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104-677: Research at the KGS focuses primarily on energy, water, and the environment and addresses natural resource challenges facing the state of Kansas. The KGS also generates new information about the state's geology and develops tools and techniques for studying the state's surface and subsurface through its geophysics and mapping programs. Primary users of this information include local, State, and Federal agencies; oil and gas exploration companies; engineering companies and geotechnical consultants dealing with construction, environmental, and geologic hazard issues; educators; and private citizens wanting to learn more about

208-482: A $ 300,000 annual demonstration project to conserve water that farmers pump from the Ogallala Aquifer. Participating farmers grow corn with just over half of the water that they would normally require to irrigate the fields, or they plant several weeks later than customary. Pivot sprinklers are used in the project, rather than the more expensive drip irrigation. According to district manager Steve Walthour, conservation

312-516: A decline in basic activity level and information usage at 1000 ppm, when compared to 500 ppm. However a review of the literature found that a reliable subset of studies on the phenomenon of carbon dioxide induced cognitive impairment to only show a small effect on high-level decision making (for concentrations below 5000 ppm). Most of the studies were confounded by inadequate study designs, environmental comfort, uncertainties in exposure doses and differing cognitive assessments used. Similarly

416-446: A fixed structure. However, in a Coulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced. Such an experiment has been performed for carbon dioxide. The result of this experiment, and the conclusion of theoretical calculations based on an ab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear. This counter-intuitive result

520-611: A glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon dioxide (silica glass) and germanium dioxide . Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released. At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical fluid known as supercritical carbon dioxide . Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid carbon dioxide: Table of thermal and physical properties of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) at atmospheric pressure: Carbon dioxide

624-491: A mature forest will produce as much CO 2 from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants. Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon and remain valuable carbon sinks , helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO 2 in

728-428: A much larger denominator and a much smaller value than the true K a1 . The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution. At high pH, it dissociates significantly into the carbonate ion ( CO 2− 3 ): In organisms, carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase . In addition to altering its acidity,

832-832: A rally at the National Mall drew an estimated 40,000 in protest of Keystone XL. In January 2014, the U.S. State Department released its Keystone pipeline Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for the Keystone XL Project Executive Summary , which concluded that, according to models, a large crude oil spill from the pipeline that reached the Ogallala could spread as far as 1,214 feet (370 m), with dissolved components spreading as much as 1,050 ft (320 m) further. Early in his presidency, U.S President Donald Trump overturned U.S. President Barack Obama's decision by signing executive memos in support of

936-416: A study on the effects of the concentration of CO 2 in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins. Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of CO 2 declined to safe levels (0.2%). Poor ventilation

1040-448: A technique that retains moisture for a longer period of time. Soil sensors permit farmers to gather accurate information about the moisture level of their crops. The motivation to save water comes from the district's regulations on extracting water from the aquifer. The United States Geological Survey determined the water level in the aquifer has dropped more in Texas than in any other state in

1144-467: A typical single C–O bond, and shorter than most other C–O multiply bonded functional groups such as carbonyls . Since it is centrosymmetric, the molecule has no electric dipole moment . As a linear triatomic molecule, CO 2 has four vibrational modes as shown in the diagram. In the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes, the atoms move along the axis of the molecule. There are two bending modes, which are degenerate , meaning that they have

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1248-485: A waste product. In turn, oxygen is consumed and CO 2 is released as waste by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize organic compounds to produce energy by respiration . CO 2 is released from organic materials when they decay or combust, such as in forest fires. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate ( HCO − 3 ), which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric CO 2 levels increase. Carbon dioxide

1352-469: Is Emiliania huxleyi whose calcite scales have formed the basis of many sedimentary rocks such as limestone , where what was previously atmospheric carbon can remain fixed for geological timescales. Plants can grow as much as 50% faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm CO 2 when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients. Elevated CO 2 levels cause increased growth reflected in

1456-419: Is 304.128(15) K (30.978(15) °C) at 7.3773(30) MPa (72.808(30) atm). Another form of solid carbon dioxide observed at high pressure is an amorphous glass-like solid. This form of glass, called carbonia , is produced by supercooling heated CO 2 at extreme pressures (40–48  GPa , or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil . This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in

1560-566: Is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere. About half of excess CO 2 emissions to the atmosphere are absorbed by land and ocean carbon sinks . These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and wildfires result in the CO 2 being released back into the atmosphere. CO 2 is eventually sequestered (stored for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits like coal , petroleum and natural gas . Nearly all CO2 produced by humans goes into

