte and the Sultan. After the Ottomans were defeated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) a truce was signed on 31 January 1878 in Edirne . Fourteen days after this event, on February 14, 1878, Abdul Hamid II took

1408-497: A new national identity: Ottoman. However many provinces and people within the Empire were against it and many acted out their displeasure in violence. Some Muslims agreed with the Ulema that the constitution violated Shari'a law. Some acted out their protests by attacking a priest during mass. Some of the provinces referred to in the constitution were alarmed, such as Rumania, Scutari and Albania, because they thought it referred to them having

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1536-428: A number of important European capitals including Paris , London , and Vienna in the summer of 1867. With Fuad and Aali dead by 1871, Abdul Aziz promulgated reactionary ministries and attempted absolutist rule. In his last years as sultan, famine , economic crisis and default , diplomatic isolation, government dysfunction, and uprisings by Christian minorities culminated into a general international crisis known as

1664-635: A poll tax in lieu of service, the army itself was divided into four categories: the Nizam (standing army), who served for four years (five for cavalry and engineers); the Ithiat, or first reserve, where a further two years were served (one year for the cavalry and artillery); the Redif, which took veterans of the Nizam and Ithiat categories and men who did not serve; and the Moustafiz, where all men who had completed their service in

1792-547: A possibly more subtly intended reminder that they were not in France. The first Ottoman railroads were opened between İzmir – Aydın and Alexandria – Cairo in 1856, during the reign of Sultan Abdulmejid I . The first large railway terminal within present-day Turkey, the Alsancak Terminal in İzmir, was opened in 1858. However, these were individual, unconnected railroads, without a railway network. Sultan Abdulaziz established

1920-588: A result of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution , and the Young Turks put the 1876 constitution back into effect. The second constitutional period spanned from 1908 until after World War I when the Ottoman Empire was dissolved. Many political groups and parties were formed during this period, including the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). On 20 January 1920, the Grand National Assembly met and ratified

2048-490: A room at the Topkapı Palace , which happened to be the same room that Sultan Selim III was murdered in. The room caused him to be concerned for his life and he subsequently requested to be moved to Beylerbeyi Palace . His request was denied for the palace was considered inconvenient for his situation and he was moved to Feriye Palace instead. He nevertheless had grown increasingly nervous and paranoid about his security. In

2176-405: A total of ten Turkish terms, and the document instead relies on words from Arabic, which Strauss argues is "excessive". In addition, he stated that other defining aspects include "convoluted sentences typical of Ottoman chancery style", izafet , and a "deferential indirect style" using honorifics . Therefore Strauss wrote that due to its complexity, "A satisfactory translation into Western languages

2304-655: A word meaning " basic law ", Kanun-i esasi in Turkish, al-qānūn al-asāsī in Arabic, and qānūn-e asāsī in Persian. Strauss stated that the Perso-Arabic term is closer in meaning to " Grundgesetz ". As European power increased over the 18th century, the Ottomans saw a lack of progress themselves. In the Treaty of Paris (1856) , the Ottomans were now considered part of the European world. This

2432-666: Is difficult, if not impossible." Max Bilal Heidelberger wrote a direct translation of the Ottoman Turkish version and published it in a book chapter by Tilmann J Röder, "The Separation of Powers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives." A Latin script rendition of the Ottoman Turkish appeared in 1957, in the Republic of Turkey , in Sened-i İttifaktan Günümüze Türk Anayasa Metinleri , edited by Suna Kili and A. Şeref Gözübüyük and published by Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları . In addition to

2560-485: Is used in place of some terms from Ottoman Turkish. Different versions either heavily used foreign terminology or used their own languages' terminologies heavily but they generally avoided using the Ottoman Turkish one; some common French-derived Ottoman terms were replaced with other words. Based on the differences between the versions for non-Muslims and the Ottoman Turkish version, Strauss concluded that "foreign influences and national traditions – or even aspirations" shaped

2688-574: The American Journal of International Law printed an Ottoman-produced English version but did not specify its origin. After analysing a passage from it, Strauss concluded "Clearly, the “contemporary English version” was also translated from the French version." Strauss wrote "I have not come across a Russian translation of the Kanun-i esasi . But it is highly probable that it existed." Versions in several languages for Christians and Jews used variants of

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2816-420: The 8cm and 9cm types for field usage, with 12 cm and 15cm guns also being used (but less commonly) and various older guns found primarily in fortresses. At the outbreak of war, the Ottoman army was divided into several groups. The largest was the 168,000-man contingent under the command of Abdülkerim Nadir Pasha , based out of Shumla . 140,000 were assigned to the general task of fighting threats in

2944-544: The Beylerbeyi Palace , which was constructed during his reign. However, the large budget for modernizing and expanding the Navy, combined with the 1873–1875 Anatolian Famine which reduced the government's tax revenues, contributed to the financial difficulties that caused the Porte to declare a sovereign default with the "Ramazan Kanunnamesi" on 30 October 1875. The subsequent decision to increase agricultural taxes for paying

3072-565: The Black Sea and supporting the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire. The Russian-led coalition won the war, pushing the Ottomans back all the way to the gates of Constantinople , leading to the intervention of the Western European great powers. As a result, Russia succeeded in claiming provinces in the Caucasus, namely Kars and Batum , and also annexed

3200-456: The Budjak region. The principalities of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, each of which had had de facto sovereignty for some years, formally proclaimed independence from the Ottoman Empire. After almost five centuries of Ottoman domination (1396–1878), Bulgaria emerged as an autonomous state with support and military intervention from Russia. Article 9 of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty , concluded at

