Misplaced Pages

#896103

182-484: Traditional Kalaripayattu ( IPA: [kɐɭɐɾipːɐjɐtːɨ̆] ; also known simply as Kalari ) is an Indian martial art that originated in Kerala , a state on the southwestern coast of India during the 11th–12th century CE. Kalaripayattu is a martial art which developed out of combat-techniques of the 11th-12th century battlefield, with weapons and combative techniques that are unique to Kerala. The word Kalaripayattu

364-564: A vajra . References to marmam are also found in the Atharva Veda . With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial artists knew about and practiced attacking or defending vital points. Sushruta (c. 6th century BCE) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his Sushruta Samhita . Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with

546-478: A boxing art while speaking to Manjusri . It also categorised combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples and throws. The Lotus Sutra makes further mention of a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara . Another Buddhist sutra called Hongyo-kyo (佛本行集經) describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta . Siddhartha Gautama himself

728-450: A cartoon made by Toonz Animation India for Cartoon Network , features Kalaripayattu practitioners as the principal characters. Kalaripayattu is also seen in the Indian animated film Arjun: The Warrior Prince (2012). In the Indian role-playing game Ashwathama — The Immortal , which is based on Indian mythology , the fight scenes were choreographed using Kalaripayattu, with the movements of

910-506: A cask of honey – were trivial, and failed to impress. While the Zamorin's officials wondered at why there was no gold or silver, the Muslim merchants who considered da Gama their rival suggested that the latter was only an ordinary pirate and not a royal ambassador. Vasco da Gama's request for permission to leave a factor behind him in charge of the merchandise he could not sell was turned down by

1092-542: A commercial monopoly of these commodities for several decades. It was not until a century later that other European powers were able to challenge Portugal's monopoly and naval supremacy in the Cape Route . Da Gama led two of the Portuguese India Armadas , the first and the fourth. The latter was the largest and departed for India three years after his return from the first one. For his contributions, in 1524 da Gama

1274-417: A demon in the form of a water buffalo , lasts for 45 days. The Manusmriti tells that if a warrior's topknot comes loose during such a fight or duel, the opponent must give him time to bind his hair before continuing. The Charanavyuha authored by Shaunaka mentions four upaveda (applied Vedas). Included among them are archery ( dhanurveda ) and military sciences ( shastrashastra ), the mastery of which

1456-604: A fist or stick. Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda , which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma kalai and Marma adi. In India, the Indian Kalaripayattu Federation (IKF) in Thiruvananthapuram is one of the primary governing bodies of Kalaripayattu. It is recognized by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports of

1638-533: A forced conversion to Christianity. After stopping at Cannanore, Gama drove his fleet before Kozhikode, demanding redress for the treatment of Cabral. Having known of the fate of the pilgrims' ship, the Zamorin adopted a conciliatory attitude towards the Portuguese and expressed willingness to sign a new treaty, but da Gama made a call to the Hindu king to expel all Muslims from Kozhikode before beginning negotiations, which

1820-552: A heavily militaristic culture, characterising them as " martial races " and employing them in the armed forces. Sikhs – already known among Indians for their martial practices – were particularly valued by the colonists as soldiers and guards, and were posted throughout not only India but Southeast Asia and other parts of the British Empire . Members of the army were allowed to box as a way of settling disputes, provided that they were still able to carry out their duties as soldiers after

2002-448: A hereditary fief (the town his father, Estêvão, had once held as a comenda ). This turned out to be a complicated affair, for Sines still belonged to the Order of Santiago. The master of the Order, Jorge de Lencastre , might have endorsed the reward – after all, da Gama was a Santiago knight, one of their own, and a close associate of Lencastre himself. But the fact that Sines was awarded by

SECTION 10

#1732870061897

2184-557: A kalari is a seven-step raised platform with a lotus-shaped kumbha or figure, at its apex. The art uses concepts similar to the ancient Indian medical text, the Ayurveda , and the seven steps represent the seven dhatu and the kosha of the human body as per Ayurvedic traditions. The kumbha at the apex of the poothara is said to represent Bhagavathy or the heart of the individual. The Ganapatithara ("Ground of Ganapati " in Malayalam)

2366-446: A kshatriya dynasty in northern India which exceeded the preceding Gupta Empire. During this period, Emperor Nagabhata I (750–780 AD) and Mihir Bhoja I (836–890) commissioned various texts on martial arts, and were themselves practitioners of these systems. Shiva Dhanuveda was composed in this era. The khadga , a two-handed broad-tipped heavy longsword, was given special preference. It was even used for khadga-puja , ritualised worship of

2548-567: A little while in mourning. He eventually took passage on an Azorean caravel and finally arrived in Lisbon on 29 August 1499 (according to Barros), or early September (8th or 18th, according to other sources). Despite his melancholic mood, da Gama was given a hero's welcome and showered with honors, including a triumphal procession and public festivities. King Manuel wrote two letters in which he described da Gama's first voyage, in July and August 1499, soon after

2730-507: A match. The particular form of boxing used by the Punjabi soldiers was loh-musti , as the kara worn by Sikhs could be wielded like brass knuckles . The resurgence of public interest in kalaripayat began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout south India which characterised the growing reaction against British colonial rule. During

2912-528: A new order in Portuguese India, replacing all the old officials with his own appointments. But da Gama contracted malaria not long after arriving and died in the city of Cochin on Christmas Eve in 1524, three months after his arrival. As per royal instructions, da Gama was succeeded as governor of India by one of the captains who had come with him, Henrique de Menezes (no relation to Duarte). Da Gama's sons Estêvão and Paulo immediately lost their posts and joined

3094-672: A notable Bharatanatyam dancer. In 2017, a 73-year-old gurukkal from Vadakara , Sri Meenakshi Amma , was awarded the Padma Sri by the Government of India for her contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu. In January 2021, the Government of Kerala announced the opening of The Kalaripayattu Academy in Kerala 's capital, Thiruvananthapuram , under the management of the Kerala Department of Tourism . The Kalaripayattu Academy will comprise an area of 3,500 feet, and will be part of

3276-458: A peculiar kind of sword which, though curved towards the point, is straight near the handle. They wield it with great dexterity. The skill that they exhibit passes all description. Others are skillful in fighting with daggers and knives of various forms; of these there are upwards of a hundred thousand. Each class has a different name; they also differ in their performances. At court, there are a thousand gladiators always in readiness." Avid hunters,

3458-548: A popular sport among the Mughals was shikar or tiger-hunting. While often done with arrows and later even rifles, it was considered most impressive to kill a tiger with a hand-to-hand weapon such as a sword or dagger. A warrior who managed to best a tiger would be awarded the title of Pachmar . In the 16th century, Madhusudana Saraswati of Bengal organised a section of the Naga tradition of armed sannyasi in order to protect Hindus from

3640-457: A prolonged battle between Arjuna and Karna using bows, swords, trees, rocks and fists. Another unarmed battle in the Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts. The oldest recorded organized unarmed fighting art in the Indian subcontinent is malla-yuddha or combat-wrestling, codified into four forms in

3822-495: A quiet life, unwelcome in the royal court and sidelined from Indian affairs. His attempts to return to the favor of Manuel I, including switching over to the Order of Christ in 1507, yielded little. Almeida, the larger-than-life Afonso de Albuquerque and, later on, Albergaria and Sequeira , were the king's preferred point men for India. After Ferdinand Magellan defected to the Crown of Castile in 1518, Vasco da Gama threatened to do

SECTION 20

#1732870061897

4004-563: A section found in the Vedas (1500 BCE - 1100 BCE) contains references to martial arts. Indian epics contain the earliest accounts of combat, both armed and bare-handed. Most deities of the Hindu-Buddhist pantheon are armed with their own personal weapon, and are revered not only as master martial artists but often as originators of those systems themselves. The Mahabharata tells of fighters armed only with daggers besting lions, and describes

4186-479: A series of revolts. Silambam was also banned and became more common in the Malay Peninsula than its native Tamil Nadu. Nevertheless, traditional fighting systems persisted, sometimes even under the patronage of enthusiastic British spectators who tended to remark on the violence of native boxing and the acrobatic movements characteristic of Indian fighting styles. The British took advantage of communities with

4368-508: A small squadron of caravels under the command of his uncle, Vicente Sodré, to patrol the Indian coast, to continue harassing Kozhikode shipping, and to protect the Portuguese factories at Cochin and Cannanore from the Zamorin's inevitable reprisals. Vasco da Gama arrived back in Portugal in September 1503, effectively having failed in his mission to bring the Zamorin to submission. This failure, and