1664-406: Is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CO 2 . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature and at normally-encountered concentrations it is odorless. As the source of carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric CO 2 is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In

1768-653: Is a natural and essential component of the atmosphere, but it is also a greenhouse gas—a byproduct of fossil fuels emissions from vehicles and such stationary sources as electric, cement, ethanol, and fertilizer plants—that has been considered a cause of climate change. The KGS-led project has received to date nearly $ 21.5 million in cooperative agreement funding from the U.S. Department of Energy. This funding has helped support drilling and evaluation of wells in Sumner County south of Wichita, Ellis County north of Hays, and Haskell County northwest of Liberal. The cooperative agreement

1872-531: Is about 32% of the cumulative depletion during the entire 20th century. In the United States, the biggest users of water from aquifers include agricultural irrigation and oil and coal extraction. "Cumulative total groundwater depletion in the United States accelerated in the late 1940s and continued at an almost steady linear rate through the end of the century. In addition to widely recognized environmental consequences, groundwater depletion also adversely impacts

1976-415: Is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism . This includes all plants, algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria. In vertebrates , the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g., amphibians ) or the gills (e.g., fish ), from where it dissolves in

2080-402: Is commercially used in its solid form, commonly known as " dry ice ". The solid-to-gas phase transition occurs at 194.7 Kelvin and is called sublimation . The symmetry of a carbon dioxide molecule is linear and centrosymmetric at its equilibrium geometry. The length of the carbon–oxygen bond in carbon dioxide is 116.3  pm , noticeably shorter than the roughly 140 pm length of

2184-448: Is essential considering declining levels of the aquifer. The local non-profit organization Ogallala Commons, named for the aquifer itself, which not only collaborates and supports the local communicates, also works to conserve the Ogallala Aquifer and the surrounding area. Eleven farmers in 2013 participated in the conservation program, with some planting in dry earth, rather than watered soil. They are leaving more space between plants,

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2288-472: Is generally greater in the Northern Plains. The depth of the water below the surface of the land ranges from almost 400 feet (120 m) in parts of the north to between 100 and 200 feet (30 and 61 m) throughout much of the south. Present-day recharge of the aquifer with fresh water occurs at an exceedingly slow rate, suggesting that much of the water in its pore spaces is paleowater , dating back to

2392-632: Is one of the main causes of excessive CO 2 concentrations in closed spaces, leading to poor indoor air quality . Carbon dioxide differential above outdoor concentrations at steady state conditions (when the occupancy and ventilation system operation are sufficiently long that CO 2 concentration has stabilized) are sometimes used to estimate ventilation rates per person. Higher CO 2 concentrations are associated with occupant health, comfort and performance degradation. ASHRAE Standard 62.1–2007 ventilation rates may result in indoor concentrations up to 2,100 ppm above ambient outdoor conditions. Thus if

2496-410: Is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction: The redox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about −0.53 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode . The nickel-containing enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase catalyses this process. Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants and cyanobacteria ) use the energy contained in sunlight to photosynthesize simple sugars from CO 2 absorbed from

2600-613: Is part of the High Plains Aquifer System, and resides in the Ogallala Formation , which is the principal geologic unit underlying 80% of the High Plains . Large-scale extraction for agricultural purposes started after World War II due partially to center pivot irrigation and to the adaptation of automotive engines to power groundwater wells. Today about 27% of the irrigated land in the entire United States lies over

2704-405: Is produced as a by-product. Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase , commonly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is the enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, the production of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate from CO 2 and ribulose bisphosphate , as shown in the diagram at left. RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant protein on Earth. Phototrophs use

2808-472: Is the true first acid dissociation constant, defined as where the denominator includes only covalently bound H 2 CO 3 and does not include hydrated CO 2 (aq). The much smaller and often-quoted value near 4.16 × 10 (or pK a1 = 6.38) is an apparent value calculated on the (incorrect) assumption that all dissolved CO 2 is present as carbonic acid, so that Since most of the dissolved CO 2 remains as CO 2 molecules, K a1 (apparent) has