3328-417: The Constitution of 1924 . The Ottoman Constitution represented more than the immediate effect it had on the country. It was extremely significant because it made all subjects Ottomans under the law. By doing so, everyone, regardless of their religion had the right to liberties such as freedom of press and free education. Despite the latitude it gave to the sovereign, the constitution provided clear evidence of

3456-537: The Great Eastern Crisis . He was deposed by his ministers on the grounds of having mismanaged the Ottoman economy on 30 May 1876, and was found dead six days later in mysterious circumstances. Abdulaziz was born at Eyüp Palace, Constantinople ( Istanbul ) on 8 February 1830. His parents were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan , originally named Besime, a Circassian . The Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque

3584-530: The Ottoman public debt to foreign creditors (mainly British and French banks) triggered the Great Eastern Crisis in the empire's Balkan provinces . The crisis culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) that devastated the already struggling Ottoman economy, which led to the establishment of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1881, during the early years of Sultan Abdulhamid II 's reign. The global financial turmoil increased

3712-563: The Turkish Constitution of 1921 . However, since this document did not clearly state whether the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 was superseded, consequentially, only provisions contradictory to the 1921 Constitution became null and void ( lex posterior derogat legi priori ). The rest of the constitution resumed its implementation up until 20 April 1924, when both the Constitutions of 1876 and 1921 were replaced by an entirely new document,

3840-401: The military school during his reign to educate officers. However, the turnout of this academy was poor and only 1,600 of the 20,000 regular officers of the army were academy trained, though the artillery saw the highest concentration of academy trained officers at 20% of the total. For the entire Ottoman army, only 132 academy-trained generals were available. The Ottoman army was organised at

3968-528: The ʻUrabi revolt (1879–1882). Egypt and Sudan (together with Cyprus ) nominally remained Ottoman territories until 5 November 1914, when the British Empire declared war against the Ottoman Empire during World War I and changed the status of these territories as British protectorates (which was formally recognized by Turkey with Articles 17–21 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923). By 1871, both Fuad Pasha and Âli Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire ,

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4096-472: The "first real Ottoman reformer", since he took a substantive stand against the janissaries by removing them as an obstacle in the Auspicious Incident . This led to what was known as the Tanzimat, which lasted from 1839 to 1876. This era was defined as an effort of reform to distribute power from the Sultan (even trying to remove his efforts) to the newly formed government led by a parliament. These were

4224-510: The "independence" of the Ottoman Empire, it would be wholly impossible to afford to it again the support we had afforded in the Crimean war . Although on the winning side in the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire continued to decline in power and prestige. The financial strain on the treasury forced the Ottoman government to take a series of foreign loans at such steep interest rates that, despite all

4352-487: The 19th century, with the central government occasionally losing control over whole provinces. Reforms imposed by European powers did little to improve the conditions of the Christian population, while managing to dissatisfy a sizable portion of the Muslim population. Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered at least two waves of rebellion by the local Muslim population, the most recent ending in 1862 . Austria-Hungary consolidated after

4480-538: The Armenian version. The Bulgarian version was re-printed in four other newspapers: Dunav/Tuna , Iztočno Vreme , Napredŭk or Napredǎk ("Progress") and Zornitsa ("Morning Star"). Strauss wrote that the Bulgarian version "corresponds exactly to the French version"; the title page of the copy in the collection of Christo S. Arnaudov ( Bulgarian : Христо С. Арнаудовъ ; Post-1945 spelling: Христо С. Арнаудов) stated that

4608-546: The Asian side of Istanbul, from Haydarpaşa to Pendik , began in 1871. The line was opened on 22 September 1872. The railway was extended to Gebze , which opened on 1 January 1873. In August 1873 the railway reached Izmit . Another railway extension was built in 1871 to serve a populated area along Bursa and the Sea of Marmara . The Anatolia Railway was then extended to Ankara and eventually to Mesopotamia , Syria and Arabia during

4736-602: The British Embassy; Dr. O. Vitalis, Physician of the Sanitary Board; Dr. E. Spadare, J. Nouridjian, Miltiadi Bey, Mustafa, Mehmed" certified that the death had been "caused by the loss of blood produced by the wounds of the blood-vessels at the joints of the arms" and that "the direction and nature of the wounds, together with the instrument which is said to have produced them, lead us to conclude that suicide had been committed". One of those physicians also stated that "His skin

4864-546: The Bulgarian cause led to a nationwide surge in patriotism on a scale comparable with the one during the Patriotic War of 1812 . From autumn 1875, the movement to support the Bulgarian uprising involved all classes of Russian society. This was accompanied by sharp public discussions about Russian goals in this conflict: Slavophiles , including Fyodor Dostoevsky , saw in the impending war the chance to unite all Orthodox nations under Russia's helm, thus fulfilling what they believed

4992-558: The Crimean War ;– and Russian annexation of the port of Batum on the east coast of the Black Sea . Bulgaria was to become autonomous (independent, according to the Russian records). As the fighting in Bosnia and Herzegovina continued, Serbia suffered a string of setbacks and asked the European powers to mediate an end to the war. A joint ultimatum by the European powers forced

5120-411: The Crimean War; some were Islamized Bulgarians. The Ottoman army suppressed the revolt, massacring up to 30,000 people in the process. Five thousand out of the seven thousand villagers of Batak were put to death. Both Batak and Perushtitsa , where the majority of the population was also massacred, participated in the rebellion. Many of the perpetrators of those massacres were later decorated by