4550-410: A standstill. The Zamorin ventured to dispatch a fleet of strong warships to challenge da Gama's armada, but which Gama managed to defeat in a naval battle before Kozhikode harbor. Da Gama loaded up with spices at Cochin and Cannanore , small nearby kingdoms at war with the Zamorin, whose alliances had been secured by prior Portuguese fleets. The 4th armada left India in early 1503. Da Gama left behind

4732-609: A stratum of Rajput warriors who would gather after harvest and arm peasants into militarised units, effectively acting as a self-defense squad. Prevalent in Rajasthan , Maharashtra and Bengal , they would give up their occupations and leave their families to live as mercenaries. Naga sadhu today rarely practice any form of fighting other than wrestling, but still carry trishula , swords, canes and spears. To this day their retreats are called chhauni or armed camps, and they have been known to hold mock jousts among themselves. As recently as

4914-500: A substantial hereditary royal pension of 300,000 reis . He was awarded the noble title of Dom (lord) in perpetuity for himself, his siblings and their descendants. On 30 January 1502, da Gama was awarded the title of Almirante dos mares de Arabia, Persia, India e de todo o Oriente ("Admiral of the Seas of Arabia, Persia, India and all the Orient") – an overwrought title reminiscent of

5096-520: A task that da Gama rapidly and effectively performed. From the earlier part of the 15th century, Portuguese expeditions organized by Prince Henry the Navigator had been reaching down the African coastline, principally in search of West African riches (notably, gold and slaves). They had greatly extended Portuguese maritime knowledge but had little profit to show for the effort. After Henry's death in 1460,

5278-456: A teacher, left to "fight of his own in danger". Over time, weaponry evolved and India became famous for its flexible wootz steel. The most commonly taught weapons in the Indian martial arts today are types of swords, daggers, spears, staves, cudgels, and maces. Weapons are linked to several superstitions and cultural beliefs in the Indian subcontinent. Drawing a weapon without reason is forbidden and considered by Hindus to be disrespectful to

5460-522: A term traditionally applied to the native inhabitants of India throughout antiquity] self-rule) at a time of Muslim supremacy and increasing intolerance. Utilizing speed, focused surprise attacks (typically at night and in rocky terrain), and the geography of Maharashtra , Karnataka , & South India ; the Maratha rulers were successfully able to defend their territory from the more numerous and heavily armed Mughals. The still-existing Maratha Light Infantry

5642-607: A terrible state – approximately half of the crew had died during the crossing, and many of the rest were afflicted with scurvy. Not having enough crewmen left standing to manage three ships, da Gama ordered the São Rafael scuttled off the East African coast, and the crew re-distributed to the remaining two ships, the São Gabriel and the Berrio . While there he was also granted permission by

Kalaripayattu - Misplaced Pages Continue

5824-402: A type of spear which integrated a pointed spear butt and a club near the head, making it similar to a mace. On the other hand, the longer cavalry spear was made of wood, with red cloth attached near the blade to prevent the opponent's blood from dripping to the shaft. The Marathas were revered for their skill of wielding a ten-foot spear called bothati ( ਬੋਥਾਟੀ ) from horseback. Bothati fighting

6006-512: A well-connected family of English descent. Her father and her brothers, Vicente Sodré and Brás Sodré, had links to the household of Infante Diogo, Duke of Viseu , and were prominent figures in the military Order of Christ . Vasco da Gama was the third of five sons of Estêvão da Gama and Isabel Sodré – in (probable) order of age: Paulo da Gama , João Sodré, Vasco da Gama, Pedro da Gama and Aires da Gama. Vasco also had one known sister, Teresa da Gama, who married Lopo Mendes de Vasconcelos. Little

6188-529: A wider system like Gatka , silambam or on its own. In the Kama Sutra the sage Vātsyāyana enjoins all women to practice fighting with single-stick, quarterstaff, sword and bow and arrow in addition to the art of love-making. The stick ( lathi in Prakrit ) is typically made of bamboo with steel caps at the ends to prevent it from splintering. Wooden sticks made from Indian ebony may also be used. It ranges from

6370-573: Is a combination of two Malayalam words - kalari (training ground or battleground) and payattu (training of martial arts), which is roughly translated as "practice in the arts of the battlefield". The name 'Kalari' may also be derived from the Malayalam or Sanskrit term 'Khaloorika,' which is the name of a goddess associated with Shaktism who is worshipped in Kalaripayattu. The 5th century CE South Indian ancient text on Shaiva Siddhanta , known as

6552-436: Is also credited with writing the first authoritative text and primer on Kalaripayattu, called Kalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art. The text, alongside a compilation of Sreedharan Nair's teaching notes, were translated into English by his sons S. R. A. Das and S. R. D. Prasad and then published by Westland Books . The book contains over 1,700 action photographs as well as explanations behind all of

6734-533: Is also known as, Vadakkan Kalari , and is generally regarded as the "original," form of Kalaripayattu. This system places more emphasis on physical flexibility exercises rooted on the slogan Meyy kanavanam , meaning, "make the body an eye." These exercises are done individually, as well as in combinations. After that meypayattu (a concept similar to kata in Karate) is taught. These are a combination of flexibility exercises with offensive and defensive techniques, however,

6916-416: Is also taught to the student if deemed appropriate by the gurukkal . It is claimed that experienced Kalari warriors could disable or kill their opponents by merely striking the correct marmam (vital point) on their opponent's body. This technique is taught only to the most promising and level-headed students so as to discourage misuse of the technique. Marmashastram stresses on the knowledge of marmam and

7098-485: Is also used for marma treatment ( marmachikitsa ). This system of marma treatment originated from Ayurveda , as well as Siddha medicine . Critics of Kalaripayattu have pointed out that the application of marmam techniques against neutral outsiders has not always produced verifiable results. The earliest mention of marmam is found in the Rig Veda , where Indra is said to have defeated Vritra by attacking his marmam with

7280-515: Is also widely credited for reviving and preserving Kalaripayattu by writing the first books ever written on Kalaripayattu, as well as writing the first authoritative text on the martial art. Sreedharan Nair is credited with writing Kalaripayattu , the first book ever written on Kalaripayattu, in 1937. This book was written in Malayalam , and listed the vaithari or oral commands, of all the exercises relating to meypayattu , or conditioning techniques. He

7462-462: Is built in accordance to Hindu architectural treatises such as the Vastu Shastras along with various religious traditions and customs native to Kerala . Specifications are made regarding the physical dimensions of the kalari , how deep the ground in a kalari must be, along with the material that the floor of the kalari must consist of. The floor of each kalari consists of red sand which

Kalaripayattu - Misplaced Pages Continue

7644-523: Is considered to be a distinct and separate martial art from Varma Adi due to its similarities to Northern Kalaripayattu. The similarities between the southern form of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi are likely due to geographic proximity to each other, with the Southern style of Kalaripayattu being considered a mixture of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi. While the Southern style is less commonly practiced in Kerala compared to

7826-451: Is known for writing the first books on Kalaripayattu. His first work, Kalaripayattu , written in Malayalam and published in 1937, was the first book written on Kalaripayattu. He also authored first authoritative text and primer on Kalaripayattu, called Kalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art. The text is considered to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day. For their contributions to

8008-435: Is known of da Gama's early life. Teixeira de Aragão suggests that he studied at the inland town of Évora , which is where he may have learned mathematics and navigation. Da Gama's near-contemporary Gaspar Correia and others have claimed that he studied under Abraham Zacuto , an astrologer and astronomer, but da Gama's biographer Sanjay Subrahmanyam thinks this dubious. Around 1480, da Gama followed his father (rather than

8190-469: Is mixed with specific herbs that are said to aid in the treatment of small wounds suffered during training. The directional aspects of kalari construction are also specified, such as the entrance of the kalari facing east, and the location of ritualistic structures such as the Poothara , Ganapatithara , and Guruthara , are to face the west. The Poothara ("Flower ground" or "Flower floor" in Malayalam ) in

8372-531: Is more often used in English when referring to the Panjabi-Sikh fighting style. A common way to practice precision-cutting is to slice cloves or lemons , eventually doing so while blindfolded. Pairing two swords of equal length, though considered impractical in some parts of the world, is common and was considered highly advantageous in the Indian subcontinent. Stick-fighting ( lathi khela ) may be taught as part of

8554-408: Is not known for certain how many people were in each ship's crew but approximately 55 returned, and two ships were lost. Two of the vessels were carracks , newly built for the voyage; the others were a caravel and a supply boat. The four ships were: The expedition set sail from Lisbon on 8 July 1497. It followed the route pioneered by earlier explorers along the coast of Africa via Tenerife and