2912-552: Is the largest ever received by the KGS. In the summer of 2013, CO 2 transported from the Abengoa Bioenergy Corporation's ethanol plant near Colwich will be injected at the KGS Wellington field site in Sumner County for both enhanced oil recovery and CO 2 sequestration in the deep Arbuckle saline aquifer. The Arbuckle is a porous rock group that contains saline water unfit for human consumption in that area of

3016-545: Is the main cause of these increased CO 2 concentrations, which are the primary cause of climate change . Its concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian was regulated by organisms and geological features. Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in a process called photosynthesis , which produces oxygen as

3120-423: Is then measured to produce images of underground rock layers. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has awarded the KGS a grant to advance the research and development of an automated subterrain anomaly-detection system using active seismic-imaging (ASI) technologies to be used for clandestine tunnel detection, classification, and evaluation. The KGS also received Corps funding for a study of unconsolidated sediments on

3224-419: Is trivially due to the fact that the nuclear motion volume element vanishes for linear geometries. This is so for all molecules except diatomic molecules . Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it reversibly forms H 2 CO 3 (carbonic acid), which is a weak acid , because its ionization in water is incomplete. The hydration equilibrium constant of carbonic acid is, at 25 °C: Hence,

Kansas Geological Survey - Misplaced Pages Continue

3328-475: Is used by Kansas water agencies to assess the impact of pumping reductions on groundwater availability in that portion of the aquifer. The U.S. Department of Energy is funding another KGS project on the integrated use of surface and subsurface nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) for measuring and mapping saturated hydraulic conductivity in three dimensions. The U.S. Geological Survey helped fund a KGS study on aquifer storage and recovery in near-surface aquifers through

3432-465: Is used in CO 2 scrubbers and has been suggested as a possible starting point for carbon capture and storage by amine gas treating . Only very strong nucleophiles, like the carbanions provided by Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with CO 2 to give carboxylates : In metal carbon dioxide complexes , CO 2 serves as a ligand , which can facilitate the conversion of CO 2 to other chemicals. The reduction of CO 2 to CO

3536-569: The Athabasca oil sands of Alberta to refineries near Houston, Texas . The proposed route of the pipeline crosses the eastern part of the Nebraska Sandhills ; opponents of the route cite the risk to the Ogallala Aquifer posed by the possibility of contamination from spilled dilute bitumen . Pipeline industry spokesmen have noted that thousands of miles of existing pipelines carrying crude oil and refined liquid hydrocarbons have crossed over

3640-520: The Conservation Reserve Program , along with increased restrictions on water use at the state level. Since the 1940s, pumping from the Ogallala has drawn the aquifer down by more than 300 feet (90 m) in some areas. Producers have taken steps to reduce their reliance on irrigated water. Streamlined operations allow them to produce significantly greater yield using roughly the same amount of water needed four decades ago. Still, losses to

3744-507: The Dakota Formation in Kansas, Nebraska , and Iowa by Greg A. Ludvigson et al. GeoKansas on the KGS website features online educational information on the rocks, minerals, fossils, and other natural resources in Kansas as well as the location of scenic and geologic places of interest throughout the state. The KGS online photo library provides hundreds of county-by-county photographs of

3848-473: The Great Plains in the United States. As one of the world's largest aquifers, it underlies an area of approximately 174,000 sq mi (450,000 km ) in portions of eight states ( South Dakota , Nebraska , Wyoming , Colorado , Kansas , Oklahoma , New Mexico , and Texas ). It was named in 1898 by geologist N. H. Darton from its type locality near the town of Ogallala, Nebraska . The aquifer

3952-660: The KGS interactive oil and gas field map . In support of the CO 2 sequestration and enhanced oil recovery project, the Data Resources Library added a large quantity of new oil and gas records and data to its online database, and the Drill Core Library added important new collections to its inventory. The KGS "High Plains Aquifer Atlas" is now online. It features more than 70 maps—several animated or interactive. One provides real-time data from wells continuously monitored by

4056-544: The Platte , run below the water level of the aquifer. Because of this, the rivers receive groundwater flow (baseflow), carrying it out of the region rather than recharging the aquifer. The $ 46.1-million Optima Lake dam in western Oklahoma was rendered useless when the dropping level of the aquifer drastically reduced flow of the Beaver River , the lake's intended source of water. The depletion between 2001 and 2008, inclusive,

4160-402: The most recent ice age and probably earlier. Groundwater within the Ogallala generally flows from west to east at an average rate of a foot per day. Hydraulic conductivity , or the ability for a fluid (water) to move through porous material, ranges from 25 to 300 feet (7.6 to 91.4 m) per day. Water quality within the Ogallala varies with the highest quality for drinking and irrigation in