5248-538: The Deputies). There were also elections held every four years to keep the parliament changing and to continually express the voice of the people. This same framework carried over from the Constitution as it was in 1876 until it was reinstated in 1908. All in all the framework on the Constitution did little to limit the Sultan's power. Some of the retained powers of the Sultan were: declaration of war, appointment of new ministers, and approval of legislation. Although talks about

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5376-515: The European balance. Bismarck did not wish the breakup of the Ottoman Empire to create rivalries that might lead to war, so he took up Tsar Alexander II of Russia 's earlier suggestion that arrangements be made in case the Ottoman Empire fell apart, creating the Three Emperors' League with Austria-Hungary and Russia to keep France isolated on the continent. France responded by supporting self-determination movements, particularly if they concerned

5504-641: The European provinces of the Empire, with 45,000 in various garrisons in Anatolia, Europe, and Crete. With the Caucasus army containing 70,000 men, the total of number of troops amounted to 378,000. Olender gives a breakdown of Ottoman troops in the spring of 1877 as containing 571 infantry battalions (181 of which were Nizam), 147 cavalry squadrons and 143 artillery batteries not including the fortress and garrison companies or irregulars. On paper this would amount to 441,954 infantry (140,094 being nizam troops), 21,021 cavalry and 858 guns. However, due to other conflicts and

5632-911: The Ottoman Empire joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member. Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with France and the United Kingdom . In 1867 he was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe . Ostensibly he was to see the Paris exhibition of 1867 at Napoleon III 's invitation, however the real goal was to reestablish Ottoman credit and forestall a Franco-Russian intervention in rebellious Crete . His voyage in visiting order (from 21 June 1867 to 7 August 1867): Istanbul – Messina – Naples – Toulon – Marseille – Paris – Boulogne – Dover – London – Dover – Calais – Brussels – Koblenz – Vienna – Budapest – Orșova – Vidin – Ruse – Varna – Istanbul. In London, he

5760-562: The Ottoman Empire under the auspices of Westernization. In the context of the reforms, Western-educated Armenians of the Ottoman Empire drafted the Armenian National Constitution in 1863. The Ottoman Constitution of 1876 was under direct influence of the Armenian National Constitution and its authors. The Ottoman Constitution of 1876 itself was drawn up by Western-educated Ottoman Armenian Krikor Odian , who

5888-476: The Ottoman Empire. Small as the amount of attention is which can be given by the people of England to the affairs of Turkey ... enough was transpiring from time to time to produce a vague but a settled and general impression that the Sultans were not fulfilling the "solemn promises" they had made to Europe; that the vices of the Turkish government were ineradicable; and that whenever another crisis might arise affecting

6016-647: The Ottoman high command. Word of the bashi-bazouks' atrocities filtered to the outside world by way of the American-run Robert College located in Constantinople . The majority of the students were Bulgarian, and many received news of the events from their families back home. Soon the Western diplomatic community in Constantinople was abuzz with rumours, which eventually found their way into newspapers in

6144-553: The Ottoman offensive into Serbia. Meanwhile, Alexander II of Russia and Prince Gorchakov met Austria-Hungary's Franz Joseph I and Count Andrássy in the Reichstadt castle in Bohemia . No written agreement was made, but during the discussions, Russia agreed to support Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Austria-Hungary, in exchange, agreed to support the return of Southern Bessarabia  – lost by Russia during

6272-498: The Ottomans in the war. An uprising against Ottoman rule began in Herzegovina in July 1875. By August almost all of Herzegovina had been seized and the revolt had spread into Bosnia . Supported by nationalist volunteers from Serbia and Montenegro, the uprising continued as the Ottomans committed more and more troops to suppress it. With its origin in the vicinity of the town of Nevesinje

6400-478: The Ottomans' most disliked enemy. The Russians looked for many ways to become involved in political affairs especially when unrest in the Empire reached their borders. The history of the Russo-Turkish wars was long, for many different reasons. The Ottomans saw the Russians as their most fierce enemy and not one to be trusted. Reactions within the Empire and around Europe were both widely acceptable and potentially

6528-434: The Porte to give Serbia a one-month truce and start peace negotiations. Turkish peace conditions however were refused by European powers as too harsh. In early October, after the truce expired, the Turkish army resumed its offensive and the Serbian position quickly became desperate. On 31 October, Russia issued an ultimatum requiring the Ottoman Empire to stop the hostilities and sign a new truce with Serbia within 48 hours. This

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6656-433: The Question of the East calling upon Britain to withdraw its support for Turkey and proposing that Europe demand independence for Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina. As the details became known across Europe, many dignitaries, including Charles Darwin , Oscar Wilde , Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi , publicly condemned the Ottoman abuses in Bulgaria. The strongest reaction came from Russia. Widespread sympathy for

6784-400: The Redif (approximately 300,000 troops) served for a further six years. The Redif itself was divided into four categories: the first category consisted of veterans of the Nizam category, who served in the first Redif subcategory for four years before entering the second Redif sub-category; men who were not conscripted served in the third sub-category of the Redif for four years before entering

6912-462: The West. While in Constantinople in 1879, Protestant missionary George Warren Wood reported Turkish authorities in Amasia brutally persecuting Christian Armenian refugees from Soukoum Kaleh . He was able to coordinate with British diplomat Edward Malet to bring the matter to the attention of the Sublime Porte , and then to the British Foreign Secretary Robert Gascoyne-Cecil (the Marquess of Salisbury ). In Britain, where Disraeli's government

7040-436: The Western European model embraced by Sultan Abdulaziz, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War . Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as unrest in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion triggered further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians . Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of