8736-411: Is noted to be one of the noblest form of defense within Indian cultural heritage. As mentioned in Vedic literature, the bow and arrow is the most applauded weapon among Kshatriyas. Siddharta Gautama , Rama , Arjuna , Karna , Bhishma , Drona and Ekalavya were all said to be great archers. Dhanurveda is an ancient treatise on the science of archery. It describes the practices and uses of archery,

8918-571: Is one of the "oldest and most renowned" regiments of the Indian Army, tracing its origins to 1768. Indian martial arts underwent a period of decline after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century. More European modes of organizing kings, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional combat training associated with caste-specific duties. The British colonial government banned kalaripayat in 1804 in response to

9100-438: Is practiced with a ball-tipped lance, the end of which is covered in dye so that hits may easily be confirmed. In solo training, the spear is aimed at a pile of stones. From this was eventually developed the uniquely Indian vita which has a 5 feet (1.5 m) length of cord attached to the butt end of the weapon and tied around the spearman's wrist. Using this cord the spear can be pulled back after it has been thrown. Archery

9282-487: Is preserved in the Vadakkan Pattukkal (17th–18th century), a collection of ballads about warrior heroes and heroines from earlier periods in Kerala, such as Aromal Chekavar (16th century), Unniyarcha (16th century), and Thacholi Othenan, who were celebrated for their martial prowess, chivalry and idealism. The heroes and heroines belong mainly to two matrilinear families, one of Tiyya origin and another Nair . In

SECTION 50

#1732870061897

9464-502: Is primarily practiced in the southern regions of Kerala, and specializes in hard, impact based techniques with emphasis on hand-to-hand combat and pressure point strikes. Both systems make use of internal and external concepts. A third style, the Central style, or Madhya Kalari , is also practiced, but it is less commonly practiced than its northern and southern counterparts. A smaller, regional style of Kalaripayattu called Tulunadan Kalari ,

9646-446: Is rarely taught today. The Southern style is also known as Thekkan Kalari . Traditionally, it is believed to be a style of Kalaripayattu that is said to have been altered and influenced by Agastya . It is an essentially the northern style of Kalaripayattu that has been influenced by martial arts from neighboring regions, such as Varma Adi or Adi Murai . While the Southern form of Kalaripayattu has notable similarities to Varma Adi, it

9828-533: Is referenced in texts such as the Vadakkan Pattukal , but it is largely restricted to the Tulu Nadu region in northern Kerala and southern Karnataka. Other smaller, regional styles are also said to exist in isolated regions of Kerala, but these styles are becoming increasingly rare, and difficult to find. Examples include Dronamballi , Odimurassery , Tulu Nadan Shaiva Mura , and Kayyangali . The Northern style

10010-458: Is said to be skilled in spear-fighting, by holding his divine spear called Vel . The Indian spear is typically made of bamboo with a steel blade. It can be used in hand-to-hand combat or thrown when the fighters are farther apart. Despite primarily being a thrusting weapon, the wide spearhead also allows for many slashing techniques. By the 17th century, Rajput mercenaries in the Mughal army were using

10192-507: Is symbolically invoked by the placing of an otta , or tusk-shaped wooden stick. The paduka , or footwear, is placed at the Guruthara to symbolize the life of a gurukkal. The presiding deity of Kalaripayattu is said to be Bhadrakali or Bhagavathy . Before every training session in the kalari, salutations are provided to the presiding deities and obedience is paid to the kalari temple. Students apply tilak or tikka on their foreheads and upon

10374-606: Is taught in accordance with the Indian guru-shishya system. Development and mastery of Kalaripayattu comes from the tradition of constantly learning, adapting and improving the techniques by observing what techniques are practical and effective. While importance is placed on observation of tradition, Kalaripayattu gurukkuls have contributed to the evolution of Kalaripayattu by way of their experience and reasoning. Kalaripayattu includes strikes, kicks, grappling, preset forms, weaponry, and healing methods. Warriors trained in Kalaripayattu would use very light, and basic body armor, as it

10556-563: Is the area of the kalari that is reserved for the worship of Ganapati, a Hindu deity that is said to be the remover of obstacles. The Guruthara ("Ground of the Guru " in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for worship of the Guru of the kalari, who represents the tradition of gurukkals in Kerala who protected and taught Kalaripayattu to the next generation. In the Ganapatithara, Ganapati

10738-469: Is usually done with two combatants, armed with a stick or dagger. These are primarily defensive techniques. Fighting techniques with two combatants having the same weapons include sparring with long stick, sword, etc. During the duration of this training, the refining of un-armed combat also progresses. As the student gains more experience, a small amount of knowledge pertaining to the Marma points (pressure points)

10920-572: The Cape Verde Islands. After reaching the coast of present-day Sierra Leone , da Gama took a course south into the open ocean, crossing the equator and seeking the South Atlantic westerlies that Bartolomeu Dias had discovered in 1487. This course proved successful and on 4 November 1497, the expedition made landfall on the African coast. For over three months the ships had sailed more than 10,000 kilometres (6,000 mi) of open ocean, by far

11102-739: The Government of India . It received affiliation as a regional sports federation in 2015. The Kalaripayattu Federation of India (KFI), based in Kozhikode , is another governing body of Kalaripayattu, as has been recognized by the Indian Olympic Association . The Kerala Kalaripayattu Association (KKA) in Thiruvananthapuram is also a governing body of the martial art which is recognised by the Kerala State Sports Council. Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal (1850-1935), also known as

SECTION 60

#1732870061897

11284-511: The Kalaris (schools that teach Kalaripayattu) start training with weapons within 3 to 6 months. Some Kalaris only allow one weapon to be learned per year. After long stick and small stick fighting, iron weapons are introduced. Weapons training begins with the dagger and sword, followed by the spear. Not all modern schools use specialized weapons. Traditionally, bows and arrows were commonly used in Kerala and students were trained in these techniques, but

11466-401: The Kerala practice of ankam ("combat" or "battle" in Malayalam ) as a way to settle disputes that could not be settled by local governmental assemblies. A variant of ankam , called poithu was also practiced, and was a duel between two individuals. Combatants participating in ankam or poithu used Kalaripayattu, and the combatants were given up to 12 years to prepare and train prior to

11648-473: The Nairs and Thiyyars . The local legendary poems of Kerala, popularly known as Vadakkan Pattu , have been passed down through oral tradition and describe the deeds of warriors, indicating the practice of Kalarippayattu. These ballads, dating back as early as the 12th century, depict a social system in which every youth was required to undergo martial training. In the late medieval period Kalaripayattu extended into

11830-559: The Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. This is similar to the style described in the Agni Purana . Martial arts were not exclusive to the kshatriya caste, though the warrior class used them more extensively. The 8th-century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded fighting techniques being taught at educational institutions, where non-kshatriya students from throughout

12012-515: The São Gabriel over to his clerk, João de Sá , to take home. The São Gabriel under Sá arrived in Lisbon sometime in late July or early August. Da Gama and his sickly brother eventually hitched a ride with a Guinea caravel returning to Portugal, but Paulo da Gama died en route. Da Gama disembarked at the Azores to bury his brother at the monastery of São Francisco in Angra do Heroismo , and lingered there for

12194-453: The Vedic Period . Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds. Based on such accounts, Svinth (2002) traces press-ups and squats used by Indian wrestlers to the pre-classical era. In Sanskrit literature the term dwandwayuddha referred to a duel, such that it

12376-432: The ankam itself, so that all combatants could achieve the highest level of proficiency with Kalaripayattu traditional weaponry. In some cases, professional mercenaries trained in Kalaripayattu were paid to engage in ankam on the behalf of others. In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The next to arrive were

12558-424: The chakram (war-quoit), the spear, the tomara (iron club), the gada (mace) , the axe, the hammer, the bhindipāla or laguda , the vajra , the dagger, the slingshot, and finally deeds with a bludgeon or cudgel. A short passage near the end of the text returns to the larger concerns of warfare and explains the various uses of war elephants and men. The text concludes with a description of how to appropriately send

12740-519: The chhau dance was performed only by martial artists. Some traditional Indian classical dance schools still incorporate martial arts as part of their exercise regimen. Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Sangam literature of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam in

12922-515: The kalari . Each stance has its own style, combination, and function. These techniques vary from one style to another. A Kalari practitioner might encounter new fighting techniques from an enemy combatant. The Kalari practitioner would need to learn how to anticipate, adapt to and neutralize these new techniques. This is especially seen in the Southern style of Kalaripayattu, which is believed to have been adapted and modified during wars with Tamil kingdoms to counter martial arts like Silambam , which

13104-409: The 'Kamika Agama,' discusses the construction of the 'Khaloorika', as place for military exercise. According to legend, Parashurama , the sixth avatar of Vishnu , learned the art from Shiva , and taught it to the original settlers of Kerala shortly after bringing Kerala up from the ocean floor. A song in Malayalam refers to Parashurama's creation of Kerala, and credits him with the establishment of