4264-539: The water consumption efficiency of the center-pivot irrigator improved over the years, farmers chose to plant more intensively, irrigate more land, and grow thirstier crops rather than reduce water consumption--an example of the Jevons Paradox in practice. One approach to reducing the amount of groundwater used is to employ treated recycled water for irrigation; another approach is to change to crops that require less water, such as sunflowers . Several rivers, such as

Kansas Geological Survey - Misplaced Pages Continue

4368-471: The 2.3 million people (1990 census) who live within the boundaries of the High Plains study area. The deposition of aquifer material dates back two to six million years, from the late Miocene to early Pliocene ages when the southern Rocky Mountains were still tectonically active. From the uplands to the west, rivers and streams cut channels in a generally west to east or southeast direction. Erosion of

4472-550: The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission in preparing environmental impact statements for other proposed TransCanada projects. Although it is "common for companies applying to build government projects to be involved in assigning and paying for the impact analysis", several opponents of the project suggested there could be a conflict of interest. In response to that concern, the Department of State's Office of

4576-616: The Inspector General conducted an investigation of the potential conflict of interest. The February 2012 report of that investigation states no conflict of interest existed either in the selection of the contractor or in the preparation of the environmental impact statement. U.S. President Barack Obama "initially rejected the Keystone XL pipeline in January 2012, saying he wanted more time for an environmental review." On February 17, 2013,

4680-439: The KGS and another allows users to watch the progressive change in water levels since 1996. The High Plains aquifer, a massive network of water-bearing formations that underlies parts of eight states, includes the extensive Ogallala aquifer and is the primary source of municipal, industrial, and irrigation water for much of western and central Kansas. Declines in the High Plains aquifer of western Kansas continue to dominate much of

4784-647: The KGS work on water. To monitor the condition of the High Plains aquifer, the KGS and the Division of Water Resources (DWR) of the Kansas Department of Agriculture measure groundwater levels , with landowner permission, in about 1,400 wells in 47 western and central Kansas counties every January. The results are available online via the WIZARD database . The KGS also provides a Kansas Master Groundwater Well Inventory (MWI) —a central repository that imports and links together

4888-399: The KGS. While DASC has been located at the KGS since its inception in 1989, this bill is the first statutory recognition of DASC and its location at the KGS. The KGS conducts an annual Kansas Field Conference, undertaken since 1995, to provide state legislators, state agency staff, local government officials, business people, and other decision-makers an opportunity to visit different parts of

4992-709: The Kansas Geological Society to develop software for the display of digital well logs. The KGS provides a variety of information related to oil and gas production through the KGS website, the Data Resources Library and Drill Core Library in Lawrence, and the Wichita Well Sample Library , which collects, archives, and loans cuttings samples from more than 130,000 wells drilled in Kansas. Data on Kansas oil and gas production are available through

5096-620: The Keystone XL pipeline in January 2017. On January 20, 2021, President Joe Biden signed an executive order to revoke the permit that was granted to TC Energy Corporation for the Keystone XL Pipeline (Phase 4). On June 9, 2021, TC Energy abandoned plans for the Keystone XL Pipeline. Since 2010, the North Plains Groundwater Conservation District, which encompasses eight counties north of Amarillo , including Moore and Dallam Counties, has offered

5200-541: The Mississippian play in south-central Kansas, the KGS published a circular on hydraulic fracturing in Kansas. The KGS also studies coalbed methane (CBM) and other unconventional sources of natural gas. With funding from the Kansas Corporation Commission and the Kansas Department of Revenue, the KGS continues development of online methods for reporting oil and gas information to the state of Kansas and from

5304-622: The Ogallala Aquifer for years, in southeast Wyoming, eastern Colorado and New Mexico, western Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The Pioneer crude oil pipeline crosses east-west across Nebraska, and the Pony Express pipeline , which crosses the Ogallala Aquifer in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas, was being converted as of 2013 from natural gas to crude oil, under a permit from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission . As

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5408-484: The Ogallala varies with the shape of then-prevailing surface, being deepest where it fills ancient valleys and channels. The Ogallala Formation consists mostly of coarse sedimentary rocks in its deeper sections, which transition upward into finer-grained material. The water-saturated thickness of the Ogallala Formation ranges from a few feet to more than 1,000 feet. Its deepest part is 1200 ft. (300 m) and