7168-444: The agreement heard. When they were rejected by the Great Powers, the Ottoman Empire announced its decision to disregard the results of the conference. On 15 January 1877, Russia and Austria-Hungary signed a written agreement confirming the results of the earlier Reichstadt Agreement of July 1876. This assured Russia of the benevolent neutrality of Austria-Hungary in the impending war. These terms meant that in case of war Russia would do

7296-476: The army. In 1858, stirred by their clergy, the Maronite peasants of northern Lebanon revolted against their predominantly Druze feudal overlords and established a peasant republic. In southern Beirut vilayet , where both Maronite and Druze peasants worked under Druze overlords, Druze peasants sided with their co-religious and against the Maronites, transforming the conflict into a civil war . Although both sides suffered, about 10,000 Maronites were massacred at

7424-470: The battalion level with a battalion nominally holding 800 men subdivided into companies of 100 men, for formations above the battalion level these were to be assembled ad-hoc this results in difficulty at estimating Ottoman troop strength throughout the war as many units were below strength before entering the war due to the many rebellions affecting the empire. However, the Ottoman army was well prepared for war, as it had increasingly called up its reserves up to

7552-567: The closeness of the Persian version to the Ottoman original, and that the deliberate closeness to the "Ottoman text is significant, but it is difficult to find a satisfactory explanation for this practice." From 17 January 1877 a Persian version appeared in Akhtar . Strauss stated that the closeness of the Persian text to the Ottoman original was not very surprising as Persian adopted Arabic-origin Ottoman Turkish words related to politics. Versions for non-Muslims included those in Armenian , Bulgarian , Greek , and Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino). There

7680-441: The closure of Parliament only eleven months after the declaration of the Constitution. Although the basic rights guaranteed in the constitution were not at all insignificant in Ottoman legal history, they were severely limited by the pronouncements of the ruler. Instead of overcoming sectarian divisions through the institution of universal representation, the elections reinforced the communitarian basis of society by allotting quotas to

7808-419: The constitution, the Sultan retained the power to declare war and make peace, to appoint and dismiss ministers, to approve legislation, and to convene and dismiss the chamber of deputies. The sultan remained the theocratic legitimized sovereign to which the state organization was made-to-measure. Thus, despite a de jure intact constitution, the sultan ruled in the absolutist manner. This was particularly evident in

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7936-427: The crushing French defeat and the support of a grateful Germany , Russia achieved international recognition of its earlier denouncement of Article 11 of the Paris Peace Treaty, thus enabling it to revive the Black Sea Fleet. Other clauses of the Paris Peace Treaty, however, remained in force, specifically Article 8 with guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria. Therefore, Russia

8064-447: The empire from falling completely into ruin. During this time the Tanzimat had three different sultans: Abdülmecid I (1839–1861), Abdülaziz (1861–1876), and Murad V (who only lasted three months in 1876). During the Tanzimat period, the man from the Ottoman Empire with the most respect in Europe was Midhat Pasha. Midhat dreamed of an Empire in which "there would be neither Muslim nor non-Muslim but only Ottomans". Such ideology led to

8192-401: The end of the Crimean War , obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. Before the treaty was signed, the Ottoman government issued an edict, the Edict of Gülhane , which proclaimed the principle of the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced some specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join

8320-446: The extent to which European influences operated among a section of the Ottoman bureaucracy. This showed the effects of the pressure from Europeans on the issue of discrimination of religious minorities within the Ottoman Empire, although, Islam was still the recognized religion of the state. The constitution also reaffirmed the equality of all Ottoman subjects, including their right to serve in the new Chamber of Deputies . The constitution

8448-453: The fact that there were numerous regular Turkish troops in those areas. A special Turkish military committee was established to quell the uprising. Regular troops ( Nizam ) and irregulars ( Redif or Bashi-bazouk ) were directed to fight the Bulgarians (11 May – 9 June 1876). The irregulars were mostly drawn from the Muslim inhabitants of the Bulgarian region. Many were Circassians from the Caucasus or Crimean Tatars who were expelled during

8576-428: The failure of the Ottoman Empire to apply reforms for improving the life of the population and the Cretans' desire for enosis – union with Greece . The insurgents gained control over the whole island, except for five fortified cities where the Muslims took refuge. The Greek press claimed that Muslims had massacred Greeks and the word was spread throughout Europe. Thousands of Greek volunteers were mobilized and sent to

8704-459: The fighting and Austria-Hungary would derive most of the advantage. Russia therefore made a final effort for a peaceful settlement. After reaching an agreement with its main Balkan rival and with anti-Ottoman sympathies running high throughout Europe due to the Bulgarian atrocities and the rejection of the Constantinople agreements, Russia finally felt free to declare war. The Ottoman army at this time solely conscripted Muslims with non-Muslims paying

8832-435: The first Ottoman railway networks. On 17 April 1869, the concession for the Rumelia Railway (i.e. Balkan Railways, Rumeli (Rumelia) meaning the Balkan peninsula in Ottoman Turkish ) which connected Istanbul to Vienna was awarded to Baron Maurice de Hirsch (Moritz Freiherr Hirsch auf Gereuth), a Bavaria-born banker from Belgium. The project foresaw a railway route from Istanbul via Edirne , Plovdiv and Sarajevo to

8960-452: The fiscal reforms that followed, pushed it into unpayable debts and economic difficulties. This was further aggravated by the need to accommodate more than 600,000 Muslim Circassians , expelled by the Russians from the Caucasus, to the Black Sea ports of north Anatolia and the Balkan ports of Constanța and Varna , which cost a great deal in money and in civil disorder to the Ottoman authorities. The Concert of Europe established in 1814