13286-448: The 1460s as a knight of the household of Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu . He rose in the ranks of the military Order of Santiago . Estêvão da Gama was appointed alcaide-mór (civil governor) of Sines in the 1460s, a post he held until 1478; after that he continued as a receiver of taxes and holder of the Order's commendas in the region. Estêvão da Gama married Isabel Sodré, a daughter of João Sodré (also known as João de Resende), scion of

13468-707: The 1950s, it was not unusual for Naga sadhu to strike to kill someone over issues of honour. There is also a 17th-century Dhanurveda-samhita attributed to Vasistha . The pehlwani style of wrestling developed in the Mughal Empire by combining native malla-yuddha with influences from Persian varzesh-e bastani . Coming from a hilly region characterized by valleys and caves, the Marathas became expert horsemen who favoured light armour and highly mobile cavalry units during war. Known especially as masters of swords and spears, their heavily martial culture and propensity for

13650-509: The 3rd century, elements from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were incorporated into the fighting arts. A number of Indian fighting styles remain closely connected to yoga , dance and performing arts. Some of the choreographed sparring in kalaripayat can be applied to dance and kathakali dancers who knew kalaripayat were believed to be markedly better than other performers. Until recent decades,

13832-469: The 7th CE onwards, were the earliest precursors to Kalaripayattu. Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military training in target practice, horse and elephant riding. They specialized in one or more of the important weapons of the period including the spear ( vel ), sword ( val ), shield ( kedaham ), and bow and arrow ( vil ambu ). According to Zarrilli, Kalaripayattu has been practiced "since at least

14014-510: The African charter to him. Upon becoming king in 1481, John II of Portugal set out on many long reforms. To break the monarch's dependence on the feudal nobility, John II needed to build up the royal treasury; he considered royal commerce to be the key to achieving that. Under John II's watch, the gold and slave trade in West Africa was greatly expanded. He was eager to break into the highly profitable spice trade between Europe and Asia, which

14196-1094: The Dutch , with their main base in Ceylon . They established ports in Malabar . Following the Dutch, the British —who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India. Duarte Barbosa , a Portuguese explorer who visited Kerala in the 16th century, noted that the physical exercise complexes of the Nairs created a network of martial culture in Malabar, and wrote about Nair military training in Kalaripayattu: The more part of Nayars (Nairs), when they are seven years of age, are sent to schools, where they are taught many tricks of nimbleness and dexterity; there they teach them to dance and turn about and to twist on

14378-536: The Indian coast, and then anchored in at Anjediva island for a spell. They finally struck out for their Indian Ocean crossing on 3 October 1498. But with the winter monsoon yet to set in, it was a harrowing journey. On the outgoing journey, sailing with the summer monsoon wind, da Gama's fleet crossed the Indian Ocean in only 23 days; now, on the return trip, sailing against the wind, it took more than 90 days. Da Gama saw land again only on 2 January 1499, passing before

14560-793: The Indian subcontinent, some of which are not found anywhere else. According to P.C. Chakravati in The Art of War in Ancient India , armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal-tipped spears, swords, thatched bamboo, wooden or metal shields, axes, short and longbows in warfare as early as the 4th century BC. Military accounts of the Gupta Empire (c. 240–480) and the later Agni Purana identify over 130 different weapons. The Agni Purana divides weapons into thrown and unthrown classes. The thrown ( mukta ) class includes twelve weapons altogether which come under four categories, viz. These were opposed to

14742-509: The King, who insisted that da Gama pay customs duty – preferably in gold – like any other trader, which strained the relation between the two. Annoyed by this, da Gama carried a few Nairs and sixteen fishermen ( mukkuva ) off with him by force. Vasco da Gama left Kozhikode on 29 August 1498. Eager to set sail for home, he ignored the local knowledge of monsoon wind patterns that were still blowing onshore. The fleet initially inched north along

14924-599: The Northern style, it is revered in Kerala as a combination of the teachings of both Parashurama and Agastya. It is predominantly practiced in some regions of the southern parts of Kerala, particularly in areas near Kanyakumari . While many of the exercises of the Southern style are identical to the Northern Style, it is more combative and martial in nature, and places heavy emphasis on hand-to-hand combat, hard impact techniques, and footwork, rather than emphasizing flexibility like

15106-524: The Northern style, or Vadakkan Kalari , and the Southern style, or Thekkan Kalari. These two systems have marked similarities in their styles or vazhi ("way" or "method" in Malayalam), such as Hanuman Vazhi , Bhiman Vazhi , and Bali Vazhi among others. The northern style of Kalaripayattu, or Vadakkan Kalari, is primarily practiced in the Malabar region of Kerala , and is based on elegant and flexible movements, evasions, jumps and weapons training. The southern style of Kalaripayattu, or Thekkan Kalari,

15288-469: The Northern style. It starts with the training in Chuvadu, a system of various combinations of fighting techniques similar to Muay Thai and Judo . Immediately after that, sparring with a partner is introduced as part of the training. These pre-determined techniques are repeatedly trained. After a basic proficiency in unarmed combat is established, weapons training begins with a small stick. Small stick training

15470-600: The Portuguese Crown showed little interest in continuing this effort and, in 1469, licensed the neglected African enterprise to a private Lisbon merchant consortium led by Fernão Gomes . Within a few years, Gomes' captains expanded Portuguese knowledge across the Gulf of Guinea , doing business in gold dust, melegueta pepper , ivory and sub-Saharan slaves . When Gomes' charter came up for renewal in 1474, Prince John (the future John II), asked his father Afonso V of Portugal to pass

15652-470: The Sangam era. The word kalari appears in the Puram (verses 225, 237, 245, 356) and Akam (verses 34, 231, 293) to describe both a battlefield and combat arena. The word kalari tatt denoted a martial feat, while kalari kozhai meant a coward in war. Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military training in target practice and horse riding. They specialized in one or more of the important weapons of

15834-517: The Sodrés) and joined the Order of Santiago. The master of Santiago was Prince John, who ascended to the throne in 1481 as King John II of Portugal . John II doted on the Order, and the da Gamas' prospects rose accordingly. In 1492, John II dispatched da Gama on a mission to the port of Setúbal and to the Algarve to seize French ships in retaliation for peacetime depredations against Portuguese shipping –

16016-610: The Sultan to set up a padrão (a stone pillar). The Vasco da Gama Pillar , as it is still known locally, seems to be the only one of the many padrões set up by da Gama to survive to the present day. After leaving Malindi, the sailing was smoother. By early March, the fleet had arrived in Mossel Bay, and crossed the Cape of Good Hope in the opposite direction on 20 March, reaching the western coast of Africa by 25 April. The diary record of

16198-695: The Vadakkan Pattukal, it is stated that the cardinal principle of Kalaripayattu was that knowledge of the art be used to further worthy causes, and not for the advancement of one's own selfish interests. In 1804, the British banned Kalaripayattu in Kerala in response to the Kottayathu War , a rebellion against British rule in Kerala led by the Keralite king Pazhassi Raja . The ban came into effect shortly after Pazhassi Raja's death on November 30, 1805, resulting in

16380-514: The Vedas. The curved shape of the bow is called vakra in the Artha Veda. The bowstring was called jya, and was strung only when needed. An arrow was called an iṣu , and a quiver was called an iṣudhi which was slung on the back. Archers wore a hastaghna, which was an arm guard or shield usually worn on the left forearm and was used to protect the wearer from friction caused by the bowstring. A dhanushkara

16562-483: The Vellar Crafts Village. The Kalaripayattu classes will be taught by a group of gurukkals from Kerala, led by Sri Meenakshi Amma , a Kalaripayattu gurukkal and Padma Sri recipient. The Kalaripayattu Academy will initially teach 100 students, both adults and children, in both morning and evening classes. Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan is set to announce the syllabus of the academy in 2021. Kalaripayattu

16744-435: The Zamorin failed to produce any concrete results. When local authorities asked da Gama's fleet, "What brought you hither?", they replied that they had come "in search of Christians and spices." The presents that da Gama sent to the Zamorin as gifts from Dom Manuel – four cloaks of scarlet cloth, six hats, four branches of corals, twelve almasares , a box with seven brass vessels, a chest of sugar, two barrels of oil and

16926-447: The Zamorin's chamber during his much celebrated first visit to Kozhikodein May 1498) for talks. Da Gama called him a spy, ordered the priest's lips and ears to be cut off and after sewing a pair of dog's ears to his head, sent him away. The Portuguese fleet then bombarded the unfortified city for nearly two days from the sea, severely damaging it. He also captured several rice vessels and cut off

