102-542: A Christmas carol is a carol ( a song or hymn ) on the theme of Christmas , traditionally sung at Christmas itself or during the surrounding Christmas and holiday season . The term noel has sometimes been used, especially for carols of French origin. Christmas carols may be regarded as a subset of the broader category of Christmas music . The first known Christmas hymns may be traced to 4th-century Rome. Latin hymns such as Veni redemptor gentium , written by Ambrose , Archbishop of Milan , were austere statements of
204-530: A circle dance accompanied by singers (in turn derived from the Latin choraula ). Carols were very popular as dance songs from the 1150s to the 1350s, after which their use expanded as processional songs sung during festivals , while others were written to accompany religious mystery plays (such as the " Coventry Carol ", written before 1534). Sacred music was traditionally sung in Latin by clergy or appointed cantors of
306-544: A feminist movement developed. Parental authority was seen as important, but children were given legal protections against abuse and neglect for the first time towards the end of the period. Access to education increased rapidly during the 19th century. State-funded schools were established in England and Wales for the first time. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland and Wales. Literacy rates increased rapidly, and had become nearly universal by
408-554: A 1426 work of John Awdlay , a Shropshire chaplain, who lists twenty five "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of ' wassailers ', who went from house to house. The songs now known specifically as carols were originally communal songs sung during celebrations like harvest tide as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church, and to be specifically associated with Christmas. Many carols which have gained popularity were printed in Piae Cantiones ,
510-475: A Belén" and " Riu, riu, chiu: El lobo rabioso " and "Los peces en el río". The Nadala or Cançó de Nadal (in plural nadales ) are a popular group of songs, usually requiring a chorus, that are song from Advent until Epiphany . Their written versions starts in the 15th century. In the past were usually being song by shepherds and their families in market squares and in front of churches. The Nadala origins are uncertain but usually cited to be related with
612-716: A German folksong arranged by Ernst Anschütz and "Stille Nacht" (" Silent Night ") by the Austrians Franz Xaver Gruber and Joseph Mohr . The carol most familiar in German besides those two is probably the 19th-century " O du fröhliche ". Other popular and widely sung Christmas carols are "Herbei, o ihr Gläub’gen", which is a German version of "Adeste fideles" (English: " O Come, All Ye Faithful "), Alle Jahre wieder ("Every year again"), Es ist ein Ros entsprungen (lit: "A rose has sprung up"), " Leise rieselt der Schnee " "(Silently
714-414: A collection of late medieval Latin songs which was first published in 1582. Early, Latin forms of carols such as " Christ was born on Christmas Day ", " Good Christian Men, Rejoice " and " Good King Wenceslas " can be found in this book. " Adeste Fideles " ("O Come all ye faithful") appears in its current form in the mid-18th century, although the words may have originated in the 13th century. The origin of
816-616: A dance. A caroller (or caroler ) is someone who sings carols, and is said to be carolling (or caroling ). Today the carol is represented almost exclusively by the Advent carol, the Christmas carol , and to a lesser extent by the Easter carol; however, despite their present association with religion, this has not always been the case. The word carol is derived from the Old French word carole ,
918-585: A democracy. The political legacy of the reform movement was to link the nonconformists (part of the evangelical movement) in England and Wales with the Liberal Party . This continued until the First World War . The Presbyterians played a similar role as a religious voice for reform in Scotland. Religion was politically controversial during this era, with Nonconformists pushing for the disestablishment of
1020-455: A fashion among employers for providing welfare services to their workers, led to relative social stability. The Chartist movement for working-class men to be given the right to vote, which had been prominent in the early Victorian period, dissipated. Government involvement in the economy was limited. Only in the post-World War II period , around a century later, did the country experience substantial economic growth again. But whilst industry
1122-457: A general principle of one vote per household. All these acts and others simplified the electoral system and reduced corruption. Historian Bruce L Kinzer describes these reforms as putting the United Kingdom on the path towards becoming a democracy. The traditional aristocratic ruling class attempted to maintain as much influence as possible while gradually allowing the middle- and working-classes
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#17328691925011224-507: A high standard of personal conduct across all sections of society. The emphasis on morality gave impetus to social reform but also placed restrictions on certain groups' liberty. Prosperity rose during the period, but debilitating undernutrition persisted. Literacy and childhood education became near universal in Great Britain for the first time. Whilst some attempts were made to improve living conditions, slum housing and disease remained