9088-441: The formation of groups such as the Young Ottomans and the Committee of Union and Progress (who merged with the Ottoman Unity Society). These movements attempted to bring about real reform not by means of edicts and promises, but by concrete action. Even after Abdulhamid II suspended the constitution, it was still printed in the salname , or yearbooks made by the Ottoman government. Johann Strauss, author of "A Constitution for

9216-522: The fourth subcategory. The Redif itself was grouped into battalions and classes, with whole battalions taken out to serve as new units. The annual draft conscripted 37,500 men; following mobilisation of the Nizam and Ithiat, these two portions of the army totaled approximately 210,000 men. An additional 20,000 men of the Gendarme were included in the Nizam. The Redif was theoretically capable of providing 190,000–200,000 troops. Sultan Abdulaziz had reorganised

9344-429: The governors of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan since 1805, but were willing to use the higher title of Khedive, which was unrecognized by the Ottoman government until 1867. In return, the first Khedive, Ismail Pasha , had agreed a year earlier (in 1866) to increase the annual tax revenues which Egypt and Sudan would provide for the Ottoman treasury. Between 1854 and 1894, the revenues from Egypt and Sudan were often declared as

9472-548: The hands of the Druze. Fearing European intervention, the Ottoman foreign minister Mehmed Fuad Pasha was dispatched to Syria and immediately set about trying to resolve the conflict as swiftly as possible. Mehmed sought out and executed the agitators on all sides, including the governor and other officials. Order was soon restored, and preparations made to give Lebanon new autonomy. These efforts were ultimately not enough to prevent European intervention, however, with France deploying

9600-417: The implementation of a constitution were in place during the rule of Murad V , they did not come to fruition. A secret meeting between Midhat Pasha , the main author of the constitution, and Abdul Hamid II , the brother of the sultan, was arranged in which it was agreed that a constitution would be drafted and promulgated immediately after Abdul Hamid II came to the throne. Following this agreement, Murat V

9728-474: The importance for Britain of the sureties regarding the Ottoman tax revenues from Egypt and Sudan for the repayment of Ottoman debts to British banks. Combined with the strategically important Suez Canal which was opened in 1869, these sureties were influential in the British government's decision to occupy Egypt and Sudan in 1882, with the pretext of helping the Ottoman-Egyptian government to put down

9856-567: The impression that the Ottoman text is a translation of it." The Arabic version was published in Al-Jawā ́ ib . Strauss, who also wrote "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire," stated that the terminology used in the Arabic version "stuck almost slavishly" to that of the Ottoman Turkish, with Arabic itself "almost exclusively" being the source of the terminology; as newer Arabic words were replacing older ones used by Ottoman Turkish, Strauss argued that this closeness "is more surprising" compared to

9984-519: The insurrection was suppressed, but the Porte offered some concessions, introducing island self-rule and increasing Christian rights on the island. Although the Cretan crisis ended better for the Ottomans than almost any other diplomatic confrontation of the century, the insurrection, and especially the brutality with which it was suppressed, led to greater public attention in Europe to the oppression of Christians in

10112-563: The intentions of the Sublime Porte , which included the newly formed government. The purpose of the Tanzimat era was reform, but mainly, to divert power from the Sultan to the Sublime Porte. The first indefinable act of the Tanzimat period was when Sultan Abdülmecid I issued the Edict of Gülhane . This document or statement expressed the principles that the liberal statesmen wanted to become an actual reality. The Tanzimat politicians wanted to prevent

10240-525: The island. The siege of Arkadi Monastery became particularly well known. In November 1866, about 250 Cretan Greek combatants and around 600 women and children were besieged by about 23,000 mainly Cretan Muslims aided by Ottoman troops, and this became widely known in Europe. After a bloody battle with a large number of casualties on both sides, the Cretan Greeks finally surrendered when their ammunition ran out but were killed upon surrender. By early 1869,

10368-476: The joint control of European powers. The Ottomans, however, refused to sacrifice their independence by allowing international representatives to oversee the institution of reforms and sought to discredit the conference by announcing on 23 December, the day the conference was closed, that a constitution was adopted that declared equal rights for religious minorities within the Empire. The Ottomans attempted to use this manoeuver to get their objections and amendments to

10496-523: The leadership of his chief ministers, Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha . New administrative districts ( vilayets ) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and Istanbul University was reorganised as a modern institution in 1861. He was also integral in establishing the first Ottoman civil code . Under his reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and

10624-542: The morning of 4 June, Abdulaziz asked for a pair of scissors to trim his beard. Shortly after this, he was found dead in a pool of blood flowing from two wounds in his arms. Several physicians were allowed to examine his body. Among which "Dr. Marco, Nouri, A. Sotto, Physician attached to the Imperial and Royal Embassy of Austria-Hungary; Dr. Spagnolo, Marc Markel, Jatropoulo, Abdinour, Servet, J. de Castro, A. Marroin, Julius Millingen , C. Caratheodori; E. D. Dickson, Physician of

10752-746: The museums in Paris (30 June – 10 July 1867), London (12–23 July 1867) and Vienna (28–30 July 1867) he ordered the establishment of an Imperial Museum in Istanbul: the Istanbul Archaeology Museum . In 1868, Abdulaziz received visits from Eugénie de Montijo , Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal . He took Eugénie to see his mother in Dolmabahçe Palace . Pertevniyal considered