17108-408: The actual techniques are taught very much later. Traditionally, the number of meypayattu may differ as per the teaching methods of the guru. Training is usually done in four stages, the first stage being Meipayattu (training stances), followed by Kolthari (practice with wooden weapons), Angathari (practice with metal weapons) and finally Verum kai (barehanded combat). Generally, the majority of

17290-402: The basic steps of the martial arts. Vadivu literally means 'postures' or stances which are the foundations of Kalaripayattu training. They are named after animals, and are usually presented in eight forms. Styles differ considerably from one tradition to another. Not only do the names of poses differ, but their utilization and interpretation vary depending on the gurukkal , and the traditions of

17472-625: The beginning of the twentieth century, as well as sparking the revival of Kalaripayattu in Kerala in the 1920s. The resurgence of public interest in Kalaripayattu began in the 1920s in Thalassery , as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout southern India and continued through the 1970s surge of general worldwide interest in martial arts. During this period of renewed public interest in Kerala's native martial art, Kalaripayattu gurukkals such as Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair, and Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair rose to prominence as

17654-577: The blade, telling the price or source of acquisition, throwing it on the ground or using it for domestic purposes. Nakula and Sahadeva are said to be skilled swordsmen in Mahabharata . Sword-fighting is one of the common Indian fighting arts. Varieties include the curved single-edge sword, the straight double-edge sword, the two-handed longsword, the gauntlet-sword , and the urumi or flexible sword. Techniques differ from one state to another but all make extensive use of circular movements, often circling

17836-526: The characters being motion captured from real Kalaripayattu masters. Indian martial art Among the most common terms today, śastra-vidyā , is a compound of the words śastra (weapon) and vidyā (knowledge). Dhanurveda derives from the words for bow ( dhanushya ) and knowledge ( veda ), the "science of archery" in Puranic literature, later applied to martial arts in general. The Vishnu Purana text describes dhanuveda as one of

18018-414: The choreographed sparring in Kalaripayattu can be applied to dance and Kathakali dancers who knew Kalaripayattu were believed to be markedly better than other performers. Some traditional Indian classical dance schools still incorporate martial arts as part of their exercise regimen. Kalaripayattu techniques are a combination of steps ( Chuvadu ) and postures ( Vadivu ). Chuvadu literally means 'steps',

18200-423: The closure of most of the major kalari training grounds in Kerala. Following the ban, many Keralite gurukkals of Kalaripayattu resisted the ban and continued to teach Kalaripayattu to their students in secret. Gurukkals such as Kottackkal Kanaran Gurukkal , Kelu Kurup Gurukkal and Maroli Ramunni Gurukkal, learned and preserved the martial art for posterity and were responsible for preserving Kalaripayattu into

18382-580: The coastal Somali city of Mogadishu , then under the influence of the Ajuran Empire in the Horn of Africa . The fleet did not make a stop, but passing before Mogadishu, the anonymous diarist of the expedition noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its center and many mosques with cylindrical minarets. Da Gama's fleet finally arrived in Malindi on 7 January 1499, in

18564-498: The commitment to appoint all his sons successively as Portuguese captains of Malacca . Setting out in April 1524, with a fleet of fourteen ships, Vasco da Gama took as his flagship the famous large carrack Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai on her last journey to India, along with two of his sons, Estêvão and Paulo. After a troubled journey in which four or five of the ships were lost en route, he arrived in India in September. Early on

18746-424: The craft of bow and arrow making, training of the army, and enumerates the rules of engagement. The treatise also discusses martial arts in relation to the training of warriors, charioteers, cavalry, elephant warriors, infantry etc. It was considered as a sin to shoot a warrior from the back and fight more than one warrior at a time. The bow used in the Vedic period were called danush , and were described in detail in

18928-458: The crew's hands, ears and noses, dispatching them with a note to the Zamorin, in which Gama declared that he would be open to friendly relations once the Zamorin had paid for the items plundered from the feitoria as well as the gunpowder and cannonballs. The violent treatment meted out by da Gama quickly brought trade along the Malabar Coast of India, upon which Calicut (Kozhikode) depended, to

19110-563: The details of the spice markets and trade routes. The breakthrough came soon after, when John II's captain Bartolomeu Dias returned from rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, having explored as far as the Fish River ( Rio do Infante ) in modern-day South Africa and having verified that the unknown coast stretched away to the northeast. An explorer was needed who could prove the link between

19292-509: The dominant concern of Duarte de Menezes , then- governor of Portuguese India . Menezes also turned out to be incompetent and corrupt, subject to numerous complaints. As a result, John III decided to appoint Vasco da Gama himself to replace Menezes, confident that the magic of his name and memory of his deeds might better impress his authority on Portuguese India, and manage the transition to a new government and new strategy. By his appointment letter of February 1524, John III granted Vasco da Gama

19474-466: The east coast of Africa, the Contra Costa , was essential to Portuguese interests; its ports provided fresh water, provisions, timber, and harbors for repairs, and served as a refuge where ships could wait out unfavorable weather. One significant result was the colonization of Mozambique by the Portuguese Crown. In December 1499, King Manuel I of Portugal rewarded Vasco da Gama with the town of Sines as

19656-462: The eastern districts of Hindostan use a small shield called " chirwah ". Those from the southern provinces have shields of such magnitude as to cover a man and a horse. This kind of shield is called tilwah . Another class use a shield somewhat less than the height of a man. Some again use a long sword, and seizing it with both hands they perform extraordinary feats of skill. There is another famous class called Bankúlis. They have no shield but make use of

19838-429: The exercises. It continues to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day. In the modern era, Kalaripayattu is also used by practitioners of Keralite dance styles, such as Kathakali and Mohiniyattam , as part of their training regimens. Recently, dancers from other, non-Keralite dance forms have also begun to incorporate Kalaripayattu into their training regimes, such as Vasundhara Doraswamy ,

20020-640: The expedition ends abruptly here. Reconstructing from other sources, it seems they continued to Cape Verde, where Nicolau Coelho's Berrio separated from Vasco da Gama's São Gabriel and sailed on by itself. The Berrio arrived in Lisbon on 10 July 1499 and Nicolau Coelho personally delivered the news to King Manuel I and the royal court, then assembled in Sintra . In the meantime, back in Cape Verde, da Gama's brother, Paulo da Gama, had fallen grievously ill. Da Gama elected to stay by his side on Santiago island and handed

20202-530: The few seaports on the Alentejo coast in southwest Portugal. According to the Portuguese historian Teixeira de Aragão , he was born in a house near the church of Nossa Senhora das Salas. Some authors write that he was born in or around 1460, while others give 1469 as the year of his birth. Vasco da Gama's paternal grandfather and namesake was born in Olivença . Vasco's father was Estêvão da Gama , who had served in

20384-432: The fight are listed below: Then there follows a more detailed discussion of archery technique. The section concludes with listing the names of actions or "deeds" possible with a number of weapons, including 32 positions to be taken with sword and shield ( khaḍgacarmavidhau ), 11 names of techniques of using a rope in fighting, along with 5 names of "acts in the rope operation" along with lists of "deeds" pertaining to

20566-525: The findings of Dias and those of da Covilhã and de Paiva and connect these separate segments into a potentially lucrative trade route across the Indian Ocean. On 8 July 1497 Vasco da Gama led a fleet of four ships with a crew of 170 men from Lisbon. The distance traveled in the journey around Africa to India and back was greater than the length of the equator. The navigators included Portugal's most experienced, Pero de Alenquer , Pedro Escobar , João de Coimbra  [ pt ] , and Afonso Gonçalves. It

20748-624: The first 108 kalaris throughout Kerala, along with the instruction of the first 21 Kalaripayattu gurus in Kerala on the destruction of enemies. According to another legend, Ayyappa , a war deity from Kerala, learned Kalaripayattu in the Cheerappanchira Kalari in Muhamma . According to Philip Zarrilli, the Tamil combat techniques of the Sangam period (600 BCE–300 CE) and Sanskritic Dhanur Vedic traditions, which arrived with northern Brahmins from

20930-855: The following three decades, other regional styles were subsequently revived such as silambam in Tamil Nadu, thang-ta in Manipur and paika akhada in Orissa. One of the earliest extant manual of Indian martial arts is in the Agni Purana (dated to between the 8th and the 11th century). The dhanurveda section in the Agni Purana spans chapters 248–251, categorizing weapons into thrown and unthrown classes and further divided into several sub-classes. It catalogs training into five major divisions for different types of warriors, namely charioteers, elephant-riders, horsemen, infantry, and wrestlers. The nine asanas (stances) in

21112-552: The forehead of the idol of the presiding deity using soil from the ground of the kalari. The traditional training uniform used in Kalaripayattu is the kachakettal , a loincloth that is either red and white or red and black in colour. Along with traditional attire, oral commands, or vaithari , are given by the guru during training sessions, and are given in Sanskrit or Malayalam. A number of South Asian fighting styles remain closely connected to yoga , dance and performing arts. Some of