1326-445: A major employer and industry in their own right. Expected standards of personal conduct changed in around the first half of the 19th century, with good manners and self-restraint becoming much more common. Historians have suggested various contributing factors, such as Britain's major conflicts with France during the early 19th century, meaning that the distracting temptations of sinful behaviour had to be avoided in order to focus on
1428-557: A polite request for a treat, and a promise to come back next year for more well-wishing. Almost all the various carols are in the common dekapentasyllabos (15-syllable iamb with a caesura after the 8th syllable) verse, which means that their wording and tunes are easily interchangeable. This has given rise to a great number of local variants, parts of which often overlap or resemble one another in verse, tune, or both. Nevertheless, their musical variety remains very wide overall: for example carols from Epirus are strictly pentatonic , in
1530-528: A religious nature, but not directly related to the birth of Jesus. For example: Antiquarians in the 19th-century rediscovered early carols in museums. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , about 500 have been found. Some are wassailing songs, some are religious songs in English, some are in Latin, and some are " macaronic " — a mixture of English and Latin. Since most people did not understand Latin,
1632-478: A religious theme, but are often still referred to as "carols". For example, the 16th-century song "A Bone, God Wot!" appears to be a wassailing song (which is sung during drinking or while requesting ale), but is described in the British Library 's Cottonian Collection as a Christmas carol. As recently as 1865, Christmas-related lyrics were adopted for the traditional English folk song " Greensleeves ", becoming
1734-430: A rise in prosecutions for illegal sodomy in the middle of the 19th century. Male sexuality became a favourite subject of medical researchers' study. For the first time, all male homosexual acts were outlawed. Concern about sexual exploitation of adolescent girls increased during the period, especially following the white slavery scandal , which contributed to the increasing of the age of consent from 13 to 16 . At
1836-541: A role in economic life but exploitation of their labour became especially intense during the Victorian era. Children were put to work in a wide range of occupations, but particularly associated with this period are factories. Employing children had advantages, as they were cheap, had limited ability to resist harsh working conditions, and could enter spaces too small for adults. Some accounts exist of happy upbringings involving child labour, but conditions were generally poor. Pay
1938-505: A role in politics. However, all women and a large minority of men remained outside the system into the early 20th century. Cities were given greater political autonomy and the labour movement was legalised. From 1845 to 1852, the Potato Famine caused mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration. The Corn Laws were repealed in response to this. Across
2040-540: A scientific book on German Christmas carols which is also a song book. Greek tradition calls for children to go out with triangles from house to house on Christmas Eve, New Year's Eve and Epiphany Eve, and sing the corresponding folk carols, called the Kalanta or Kalanda or Kalanta Christougenon , the word deriving from the Roman calends ). There are separate carols for each of the three great feasts, referring respectively to
2142-463: A severe problem. The period saw significant scientific and technological development. Britain was advanced in industry and engineering in particular, but somewhat undeveloped in art and education. Great Britain's population increased rapidly, while Ireland's fell sharply. In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , from her accession on 20 June 1837—after
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#17328691925012244-509: A substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room Hunger and poor diet was a common aspect of life across the UK in the Victorian period, especially in the 1840s, but the mass starvation seen in the Great Famine in Ireland was unique. Levels of poverty fell significantly during the 19th century from as much as two thirds of
2346-468: A symbol of the British Empire. Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. The Victorian era saw a rapidly growing middle class who became an important cultural influence, to a significant extent replacing the aristocracy as British society's dominant class. A distinctive middle-class lifestyle developed that influenced what society valued as a whole. Increased importance was placed on the value of
2448-687: A time when job options for women were limited and generally low-paying, some women, particularly those without familial support, took to prostitution to support themselves. Attitudes in public life and among the general population to prostitution varied. Evidence about prostitutes' situation also varies. One contemporary study argues that the trade was a short-term stepping stone to a different lifestyle for many women, while another, more recent study argues they were subject to physical abuse, financial exploitation, state persecution, and difficult working conditions. Due to worries about venereal disease , especially among soldiers, women suspected of prostitution were for