5512-517: The Rockies provided alluvial and aeolian sediment that filled the ancient channels and eventually covered the entire area of the present-day aquifer, forming the water-bearing Ogallala Formation. In that respect, the process is similar to those currently prevailing in other modern rivers of the area, such as the Kansas River and its tributaries. The major differences are time and depth. The depth of

5616-484: The Texas Panhandle, the water table has been drained (dewatered). "Vast stretches of Texas farmland lying over the aquifer no longer support irrigation. In west-central Kansas, up to a fifth of the irrigated farmland along a 100-mile swath (160 km) of the aquifer has already gone dry." The center-pivot irrigation system is considered to be a highly efficient system which helps conserve water. However, by 2013, as

5720-415: The United States for ranching livestock , and growing corn , wheat , and soybeans . The success of large-scale farming in areas that do not have adequate precipitation and do not always have perennial surface water for diversion has depended heavily on pumping groundwater for irrigation. Early settlers of the semiarid High Plains were plagued by crop failures due to cycles of drought , culminating in

5824-570: The Vice Chancellor for Research and Graduate Studies at the University of Kansas and has a 12-member advisory council to provide review and guidance. The KGS, with industry and government partners, continues a multi-year project to test the safety and efficacy of storing carbon dioxide (CO 2 )—from industrial processes and other sources—deep underground and also using it to squeeze out trapped oil unreachable by traditional recovery methods. CO 2

5928-593: The Yuma Proving Grounds in Arizona; U.S. Department of Interior and Bureau of Reclamation funding for a seismic study at A.V. Watkins Dam in Utah; and U.S. Geological Survey funding to study geophysical-methods development for subsurface characterization of near-surface settings. The KGS produces printed and online Public Information Circulars (PICs) and other resources, both technical and educational, about KGS research and

6032-439: The air and water: Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations, the gas is odorless; however, at sufficiently high concentrations, it has a sharp, acidic odor. At standard temperature and pressure , the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m , about 1.53 times that of air . Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm ). At a pressure of 1 atm (0.101325 MPa),

6136-444: The air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation , acting as a greenhouse gas . Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater , lakes , ice caps , and seawater . It is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421  parts per million (ppm) , or about 0.042% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.028%. Burning fossil fuels

6240-424: The amount of evaporation, which in turn increases the amount of caliche in the soil. Both mechanisms reduce the amount of recharge water that reaches the water table. Recharge in the aquifer ranges from 0.024 inches (0.61 mm) per year in parts of Texas and New Mexico to 6 inches (150 mm) per year in south-central Kansas. The regions overlying the Ogallala Aquifer are some of the most productive regions in

6344-574: The aquifer between 2001 and 2011 equated to a third of its cumulative depletion during the entire 20th century. The Ogallala is recharged primarily by rainwater, but only about one inch of precipitation actually reaches the aquifer annually. Rainfall in most of the Texas High Plains is minimal, evaporation is high, and infiltration rates are slow. During the 1990s, the aquifer held some three billion acre-feet of groundwater used for crop irrigation as well as drinking water in urban areas. The demand for

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6448-407: The aquifer from the land surface. However, the soil of the playa lakes is different and not lined with caliche, making these some of the few areas where the aquifer can recharge. The destruction of playas by farmers and development decreases the available recharge area. The prevalence of the caliche is partly due to the ready evaporation of soil moisture and the semiarid climate; the aridity increases

6552-471: The aquifer, but levels are generally still dropping in areas including southwestern Kansas and the Texas Panhandle . In other areas, such as parts of eastern and central Nebraska and of the region south of Lubbock, Texas , water levels have risen since 1980. The center-pivot irrigator was described as the "villain" in a 2013 New York Times article, "Wells Dry, Fertile Plains Turn to Dust" recounting

6656-411: The aquifer, which yields about 30% of the ground water used for irrigation in the United States. The aquifer is at risk of over-extraction and pollution. Since 1950, agricultural irrigation has reduced the saturated volume of the aquifer by an estimated 9%. Once depleted, the aquifer will take over 6,000 years to replenish naturally through rainfall. The aquifer system supplies drinking water to 82% of