21294-466: The goddess Chandika . Thus the saying that a sword cannot be sheathed until it has drawn blood. It was a mother's duty to tie a warrior's sword around his waist before war or a duel. In addition, she would cut her finger with the sword and make a tilak on his head from a drop of her blood. Weapons themselves were also anointed with tilak, most often from the blood of a freshly-decapitated goat ( chatanga ). Other taboos include looking at one's reflection in

21476-519: The ground, to take royal leaps and other leaps and this they learn twice a day as long as they are children and they become so loose jointed and supple and they make them turn their bodies contrary to nature; and when they are fully accomplished in this, they teach them to play with the weapon they are most inclined, some play with bows and arrows, some with poles to become spearmen, but most with swords and are ever practising. The Nayars (Nairs) are bound, however old they may be, to always go (for training) in

21658-462: The human body of which 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick. Sushruta 's work formed the basis of the medical discipline ayurveda which was taught alongside various martial arts. With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that Indian subcontinent 's early fighters knew and practised attacking or defending vital points. Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of

21840-401: The intolerant Mughal rulers. Although generally said to abide by the principle of non-violence ( ahimsā ), these Dashanami monks had long been forming akhara for the practice of both yoga and martial arts. Such warrior-ascetics have been recorded from 1500 to as late as the 18th century, although tradition attributes their creation to the 8th-century philosopher Sankaracharya . They began as

22022-423: The king provoked Lencastre to refuse out of principle, lest it encourage the king to make other donations of the Order's properties. Da Gama would spend the next few years attempting to take hold of Sines, an effort that would estrange him from Lencastre and eventually prompt da Gama to abandon his beloved Order of Santiago, switching over to the rival Order of Christ in 1507. In the meantime, da Gama made do with

22204-547: The lance is mentioned as early as the 7th century by Xuanzang . After serving the Dakshin sultanates of the early 17th century, the scattered Marathas united to found their own kingdom under the warrior Shivaji . Having learned the native art of mardani khela from a young age, Shivaji was a master swordsman and proficient in the use of various weapons. He took advantage of his people's expertise in guerilla tactics ( Shiva sutra ) to re-establish Hindavi Swarajya (native [Hindu being

22386-757: The late 16th century, compiled under the patronage of Akbar . The Ain-i-Akbari tells that the Mughal court had various kinds of fighting men from around the empire who would demonstrate their skills every day in exchange for rewards. Among them were said to be both native and Mughal wrestlers , slingers from Gujarat , Hindustani athletes, boxers , stone-throwers and many others. "There are several kinds of gladiators, each performing astonishing feats. In fighting they show much speed and agility and blend courage and skill in squatting down and rising up again. Some of them use shields in fighting, others use cudgels. Others again use no means of defence, and fight with one hand only; these are called ek-hath . Those who come from

22568-461: The length of a cudgel to a staff equal to the wielder's height. The stick used during matches is covered in leather to cushion the impact. Points are awarded based on which part of the body is hit. Techniques differ from system to system, but northern styles tend to primarily use only one end of the staff for attacking while the other end is held with both hands. Southern styles like also make use of this technique but will more often use both ends of

22750-407: The local populace became suspicious of da Gama and his men. Forced by a hostile crowd to flee Mozambique, da Gama departed the harbor, firing his cannons into the city in retaliation. In the vicinity of modern Kenya, the expedition resorted to piracy, looting Arab merchant ships that were generally unarmed trading vessels without heavy cannons. The Portuguese became the first known Europeans to visit

22932-498: The longest journey without landfall made by that time. By 16 December, the fleet had passed the Great Fish River ( Eastern Cape , South Africa) – where Dias had anchored – and sailed into waters previously unknown to Europeans. With Christmas pending, da Gama and his crew gave the coast they were passing the name Natal , which carried the connotation of "birth of Christ" in Portuguese. Vasco da Gama spent 2 to 29 March 1498 in

23114-649: The longest ocean voyage ever made until then. After decades of sailors trying to reach the Indies, with thousands of lives and dozens of vessels lost in shipwrecks and attacks, da Gama landed at Kozhikode on 20 May 1498. Unopposed access to the Indian spice routes boosted the economy of the Portuguese Empire , which was previously based along North and coastal West Africa . The main spices at first obtained from Southeast Asia were pepper and cinnamon, but soon included other products, all new to Europe. Portugal maintained

23296-504: The main fleet. On the outgoing voyage, da Gama's fleet opened contact with the East African gold trading port of Sofala and reduced the sultanate of Kilwa to tribute, extracting a substantial sum of gold. On reaching India in October 1502, da Gama's fleet intercepted Mirim , a ship of Muslim pilgrims at Madayi travelling from Kozhikode to Mecca. Described in detail by eyewitness Thomé Lopes and chronicler Gaspar Correia, da Gama looted

23478-491: The militia of the ruler, they were allowed in the military services. The widespread practice and prevalence of Kalaripayattu in Kerala began to decline in the 17th century, when the usage of guns and cannons became widespread. This also coincided with the European invasions into Kerala, after which, firearms began to surpass the usage of traditional weaponry such as swords and spears. The late medieval "golden age" of Kalaripayattu

23660-520: The morning of September 8, as the ships laid becalmed near Dabul the sea began to boil and the vessels pitched and rocked violently for about an hour as the result of a submarine earthquake . The Portuguese crews were frightened, and one death occurred as a sailor jumped overboard in panic and drowned. Gama capitalized on the situation and so as to reassure his men cried out: Friends, rejoice and be happy, for even sea trembles before us! Vasco da Gama immediately invoked his high viceregal powers to impose

23842-471: The much larger unthrown class of three categories. The duel with bow and arrows is considered the noblest, fighting with the spear ranks next, while fighting with the sword is considered unrefined, and wrestling is classed as the meanest or worst form of fighting. Only a Brahmin could be an acharya (teacher) of sastravidya, Kshatriya and vaishya should learn from the Acharya, while a shudra could not take

24024-536: The old Albuquerque clique (now represented by Diogo Lopes de Sequeira ), John III looked for a fresh start. Vasco da Gama re-emerged from his political wilderness as an important adviser to the new king's appointments and strategy. Seeing the new Spanish threat to the Maluku Islands as the priority, Vasco da Gama advised against the obsession with Arabia that had pervaded much of the Manueline period, and continued to be

24206-399: The ornate Castilian title borne by Christopher Columbus . Another royal letter, dated October 1501, gave da Gama the personal right to intervene and exercise a determining role on any future India-bound fleet. Around 1501, Vasco da Gama married Catarina de Ataíde, daughter of Álvaro de Ataíde, the alcaide-mór of Alvor ( Algarve ), and a prominent nobleman connected by kinship with

24388-537: The particular geography of their origin. Tradition ascribes their convergence to the 6th-century university of Takshashila , ancient India's intellectual capital. Located in present-day Panjab, Pakistan, the Ramayana ascribes the city's founding to Bharata who named it after his son Taksha. From the 7th to the 5th centuries BC it was held in high regard as a great centre of trade and learning, attracting students from throughout present-day Pakistan and northern India. Among

24570-514: The period including the spear ( vel ), sword ( val ), shield ( kedaham ), and bow and arrow ( vil ambu ). The combat techniques of the Sangam period were the earliest precursors to kalaripayat . References to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature date back to the 2nd century. This referred to the silambam staff which was in great demand with foreign visitors. The ten fighting styles of northern sastra-vidya were said to have been created in different areas based on animals and gods, and designed for

24752-456: The popular sports mentioned in the Vedas and the epics have their origins in military training, such as boxing ( musti-yuddha ), wrestling ( maladwandwa ), chariot-racing ( rathachalan ), horse-riding ( aswa-rohana ) and archery ( dhanurvidya ). Competitions were held not just as a contest of the players' prowess but also as a means of finding a bridegroom. Arjuna , Rama and Siddhartha Gautama all won their consorts in such tournaments. In

24934-424: The port of Mombasa from 7 to 13 April 1498, but were met with hostility and soon departed. Vasco da Gama continued north, arriving on 14 April 1498 at the friendlier port of Malindi , whose leaders were in conflict with those of Mombasa. There, da Gama and his crew contracted the services of a pilot who used his knowledge of the monsoon winds to guide the expedition the rest of the way to Kozhikode , located on

25116-472: The powerful Almeida family (Catarina was a first cousin of Dom Francisco de Almeida ). The follow-up expedition, the Second India Armada , launched in 1500 under the command of Pedro Álvares Cabral with the mission of making a treaty with the Zamorin of Kozhikodeand setting up a Portuguese factory in the city. However, Pedro Cabral entered into a conflict with the local Arab merchant guilds, with