2550-461: A wide range of new inventions. This led Great Britain to become the foremost industrial and trading nation of the time. Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's 'Golden Years', with national income per person increasing by half. This prosperity was driven by increased industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery, along with exports to the empire and elsewhere. The positive economic conditions, as well as
2652-545: Is a tradition of Christmas caroling (earlier known as wassailing ), in which groups of singers travel from house to house, singing carols at each, for which they are often rewarded with gifts, money, mince pies, or a glass of an appropriate beverage. Money collected in this way is now normally given to charity. Singing carols in church was instituted on Christmas Eve 1880 in Truro Cathedral , Cornwall, (see article on Nine Lessons and Carols ), and now seen in churches all over
2754-747: Is celebrated by western Christians as the Feast of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple . During the Socialist Republic of Romania in the 20th century, Christmas carols were banned by the government of Ceacuescu. Days following the Romanian Revolution in 1989, Christmas carols were sung for the first time in 42 years. The villancico (or vilancete in Portuguese) was a common poetic and musical form of
2856-584: Is consequently rarely available today. The Oxford Book of Carols , first published in 1928 by Oxford University Press (OUP), was a notably successful collection; edited by the British composers Martin Shaw and Ralph Vaughan Williams , along with clergyman and author Percy Dearmer , it became a widely used source of carols in among choirs and church congregations in Britain and remains in print today. The singing of carols
2958-538: Is linguistically dated to the beginning of the High Middle Ages , ca. 1000 AD; it is traditionally associated with the city of Kotyora in the Pontos (modern-day Ordu , Turkey). Most carols follow a more or less standard format: they begin by exalting the relevant religious feast, then proceed to offer praises for the lord and lady of the house, their children, the household and its personnel, and usually conclude with
3060-456: Is now called classical music was somewhat undeveloped compared to parts of Europe but did have significant support. Photography became an increasingly accessible and popular part of everyday life. Many sports were introduced or popularised during the Victorian era. They became important to male identity. Examples included cricket , football , rugby , tennis and cycling . The idea of women participating in sport did not fit well with
3162-785: Is the " Carol of the Bells ", with English lyrics by the American composer of Ukrainian descent Peter J. Wilhousky , composed by the Ukrainian composer Mykola Leontovych as " Shchedryk ", and premiered in December 1916 by a choral group made up of students at Kyiv University . Although it is a Christmas carol in Wilhousky's English lyrics, in original Ukrainian lyrics it is a Generous Eve carol ( shchedrivka [ uk ] , Ukrainian: щедрівка ), having nothing with Christianity. Christmas music performed in
Christmas carol - Misplaced Pages Continue
3264-515: Is the middle of summer at Christmas, there is a tradition of Carols by Candlelight concerts held outdoors at night in cities and towns across the country, during the weeks leading up to Christmas. First held in Melbourne, "Carols by Candlelight" is held each Christmas Eve in capital cities and many smaller cities and towns around Australia. Performers at the concerts include opera singers, musical theatre performers and popular music singers. People in
3366-571: Is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like " Personent hodie ", " Good King Wenceslas ", and " The Holly and the Ivy " can be traced directly back to the Middle Ages , and are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. Compositions continue to be written that become popular carols. For example, many of the carols written by Alfred Burt are sung regularly in both sacred and secular settings, and are among
3468-585: The Australian Broadcasting Commission ). These referred to the hot dry December of the Australian outback, dancing brolgas (a native Australian crane), and similar Australian features. The " Huron Carol " (or "Twas in the Moon of Wintertime") is a Canadian Christmas hymn (Canada's oldest Christmas song), written probably in 1642 by Jean de Brébeuf , a Jesuit missionary at Sainte-Marie among
3570-519: The Church of England . Nonconformists comprised about half of church attendees in England in 1851, and gradually the legal discrimination that had been established against them outside of Scotland was removed. Legal restrictions on Roman Catholics were also largely removed . The number of Catholics grew in Great Britain due to conversions and immigration from Ireland . Secularism and doubts about
3672-521: The Iberian Peninsula and Latin America popular from the late 15th to 18th centuries. With the decline in popularity of the villancicos in the 20th century, the term became reduced to mean merely "Christmas carol". Important composers of villancicos were Juan del Encina , Pedro de Escobar , Francisco Guerrero, Gaspar Fernandes and Juan Gutiérez de Padilla. Popular Spanish villancicos include "Los pastores
3774-508: The Montseny and Pedraforca mountains in Catalonia (by the counties of Osona and Girona ). As quite a few have references to mythological events and powers, some authors claim that they contain part of the religion that was present in the territory before Christianity arrived as it was kept alive in these mountainous regions. The nadala is usually paired with the caramella , being one for