6760-469: The aquifer. An aquifer is a groundwater storage reservoir in the water cycle . While groundwater is a renewable source, reserves replenish relatively slowly. The USGS has performed several studies of the aquifer, to determine what is coming in ( groundwater recharge from the surface), what is leaving (water pumped out and baseflow to streams), and what the net changes in storage are (rise, fall or no change). The USGS estimated that total water storage

6864-430: The atmosphere. Less than 1% of CO2 produced annually is put to commercial use, mostly in the fertilizer industry and in the oil and gas industry for enhanced oil recovery . Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses. Carbon dioxide cannot be liquefied at atmospheric pressure. Low-temperature carbon dioxide

6968-470: The basin. Farmers on their own land may draw water from the aquifer without charge. Pumping costs are low because the fuel used, natural gas , is inexpensive. The North Plains district first established limits on pumping in 2005 and tightened the regulations four years later. Certain wells are now required to have meters. Yet another challenge facing the district is that higher prices for crops have prompted some to plant additional fields and further increase

7072-806: The condition. There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous CO 2 exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%. Occupational CO 2 exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period. At this CO 2 concentration, International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption. Studies in animals at 0.5% CO 2 have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure. A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant negative effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1% (1000   ppm) CO 2 likely due to CO 2 induced increases in cerebral blood flow. Another study observed

7176-510: The degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm (wavelength 15.0 μm). The symmetric stretching mode does not create an electric dipole so is not observed in IR spectroscopy, but it is detected in Raman spectroscopy at 1388 cm (wavelength 7.20 μm), with a Fermi resonance doublet at 1285 cm . In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep

7280-431: The development of a new recharge approach using small-diameter low-cost wells. The KGS also continues work with Michigan State University and others as part of an NSF-funded study to model the entire High Plains aquifer. A range of water-level and water-well information is available through the KGS website and the Data Resources Library in Lawrence. Inquiries for these data have increased due to ongoing drought conditions in

7384-444: The disastrous Dust Bowl of the 1930s. Only after World War II , when center-pivot irrigation became available, was the land mass of the High Plains aquifer system transformed into one of the most agriculturally productive regions in the world. Ground water levels decline when the rate of extraction by irrigation exceeds the rate of recharge. At places, the water table was measured to drop more than 5 ft (1.5 m) per year at

7488-566: The dispersing effects of wind, it can collect in sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, causing animals located therein to be suffocated. Carrion feeders attracted to the carcasses are then also killed. Children have been killed in the same way near the city of Goma by CO 2 emissions from the nearby volcano Mount Nyiragongo . The Swahili term for this phenomenon is mazuku . Adaptation to increased concentrations of CO 2 occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance

7592-541: The effects of blood acidification ( acidosis ). Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine ) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days. Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels. Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis , adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse

7696-551: The electrical conductivity of fully deionized water without CO 2 saturation is comparably low in relation to these data. CO 2 is a potent electrophile having an electrophilic reactivity that is comparable to benzaldehyde or strongly electrophilic α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds . However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with CO 2 are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible. The reversible reaction of carbon dioxide with amines to make carbamates

7800-469: The gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below 194.6855(30) K (−78.4645(30) °C) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above this temperature. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice . Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm); the triple point of carbon dioxide is 216.592(3) K (−56.558(3) °C) at 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm) (see phase diagram). The critical point

7904-467: The geology section focus on Cretaceous and Neogene stratigraphy and paleoclimatology of the Great Plains . The KGS seismic-reflection program addresses engineering and subsidence issues in Kansas and elsewhere. Using seismic reflection techniques, KGS researchers create a vibration—with an explosion or specially equipped truck—that sends seismic (sound) waves into the ground. The rebounding energy, which reflects off different rocks in different ways,

8008-597: The harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated CO 2 in FACE experiments. Increased atmospheric CO 2 concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants which leads to reduced water usage and increased water-use efficiency . Studies using FACE have shown that CO 2 enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants. This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain

8112-407: The hazards of overpumping. The rate at which groundwater is recharged is limited by several factors. Much of the plains region is semiarid , with steady winds that hasten evaporation of surface water and precipitation. In many locations, the aquifer is overlain, in the vadose zone , with a shallow layer of caliche that is practically impermeable ; this limits the amount of water able to recharge

8216-491: The lead agency in the transboundary pipeline project, the U.S. State Department commissioned an environmental-impact assessment as required by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 . The Environmental Impact Statement concluded that the project posed little threat of "adverse environmental impacts", the report was drafted by Cardno Entrix , a company that assisted both the Department of State and