10880-429: The non-Muslim versions, and that they "reflect religious, ideological and other divisions existing in the Ottoman Empire." Since the Armenian version, which Strauss describes as "puristic", uses Ottoman terminology not found in the French version and on some occasions in lieu of native Armenian terms, Strauss described it as having "taken into account the Ottoman text". The publication Bazmavep ("Polyhistore") re-printed

11008-492: The opportunity to prorogue the parliament, citing social unrest. This allowed him to avoid new elections. Abdul Hamid II , increasingly withdrawn from society to the Yıldız Palace , was therefore able rule the most part of three decades in an absolutist manner. The Constitution was put back into effect in 1908 as Abdul Hamid II came under pressure, particularly from some of his military leaders. Abdul Hamid II 's fall came as

11136-403: The original Ottoman Turkish, the document had been translated into Arabic and Persian. Language versions for Muslims were derived from the Ottoman Turkish version, and Strauss wrote that the vocabularies of the Ottoman Turkish, Arabic, and Persian versions were "almost identical". Despite the Western concepts in the Ottoman Constitution, Strauss stated that "The official French version does not give

11264-458: The parents of Isma'il Pasha . Abdulaziz received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was being achieved in the West. He was the first Ottoman sultan who traveled to Western Europe , visiting a number of important European capitals including Paris , London , and Vienna in the summer of 1867. In addition to his interest in literature, Abdulaziz

11392-457: The presence of a foreign woman within her private quarters of the seraglio to be an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugénie across the face, which almost caused an international incident. According to another account, Pertevniyal was outraged by the forwardness of Eugénie in taking the arm of one of her sons while he gave a tour of the palace garden, and she gave the Empress a slap on the stomach as

11520-402: The rebellions. While no single event led to his deposition, the crop failure of 1873 and his lavish expenditures on the Ottoman Navy and on new palaces which he had built, along with mounting public debt, helped to create an atmosphere that conducted to the end of his reign. Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on 30 May 1876. Following Sultan Abdulaziz's dethronement, he was taken into

11648-597: The reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II , with the completion of the Baghdad Railway and Hejaz Railway . Also in 1867, Abdulaziz became the first Ottoman Sultan to formally recognize the title of Khedive (Viceroy) to be used by the Governor of the Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt and Sudan (1517–1867), which thus became the autonomous Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan (1867–1914). Muhammad Ali Pasha and his descendants had been

11776-456: The rights of these people of religious and ethnic bonds. In particular, if successfully implemented, it was thought that it would rob Russia of any such claims. However, its potential was never realized and the tensions with the Russian Empire culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) . After Sultan Murad V was removed from office, Abdul Hamid II became the new Sultan. Midhat Pasha

11904-611: The same time, a severe drought in Anatolia in 1873 and flooding in 1874 caused famine and widespread discontent in the heart of the Empire. The agricultural shortages precluded the collection of necessary taxes, which forced the Ottoman government to declare bankruptcy in October 1875 and increase taxes on outlying provinces including the Balkans. István Deák states that the Albanian highlanders resented new taxes and conscription, and fought against

12032-704: The shore of the Sava River . In 1873, the first Sirkeci Terminal in Istanbul was opened. The temporary Sirkeci terminal building was later replaced with the current one which was built between 1888 and 1890 (during the reign of Abdülhamid II) and became the final destination terminus of the Orient Express . In 1871, Sultan Abdulaziz established the Anatolia Railway . Construction works of the 1,435 mm ( 4 ft  8 + 1 ⁄ 2  in ) standard gauge on

12160-556: The third subcategory of the Redif when Russian forces began gathering in Bessarabia. Olender gives the Ottoman battalion (tabor) of infantry at 774 men on paper and 650 in practice, the cavalry squadron containing 143 men on paper and 100 in practice, with the artillery being organised into six gun batteries. The Ottoman army was also well equipped; 75% of its troops were equipped with Peabody-Martini rifles (accurate to 1,800 yards), with 300,000 of these guns having been purchased prior to

12288-504: The three emperors and the Sultan. Thus revolts in Poland against Russia and national aspirations in the Balkans were encouraged by France. Russia worked to regain its right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea and vied with the French in gaining influence in the Balkans by using the new Pan-Slavic idea that all Slavs should be united under Russian leadership. This could be done only by destroying

12416-399: The time were afraid the public would become outraged and revolt to bring Abdulaziz back to power. Thus, they arranged the assassination of Abdulaziz by cutting his wrists and announced that "he committed suicide". This book of memoir was commonly referred to as a first-hand testimony of the assassination of Abdulaziz. Yet it was proven, later on, that Abdulhamid II never wrote nor dictated such

12544-406: The translations into "Oriental-style" versions - ones made for adherents of Islam, and "Western-style" versions - ones made for Christian and Jewish people, including Ottoman citizens and foreigners residing in the empire. The constitution was originally made in Ottoman Turkish with a Perso-Arabic script. The Ottoman government printed it, as did printing presses from private individuals. There are

12672-415: The turmoil of the first half of the century and sought to reinvigorate its centuries long policy of expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the nominally autonomous, de facto independent principalities of Serbia and Montenegro also sought to expand into regions inhabited by their compatriots. Nationalist and irredentist sentiments were strong and were encouraged by Russia and her agents. At

12800-640: The two empires where most non-Russian Slavs lived, the Habsburg and the Ottoman Empires. The ambitions and the rivalries of the Russians and French in the Balkans surfaced in Serbia , which was experiencing its own national revival and had ambitions that partly conflicted with those of the great powers. Russia ended the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to destroy its Black Sea Fleet and Sevastopol fortifications. Russian international prestige