25298-460: The preservation of Kalaripayattu, Meenakshi Amma , a 73 year old gurukkal from Vadakara and Sankara Narayana Menon Chundayil , a gurukkal from Chavakkad , were awarded the Padma Sri by the Government of India . In the Indian graphic novels Odayan and Odayan II – Yuddham , the title character is a vigilante who is highly skilled in Kalaripayattu, with the story itself being set in 16th century feudal Kerala . Little Kalari Warriors ,

25480-487: The primary gurukkals who preserved and transmitted the martial during the twentieth century and into the modern era. Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair, a student of Kottackkal Kanaran Gurukkal , and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris are named, opened several kalaris , and began to spread Kalaripayattu across its native state of Kerala, revitalizing the art across the state in the twentieth century. Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair

25662-540: The prince of Odisha who was known for being an expert with both the sword and dagger. The prince accepted the challenge until he learned he would be fighting one not of royal blood and so killed himself rather than having to "soil his hands". Fernao Nunes and the Persian envoy Adbur Razzak relate that Deva Raya II survived an assassination attempt "as he was a man who knew how to use both sword and dagger better than anyone in his kingdom, avoided by twists and turns of his body

25844-491: The privileged title of " Viceroy ", being only the second Portuguese governor to enjoy that title (the first was Francisco de Almeida in 1505). His second son, Estêvão da Gama was simultaneously appointed Capitão-mor do Mar da Índia ('Captain-major of the Indian Sea', commander of the Indian Ocean naval patrol fleet), to replace Duarte's brother, Luís de Menezes. As a final condition, Gama secured from John III of Portugal

26026-415: The remaining two ships demonstrated the potential of great profit for future trade. Vasco da Gama was justly celebrated for opening a direct sea route to Asia. His path would be followed up thereafter by yearly Portuguese India Armadas . The spice trade would prove to be a major asset to the Portuguese royal treasury, and other consequences soon followed. For example, da Gama's voyage had made it clear that

26208-594: The result that the Portuguese factory was overrun in a riot and up to 70 Portuguese were killed. Cabral blamed the Zamorin for the incident and bombarded the city. Thus war broke out between Portugal and Kozhikode. Vasco da Gama invoked his royal letter to take command of the Fourth India Armada , scheduled to set out in 1502, with the explicit aim of taking revenge upon the Zamorin and force him to submit to Portuguese terms. The heavily armed fleet of fifteen ships and eight hundred men left Lisbon on 12 February 1502. It

26390-408: The return of the ships. Girolamo Sernigi also wrote three letters describing da Gama's first voyage soon after the return of the expedition. The expedition had exacted a large cost – two ships and over half the men had been lost. It had also failed in its principal mission of securing a commercial treaty with Kozhikode. Nonetheless, the small quantities of spices and other trade goods brought back on

26572-475: The same, prompting the king to undertake steps to retain him in Portugal and avoid the embarrassment of losing his own "Admiral of the Indies" to Spain. In 1519, after years of ignoring his petitions, King Manuel I finally hurried to give Vasco da Gama a feudal title, appointing him the first Count of Vidigueira , a title created by a royal decree issued in Évora on 29 December, after a complicated agreement with Dom Jaime, Duke of Braganza , who ceded him on payment

26754-432: The sea route to India opened the way for an age of global imperialism and enabled the Portuguese to establish a long-lasting colonial empire along the way from Africa to Asia. Traveling the ocean route allowed the Portuguese to avoid sailing across the highly disputed Mediterranean Sea and traversing the dangerous Arabian Peninsula . The sum of the distances covered in the outward and return voyages made this expedition

26936-571: The ship with over 400 pilgrims on board including 50 women, locked in the passengers, the owner and an ambassador from Egypt and burned them to death. They offered their wealth, which "could ransom all the Christian slaves in the Kingdom of Fez and much more" but were not spared. Da Gama looked on through the porthole and saw the women bringing up their gold and jewels and holding up their babies to beg for mercy. The lives of twenty children were spared against

27118-402: The skills used on the battlefield, encompassing not only actual fighting but also battle formations and strategy. Martial arts are usually learnt and practiced in the traditional akharas . An Indus valley civilization seal shows two men spearing one another in a duel which seem to be centered on a woman. A statue of a spear thrower was also excavated from an Indus valley site. Dhanurveda ,

27300-589: The southwest coast of India. Sources differ over the identity of the pilot, calling him variously a Christian, a Muslim, or a Gujarati Hindu. One traditional story describes the pilot as the famous Arab navigator Ibn Majid , but other contemporaneous accounts place Majid elsewhere, and he could not have been near the vicinity at the time. None of the Portuguese historians of the time mentions Ibn Majid. Vasco da Gama left Malindi for India on 24 April 1498. The fleet arrived in Kappadu near Kozhikode (known as Kozhikode at

27482-458: The staff to strike. The latter is the more common method of attacking in the eastern states and Bangladesh , combined with squatting and frequent changes in height. Yudhishthira is said to be a master in spearplay warfare in Mahabharata , while Shalya was also noted to be an excellent warrior in the field of spearplay. Also according to Indian Hindu myths, Murugan , the son of Lord Shiva ,

27664-448: The study of Kalaripayattu. Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair (1905-1944), a Kalaripayattu gurukkal and student of Kottakal Kanaran Gurukkal, who was popularly known as "CVN" and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris sprang up across Kerala , enabling the revival of Kalaripayattu across its native state. Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair (1909-1984), a Kalaripayattu gurukkal , and founder of Sree Bharat Kalari (formerly known as Rajkumar Kalari). He

27846-406: The subcontinent "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels ( niyuddham )". Hindu priests of the traditional gurukula still teach unarmed fighting techniques to their students as a way of increasing stamina and training the physical body . The Gurjara-Pratihara came into power during the 7th century and founded

28028-508: The subjects taught were the "military sciences", and archery was one of its prime arts. Some measures were put into place to discourage martial activity during the Buddhist period. The Khandhaka in particular forbids wrestling, boxing, archery, and swordsmanship. However, references to fighting arts are found in early Buddhist texts , such as the Lotus Sutra (c. 1st century AD) which refers to

28210-451: The subsequent more galling failure of his uncle Vicente Sodré to protect the Portuguese factory in Cochin, probably counted against any further rewards. When the Portuguese king Manuel I decided to appoint the first governor and viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, da Gama was conspicuously overlooked, and the post given to Francisco de Almeida. For the next two decades, Vasco da Gama lived out

28392-609: The sword. The Gurjara-Pratiharas continuously fought off Arab invasions, particularly during the Caliphate campaigns in India . The Arab chronicler Sulaiman wrote of the Gurjara ruler as the greatest foe to Islamic expansion, while at the same time praising his cavalry. Kalaripayat had developed into its present form by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the Chera and Chola dynasties. The earliest treatise discussing

28574-557: The techniques of malla-yuddha is the Malla Purana (c. 13th century), unlike the earlier Manasollasa which gives the names of movements but no descriptions. Over a period of several centuries, invading Muslim armies managed to occupy much of present-day Pakistan and northern India. In response to the spread of Muslim rule, the kingdoms of South India united in the 14th century to found the Vijayanagara Empire . Physical culture

28756-496: The thrusts aimed at him, freed himself from him, and slew him with a short sword that he had". After a series of victories, the Central Asian conqueror Babur established Mughal rule in north India during the 16th century. The Mughals were patrons of India's native arts, not only recruiting akhara-trained Rajput fighters for their armies but even practicing these systems themselves. The Ausanasa Dhanurveda Sankalanam dates to

28938-503: The time, subsequently known as Calicut and now renamed Kozhikode) on the Malabar Coast (present-day Kerala state of India) on 20 May 1498. The Zamorin of Kozhikode, who was at that time staying in his second capital at Ponnani , returned to the city on hearing the news of the foreign fleet's arrival. The navigator was received with traditional hospitality, including a grand procession of at least 3,000 armed Nairs , but an interview with

29120-408: The towns of Vidigueira and Vila dos Frades. The decree granted Vasco da Gama and his heirs all the revenues and privileges related, thus promoting da Gama from a petty noble to one of the relatively few titled nobles in Portugal. After the death of King Manuel I in late 1521, his son and successor, King John III of Portugal set about reviewing the Portuguese government overseas. Turning away from

29302-399: The traditional eighteen branches of "applied knowledge" or upaveda , along with shastrashāstra or military science . A later term, yuddha kalā , comes from the words yuddha meaning fight or combat and kalā meaning art or skill. The related term śastra kalā (lit. weapon art) usually refers specifically to armed disciplines. Another term, yuddha-vidyā or "combat knowledge", refers to