8320-480: The long-term sustainability of groundwater supplies to help meet the nation’s water needs." According to Matthew Sanderson, a professor of sociology at Kansas State University , these trends are exacerbated by an agricultural subsidy system and a United States tax code that encourage overinvestment in water-using technology due to a treadmill of production . Robertson suggests federal policy reforms to increase incentives to conserve groundwater, such as amendments to

8424-444: The majority of the carbon dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid, but remains as CO 2 molecules, not affecting the pH. The relative concentrations of CO 2 , H 2 CO 3 , and the deprotonated forms HCO − 3 ( bicarbonate ) and CO 2− 3 ( carbonate ) depend on the pH . As shown in a Bjerrum plot , in neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming

8528-443: The most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater. In very alkaline water (pH > 10.4), the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate. The oceans, being mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2–8.5, contain about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter. Being diprotic , carbonic acid has two acid dissociation constants , the first one for the dissociation into the bicarbonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion ( HCO − 3 ): This

8632-440: The northern region while the southern region had the poorest. Human and natural processes over the past 60 to 70 years, including irrigation density, climate, and nitrogen applications, have caused higher concentrations of contaminants including nitrates. Nitrate levels generally meet USGS water quality standards, but continue to gradually increase over time. This trend can impact the future groundwater sustainability for portions of

8736-425: The northwest Kansas Kanorado Locality, the northeast Kansas Coffey site, and other locations thought to harbor pre-Clovis cultural deposits that may date to more than 11,500 before present. Geoarcheology encompasses the investigation and interpretation of sediments, soils, and landforms to help identify areas of potential cultural deposits, date finds, and assess prehistoric environments. Other KGS research projects in

8840-443: The outdoor concentration is 400 ppm, indoor concentrations may reach 2,500 ppm with ventilation rates that meet this industry consensus standard. Concentrations in poorly ventilated spaces can be found even higher than this (range of 3,000 or 4,000 ppm). Ogallala aquifer The Ogallala Aquifer ( oh-gə- LAH -lə ) is a shallow water table aquifer surrounded by sand, silt, clay, and gravel located beneath

8944-495: The presence of carbon dioxide in water also affects its electrical properties. When carbon dioxide dissolves in desalinated water, the electrical conductivity increases significantly from below 1 μS/cm to nearly 30 μS/cm. When heated, the water begins to gradually lose the conductivity induced by the presence of C O 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {CO_{2}} } , especially noticeable as temperatures exceed 30 °C. The temperature dependence of

9048-499: The presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour. Concentrations of more than 10% may cause convulsions, coma, and death. CO 2 levels of more than 30% act rapidly leading to loss of consciousness in seconds. Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, without

9152-496: The products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for the biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such as polysaccharides , nucleic acids , and proteins. These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of the food chains and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves. Some important phototrophs, the coccolithophores synthesise hard calcium carbonate scales. A globally significant species of coccolithophore

9256-536: The relentless decline of parts of the Ogallala Aquifer. Sixty years of intensive farming using huge center-pivot irrigators has emptied parts of the High Plains Aquifer. Hundreds to thousands of years of rainfall would be needed to replace the groundwater in the depleted aquifer. In Kansas in 1950, irrigated cropland covered 250,000 acres (100,000 ha); with the use of center-pivot irrigation, nearly three million acres of land were irrigated. In some places in

9360-420: The same amount of protein. The concentration of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and flavonoids can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of CO 2 . Plants also emit CO 2 during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis , are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of CO 2 each year,

9464-411: The same frequency and same energy, because of the symmetry of the molecule. When a molecule touches a surface or touches another molecule, the two bending modes can differ in frequency because the interaction is different for the two modes. Some of the vibrational modes are observed in the infrared (IR) spectrum : the antisymmetric stretching mode at wavenumber 2349 cm (wavelength 4.25 μm) and

9568-568: The southwest. A detailed KGS study underway of the stratigraphic architecture of the High Plains aquifer is being funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF). In particular, the KGS used sonic drilling capabilities to recover unconsolidated core from the Ogallala Formation in Haskell County. KGS geoarcheological studies include field investigations, funded by KU's endowed Odyssey Archaeological Research Program, at