12928-402: The uprising was also known as "Nevesinjska puška" - the rifle of Nevesinje. The revolt of Bosnia and Herzegovina spurred Bucharest -based Bulgarian revolutionaries into action. In 1875, a Bulgarian uprising was hastily prepared to take advantage of Ottoman preoccupation, but it fizzled before it started. In the spring of 1876, another uprising erupted in the south-central Bulgarian lands despite

13056-492: The various religious communities based on projections of population figures derived from the census of 1844 . Furthermore, in order to appease the European powers, the Ottoman administration drafted an exceedingly uneven representational scheme that favored the European provinces by an average 2:1 ratio. Abdulaziz Abdulaziz ( Ottoman Turkish : عبد العزيز , romanized :  ʿAbdü'l-ʿAzîz ; Turkish : Abdülaziz ; 8 February 1830 – 4 June 1876)

13184-549: The war. The remainder of the regular troops used Snider rifles ; the irregulars used Winchester repeating rifles , and the Egyptians used Remington rifles. The Ottoman support services were, however, less impressive, with the army often forced to resort to foraging. On the other hand, Ottoman forces were equipped with entrenching tools (which they used extensively at Plevna ) and had sufficient ammunition for their repeating rifles. The Ottoman artillery were armed with Krupp guns of

13312-740: The word "constitution": konstitutsiya in Bulgarian, σύνταγμα ( syntagma ) in Greek, konstitusyon in Judaeo-Spanish, and ustav in Serbian. The Bulgarian version used a term in Russian, the Greek version used a calque from the French word "constitution", the Judaeo-Spanish derived its term from the French, and the Serbian version used a word from Slavonic . The Armenian version uses the word sahmanadrut‘iwn (also Sahmanatrov;ivn , Western Armenian : սահմանադրութիւն ; Eastern style: Armenian : սահմանադրություն ). Those in Ottoman Turkish, Arabic, and Persian used

13440-416: The work was translated from Ottoman Turkish, but Strauss said this is not the case. Strauss stated that the Greek version "follows the French translation" while adding Ottoman synonyms of Greek terminology and Greek synonyms of Ottoman terminology. Strauss wrote that "perhaps the Judaeo-Spanish – version may have been checked against the original Ottoman text". Strauss also wrote "There must have also been

13568-661: The year 1293 in the Islamic calendar ; Russian : Русско-турецкая война , romanized :  Russko-turetskaya voyna , "Russian–Turkish war") was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition led by the Russian Empire which included Romania , Serbia , and Montenegro . Additional factors included the Russian goals of recovering territorial losses endured during the Crimean War of 1853–1856, re-establishing itself in

13696-452: Was a clandestine operation carried out by the British. Another similar claim is based on the book The Memoirs of Sultan Abdulhamid II . In the book, which turned out to be a fraud, the author claims that Sultan Murad V had begun to show signs of paranoia, madness, and continuous fainting and vomiting until the day of his coronation, and he even threw himself into a pool yelling at his guards to protect his life. High-ranking politicians of

13824-540: Was afraid that Abdul Hamid II would go against his progressive visions; consequently he had an interview with him to assess his personality and to determine if he was on board. The Constitution proposed a bicameral parliament, the General Assembly , consisting of the Sultan-selected Senate and the generally elected Chamber of Deputies (although not directly; the populace chose delegates who would then choose

13952-552: Was also a classical music composer. He took a special interest in documenting the Ottoman Empire. Some of his compositions, together with those of the other members of the Ottoman dynasty , have been collected in the album European Music at the Ottoman Court by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music. Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of his brother Abdulmejid I were continued under

14080-720: Was also a version in Armeno-Turkish , Turkish written in the Armenian alphabet . These versions were respectively printed in Masis , Makikat , Vyzantis , De Castro Press , and La Turquie . Strauss stated that versions for languages used by non-Muslims were based on the French version, being the "model and the source of the terminology". Strauss pointed to the fact that honorifics and other linguistic features in Ottoman Turkish were usually not present in these versions. In addition each language version has language-specific terminology that

14208-494: Was built under the patronage of his mother. The construction work began in November 1869 and the mosque was finished in 1871. His paternal grandparents were Sultan Abdul Hamid I and Sultana Nakşidil Sultan . Several accounts identify his paternal grandmother with Aimée du Buc de Rivéry , a cousin of Empress Joséphine . Pertevniyal was a sister of Hushiyar Qadin , third wife of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt . Khushiyar and Ibrahim were

14336-573: Was committed to supporting the Ottomans in the ongoing Balkan crisis, the Liberal opposition newspaper The Daily News hired American journalist Januarius A. MacGahan to report on the massacre stories first-hand. MacGahan toured the stricken regions of the Bulgarian uprising, and his report, splashed across The Daily News ' s front pages, galvanized British public opinion against Disraeli's pro-Ottoman policy. In September, opposition leader William Ewart Gladstone published his Bulgarian Horrors and

14464-555: Was damaged, and for many years revenge for the Crimean War became the main goal of Russian foreign policy. This was not easy though: the Paris peace treaty included guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria, and only Prussia remained friendly to Russia. The newly appointed Russian chancellor, Alexander Gorchakov , depended upon alliance with Prussia and its chancellor Bismarck. Russia consistently supported Prussia in her wars with Denmark (1864) , Austria (1866) and France (1870) . In March 1871, using