29484-626: The twelfth century" CE. During the 11th century, the second Chera kingdom fought a century-long war with the Chola kingdom, which ended with disintegration of the Chera kingdom. During this period, military combat training was compulsory, and according to Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai , Kalaripayattu took shape in this period. According to historian A. Sreedharan Menon , Kalaripayattu was among the most important aspects of feudal Keralite society, as it helped impart military training and Spartan -like discipline amongst

29666-419: The unique massage given to increase flexibility is known as katcha thirumal . Each style, or vazhi , in Kalaripayattu has a different purpose. The styles are variations that various masters have adapted and modified according to their understanding of the art. There are two major styles that are generally acknowledged within traditional Kalaripayattu, and are based on the regions in which they are practiced,

29848-411: The vicinity of Mozambique Island . Arab-controlled territory on the East African coast was an integral part of the network of trade in the Indian Ocean. Fearing the local population would be hostile to Christians, da Gama impersonated a Muslim and gained audience with the Sultan of Mozambique. With the paltry trade goods he had to offer, the explorer was unable to provide a suitable gift to the ruler. Soon

30030-482: The weapon around the user's head. The flexible nature and lightweight of Indian swords allows for speed but provides little defensive ability, so that the swordsman must instead rely on body maneuvers to dodge attacks. Entire systems exist focusing on drawing the sword out of the opponent's body. Stances and forms traditionally made up the early training before students progress to free sparring with sticks to simulate swords in an exercise called gatka , although this term

30212-763: The well-trained fighter off to war. The Arthashastra , c. 4th century BCE, typically attributed to Chanakya chief advisor of Chandragupta Maurya is one of the earliest treatises on statecraft, including diverse topics such as economics, politics, diplomacy and military strategy. There is an extant Dhanurveda-Samhita dating to the mid-14th century, by Brhat Sarngadhara Paddhati (ed. 1888). Other scattered references to fighting arts in medieval texts include the: Kamandakiya Nitisara (c. 8th century ed. Manmatha Nath Dutt, 1896), The Nitivakyamrta by Somadeva Suri (10th century), The Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja (11th century) and The Manasollasa of Somesvara III (12th century) A wide array of weapons are used in

30394-458: The winter (the rainy season or monsoon season) to take their fencing lessons until they die. Jacob Canter Visscher (1692–1735), in his Letters from Malabar , wrote about the Chekavars : They may be justly entitled soldiers, as by virtue of their descent they must always bear arms. In spite of the fact that Chekavar were also practitioners of payatt (Kalaripayattu) and had a unavoidable presence in

30576-425: The youth of Kerala , irrespective of caste, community or sex. Each village in late medieval Kerala had its own kalari , which contained a presiding deity known as Bhagavathy or Paradevata . Children in Kerala who finished their education in local schools would join their local kalari to receive further military training. This was especially common amongst martial sects of various communities in Kerala, such as

30758-430: The “ Dronacharya of Kalaripayattu,” was a gurukkal of Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair. Korrakkal Kanaran Gurukkal is recognized as one of the gurukkals who preserved Kalaripayattu in Kerala and allowed it to survive into the twentieth century after studying it from several gurukkals in the Malabar region of the state. During the British ban of Kalaripayattu, he is said to have sold his lands and property to finance

30940-523: Was a Portuguese explorer and nobleman who was the first European to reach India by sea. His initial voyage to India by way of Cape of Good Hope (1497–1499) was the first to link Europe and Asia by an ocean route, connecting the Atlantic and the Indian oceans. This was a milestone in Portuguese maritime exploration as and marked the beginning of a sea-based phase of globalization . Da Gama's discovery of

31122-439: Was a battle between only two warriors and not armies. Epics often describe the duels between deities and god-like heroes as lasting a month or more. The malla-yuddha (wrestling match) between Bhima and Jarasandha lasts 27 days. Similarly, the dwandayuddha between Parasurama and Bhishma lasts for 30 days, while that between Krishna and Jambavan lasts for 28 days. Likewise, the dwandwayudda between Bali and Dundubhi,

31304-463: Was a bowyer, or the profession of bow crafting and arrow making, and it had become a regular profession by the early Vedic period. Others called jyakara specialized in making bowstrings. Vasco da Gama D. Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira ( / ˌ v æ s k u d ə ˈ ɡ ɑː m ə , - ˈ ɡ æ m ə / VAS -koo də GA(H)M -ə ; European Portuguese: [ˈvaʃku ðɐ ˈɣɐmɐ] ; c.  1460s – 24 December 1524),

31486-550: Was a champion wrestler and swordsman before becoming the Buddha . Like other branches of Sanskrit literature , treatises on martial arts become more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium AD. Vajra-musti , an armed grappling style, is mentioned in sources of the early centuries AD. Around this time, tantric philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini , chakra , and mantra . The Sushruta Samhita (c. 4th century) identifies 108 vital points on

31668-404: Was appointed Governor of India , with the title of Viceroy , and was ennobled as Count of Vidigueira in 1519. He remains a leading figure in the history of exploration, and homages worldwide have celebrated his explorations and accomplishments. The Portuguese national epic poem, Os Lusíadas , was written in his honour by Luís de Camões . Vasco da Gama was born in the town of Sines , one of

31850-667: Was conducted chiefly by land. At the time, this was virtually monopolized by the Republic of Venice , which operated overland routes via Levantine and Egyptian ports, through the Red Sea across to the spice markets of India. John II set a new objective for his captains: to find a sea route to Asia by sailing around the African continent. By the time Vasco da Gama was in his 20s, the king's plans were coming to fruition. In 1487, John II dispatched two spies, Pero da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva , overland via Egypt to East Africa and India, to scout

32032-431: Was difficult to maintain flexibility and mobility while in heavy armor. Kalaripayattu differs from many other martial arts systems in the world in that weapon-based techniques are taught first, and barehanded techniques are taught last. The weapons used include gadas , spears, daggers, and urumis . Kalaripayattu is taught in a specialized training ground known as a kalari . The location and construction of each kalari

32214-511: Was followed in April by another squadron of five ships led by his cousin, Estêvão da Gama (the son of Aires da Gama), which caught up to them in the Indian Ocean. The Fourth Armada was a veritable da Gama family affair. Two of his maternal uncles, Vicente Sodré and Brás Sodré, were pre-designated to command an Indian Ocean naval patrol, while brothers-in-law Álvaro de Ataíde (brother of Vasco's wife Catarina) and Lopo Mendes de Vasconcelos (betrothed to Teresa da Gama, Vasco's sister) captained ships in

32396-897: Was given much attention by both royalty and commoners in the empire, with wrestling being particularly popular with both men and women. Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters of Vijayanagara, and records speak of regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime. Royal palaces and market places had special arenas where royalty and common people alike amused themselves by watching matches such as cockfights, ram fights, and wrestling. One account describes an akhara in Chandragiri where noblemen practiced jumping exercises, boxing , fencing and wrestling almost every day before dinner to maintain their health, and observed that "men as old as seventy years look only thirty". The Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle wrote of cane-fighting in southern India. According to Pietro, it

32578-447: Was one of the main martial art forms practiced by Tamil soldiers at the time. As a result of learning about the human body, Indian martial artists became knowledgeable in the fields of traditional medicine and massage. Kalaripayattu teachers often provide massages ( uzhichil ) with medicinal oils to their students in order to increase their physical flexibility or to treat muscular injuries. Such massages are generally termed thirumal and

32760-402: Was the custom for soldiers to specialise in their own particular weapon of expertise and never use any other even during war, "thereby becoming very expert and well practised in that which he takes to". As their ancient predecessors, swordplay and wrestling were commonly practiced by the royalty of Vijayanagara. Krishna Deva Raya is said to have arranged a duel between a champion swordsman and

32942-508: Was the duty ( dharma ) of the warrior class. Kings usually belonged to the kshatria (warrior) class and thus served as heads of the army. They typically practiced archery, wrestling, boxing, and swordsmanship as part of their education. Examples include such rulers as Siddhartha Gautama and Rudradaman . The Chinese monk Xuanzang writes that the emperor Harsha was light on his feet despite his advancing age and managed to dodge and seize an assailant during an assassination attempt. Many of

33124-565: Was turned down. At the same time however, the Zamorin sent a message to his rebellious vassal, the Raja of Cochin, urging cooperation and obedience to counter the Portuguese threat; the ruler of Cochin forwarded this message to Gama, which reinforced his opinion of the Indians as duplicitous. After da Gama's demand for the expulsion of Muslims from Kozhikode, the Zamorin sent the high priest Talappana Namboothiri (the very same person who conducted da Gama to

#896103