9672-465: The state and concerns over water-level declines in the High Plains aquifer. With KGS support, the Kansas Department of Health and Environment released a program that allows online submission of digital water-well drilling records. The KGS continues to update and create new county geologic maps, supported, in large part, by the U.S. Geological Survey STATEMAP project. New geologic maps are now available for Saline County in central Kansas and Kearny County in

9776-610: The state and is separated from shallower freshwater aquifers by thousands of feet of impermeable rock. This will be the first time CO 2 emitted during industrial activities will be captured and injected underground for long-term storage in Kansas. Sequestration of CO 2 in saline aquifers is being tested throughout the United States, with a larger test currently underway in Illinois. In response to demand for information on horizontal wells and hydraulic fracturing following increased public awareness and acceleration of horizontal drilling in

9880-680: The state and learn about natural resources. Topics on the 2019 trip to south-central Kansas included wetland management at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Area and Quivira National Wildlife Refuge, oil-refining operations, the city of Wichita's Aquifer Storage and Recovery project, cotton ginning, underground waste disposal, salt mining, and wildlife management. Co-sponsors were the KGS; Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks, and Tourism; Kansas Water Office; Kansas Department of Transportation; Kansas Department of Agriculture; and Kansas Department of Health and Environment. Kansas Field Conference guidebooks are available online. Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide

9984-577: The state's geology and natural resources. Recent technical KGS bulletins, published online under the peer-reviewed journal Midcontinent Research . In October 2019, the journal replaced the previous Kansas Geological Survey journal, Current Research in Earth Sciences, which included a work on fusulinids from the Howe Limestone Member in northeastern Kansas by Gregory P. Wahlman and Ronald R. West and another on sequence stratigraphic architecture of

10088-454: The state's geology and resources. The KGS is located in Lawrence on the west campus of the University of Kansas and has a Well Sample Library in Wichita. With a staff of 74 full-time employees and about 30 student employees, the KGS has an annual state-appropriated budget of approximately $ 5.9 million. Another $ 11.7 million in grants and contracts was awarded in fiscal year 2012. The KGS reports to

10192-507: The state's natural resources. The KGS Data Access and Support Center (DASC) located at the KGS and operating under the direction of the Kansas GIS Policy Board and Kansas GIS Director—serves as the geospatial data clearinghouse for the state of Kansas. The DASC database includes Kansas GIS data on water, energy, and environmental resources. House Bill 2175, passed by the legislature in 2012, directs continued funding to DASC through

10296-556: The state's primary groundwater well data sets—and continuously monitors and collects data from three western Kansas wells as part of its index-well program . The KGS releases the real-time data from the index wells through the High Plains Aquifer Atlas. The KGS recently completed a modeling study of the High Plains aquifer in southwestern Kansas for the area in GMD 3, one of the state's five Groundwater Management Districts. The model

10400-473: The time of maximum extraction. In extreme cases, the deepening of wells was required to reach the steadily falling water table. In the 21st century, recognition of the significance of the aquifer has led to increased coverage from regional and international journalists. Water conservation practices ( terracing and crop rotation ), more efficient irrigation methods (center pivot and drip ), and reduced area under irrigation have helped to slow depletion of

10504-535: The upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (412 ppm), depending on the location. In humans, exposure to CO 2 at concentrations greater than 5% causes the development of hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis . Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in

10608-501: The water outstrips its replenishment. The water level is particularly on the decline in Texas and New Mexico. Continued long-term use of the aquifer is "troublesome and in need of major reevaluation," according to the historian Paul H. Carlson , professor-emeritus from Texas Tech University in Lubbock . In 2008, TransCanada Corporation proposed the construction of the 1,661-mile (2,673 km) Keystone XL pipeline to carry oil from

10712-546: The water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration. Carbon fixation is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae and cyanobacteria into energy-rich organic molecules such as glucose , thus creating their own food by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars from which other organic compounds can be constructed, and oxygen

10816-606: Was about 2,925,000,000 acre-feet (3,608 km ) in 2005. Withdrawals from the Ogallala Aquifer for irrigation amounted to 26 km (21,000,000 acre⋅ft) in 2000. Since major groundwater pumping began in the late 1940s, overdraft from the High Plains Aquifer has amounted to 332,000,000 acre-feet (410 km ), 85% of the volume of Lake Erie. Many farmers in the Texas High Plains , which rely particularly on groundwater, are now turning away from irrigated agriculture as pumping costs have risen and as they have become aware of

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