14592-462: Was deposed on 1876 by a fetva on the grounds of insanity. A committee of 24 (later 28) people, led by Midhat Pasha , was formed to work on the new constitution. They submitted the first draft on 13 November 1876 which was obstreperously rejected by Abdul Hamid II 's ministers on the grounds of the abolishment of the office of the Sadrazam . After strenuous debates, a constitution acceptable to all sides

14720-399: Was dominated by the duo of Fuad Pasha and Aali Pasha , who accelerated reorganization. The Vilayet Law was promulgated, Western codes were applied to more aspects of Ottoman law , and the millets were restructured. The issue of Tanzimat dualism continued to plague the empire, however. He was the first Ottoman sultan who traveled to Western Europe in a diplomatic capacity, visiting

14848-544: Was established and the constitution was signed by Abdul Hamid II on the morning of December 13, 1876. According to Strauss, the authorities seemed to have had prepared multiple language versions of the constitution at the same time prior to release as their publication year was 1876: he stated that such release "apparently occurred simultaneously". They were officially published in various newspapers, owned by their respective publishers, according to language, and there were other publications that re-printed them. Strauss divides

14976-434: Was extremely cautious in its relations with the Ottoman Empire, coordinating all its actions with other European powers. A Russian war with Turkey would require at least the tacit support of all other Great Powers, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for a convenient moment. In 1875, a series of Balkan events brought Europe to the brink of war. The state of Ottoman administration in the Balkans continued to deteriorate throughout

15104-641: Was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet Review with Ismail Pasha . He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul. His fellow Knights of the Garter created in 1867 were Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond , Charles Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland , Henry Somerset, 8th Duke of Beaufort , Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (a son of Queen Victoria), Franz Joseph I of Austria and Alexander II of Russia . Impressed by

15232-488: Was more than a political document; it was a proclamation of Ottomanism and Ottoman patriotism, and it was an assertion that the empire was capable of resolving its problems and that it had the right to remain intact as it then existed. It officially established the subjects of the Empire as "Ottomans," with the Sultan being titled " Padishah and Sovereign of all Ottomans," rather than "of the Turks." The Ottoman Constitution of 1876

15360-769: Was opposed to marriage and wrote a note for the sultan explaining that marriage would be politically counterproductive and would give Egypt an undue advantage. However, the Grand Chamberlain, instead of handing the note to the sultan, read it to him in public, humiliating him. Although the marriage project was abandoned, Fuad was fired for the accident. Abdülaziz had six sons: Abdülaziz had seven daughters: [REDACTED] Media related to Abdül Aziz I at Wikimedia Commons [REDACTED] Works by or about Abdülaziz at Wikisource Russo-Turkish War (1877%E2%80%931878) The Russo-Turkish War ( Turkish : 93 Harbi , lit.   'War of '93', named for

15488-469: Was preceded by the Nationality Law of 1869, which created a common and equal citizenship for all Ottomans, regardless of race or religion. The constitution built upon those ideas and expanded on them, well focusing on keep the state together. Ultimately, although the constitution created an elected chamber of deputies and an appointed senate, it only placed minimal restriction on the Sultan's power. Under

15616-573: Was shaken in 1859 when France and Austria fought over Italy . It came apart completely as a result of the wars of German Unification , when the Kingdom of Prussia , led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , defeated Austria in 1866 and France in 1870, replacing Austria as the dominant power in Central Europe. Britain, diverted by the Irish question and averse to warfare, chose not to intervene again to restore

15744-623: Was supported by the partial mobilization of the Imperial Russian Army (up to 20 divisions). Sultan Abdul Hamid II accepted the conditions of the ultimatum. To resolve the crisis, on 11 December 1876, the Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was opened in Constantinople (to which Ottoman representatives were not invited). A compromise solution was negotiated, granting autonomy to Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina under

15872-401: Was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 25 June 1861 to 30 May 1876, when he was overthrown in a government coup . He was a son of Sultan Mahmud II and succeeded his brother Abdulmejid I in 1861. Abdulaziz's reign began with the Ottoman Empire resurgent following the Crimean War and two decades of Tanzimat reform, though reliant on European capital. The decade after his accession

16000-545: Was the advisor of Midhat Pasha . Attempts at reform within the empire had long been made. Under the reign of Sultan Selim III , there was a vision of actual reform. Selim tried to address the military's failure to effectively function in battle; even the basics of fighting were lacking, and military leaders lacked the ability to command. Eventually his efforts led to his assassination by the Janissaries . This action soon led to Mahmud II becoming Sultan. Mahmud can be considered

16128-407: Was the beginning of intervention by Europeans (i.e. the United Kingdom and France ) in the Ottoman Empire. One of the reasons they were taking a step into Ottoman territory was for the protection of Christianity in the Ottoman Empire . There had been perennial conflict between Muslims and non-Muslims in the Empire. This was the focal point for the Russians to interfere, and the Russians were perhaps

16256-486: Was the historic mission of Russia, while their opponents, westernizers , inspired by Ivan Turgenev , denied the importance of religion and believed that Russian goals should not be defense of Orthodoxy but liberation of Bulgaria. On 30 June 1876, Serbia, followed by Montenegro, declared war on the Ottoman Empire. In July and August, the ill-prepared and poorly equipped Serbian army helped by Russian volunteers failed to achieve offensive objectives but did manage to repulse

16384-407: Was very pale, and entirely free from bruises, marks or spots of any kind whatever. There was no lividity of the lips indicating suffocation nor any sign of pressure having been applied to the throat". Abdulaziz's death was documented as a suicide. There are several sources claiming the death of Abdulaziz was due to an assassination. Islamic nationalist author Necip Fazıl Kısakürek claimed that it

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