3876-842: The Nativity , to St. Basil and the New Year, and to the Baptism of Jesus in the River Jordan , along with wishes for the household. In addition to the carols for the winter festive season , there are also the springtime or Lenten carols, commonly called the "Carols of Lazarus ", sung on the Saturday before Palm Sunday as a harbinger of the Resurrection of Christ to be celebrated a week later. In older times, caroling children asked for and were given edible gifts such as dried fruit, eggs, nuts or sweets; during
3978-557: The Pax Britannica , was a time of relatively peaceful relations between the world's great powers . This is particularly true of Britain's interactions with the others. The only war in which the British Empire fought against another major power was the Crimean War , from 1853 to 1856. There were various revolts and violent conflicts within the British Empire, and Britain participated in wars against minor powers. It also took part in
4080-699: The history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire , the Victorian era was the reign of Queen Victoria , from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. Slightly different definitions are sometimes used. The era followed the Georgian era and preceded the Edwardian era , and its later half overlaps with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe. Various liberalising political reforms took place in
4182-505: The winter solstice events while the other to the spring equinox . Ukrainian Christmas carols are named kolyadka ( Ukrainian : колядки ). They were originally sung to celebrate the birth of the Sun (winter solstice). After the incorporation into Christianity, their theme has been shifted to Christmas, celebrating the birth of Jesus Christ. The Ukrainian carol most known to the Western World
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4284-587: The 'workshop of the world', Britain was uniquely advanced in technology in the mid-19th century. Engineering, having developed into a profession in the 18th century, gained new profile and prestige in this period. The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone invented the first telegraph system . This system, which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages, quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards
4386-506: The 12th century the Parisian monk Adam of Saint Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditional Christmas carol. In the 13th century, in France, Germany, and particularly, Italy, under the influence of Francis of Assisi , a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in regional native languages developed. Christmas carols in English first appear in
4488-576: The 1880s, sanitation was inadequate in areas such as water supply and disposal of sewage. This all had a negative effect on health, especially that of the impoverished young. For instance, of the babies born in Liverpool in 1851, only 45 per cent survived to age 20. It had been hoped that there would be a rapid improvement following the Public Baths and Wash-houses Act 1846. This was the first legislation to empower local authorities in England and Wales to fund
4590-413: The 19th century and germ theory was developed for the first time. Doctors became more specialised and the number of hospitals grew. The overall number of deaths fell by about 20%. The life expectancy of women increased from around 42 to 55 and 40 to 56 for men. In spite of this, the mortality rate fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided
4692-536: The 19th century for the first time in history, improved nutrition, and a lower overall mortality rate. Ireland's population shrank significantly, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine. The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the French Revolution but was slow to reach Britain. William Whewell coined the term 'scientist' in 1833 to refer to those who studied what
4794-451: The 19th century helped to widen the popular appeal of carols. " God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen ", " The First Noel ", " I Saw Three Ships " and " Hark! The Herald Angels Sing " appear in English antiquarian William Sandys ' 1833 collection Christmas Carols, Ancient and Modern . Composers such as Arthur Sullivan helped to repopularise the carol, and it is this period that gave rise to such favourites as " Good King Wenceslas " and " It Came Upon
4896-628: The 20th century this was gradually replaced with money gifts – ranging from small change in the case of strangers to considerable amounts in the case of close relatives. Caroling is also done by marching bands, choirs, school students seeking to raise funds for trips or charity, members of folk societies, or merely by groups of well-wishers. Many internationally known carols, e.g. " Silent Night " and " O Tannenbaum ", are also sung in Greek translation. Many carols are regional, being popular in specific regions but unknown in others, whereas some are popular throughout
4998-450: The Bible. A variety of reading materials grew in popularity during the period, including novels, women's magazines, children's literature, and newspapers. Much literature, including chapbooks , was distributed on the street. Music was also very popular, with genres such as folk music , broadsides , music halls , brass bands , theater music and choral music having mass appeal. What
5100-485: The British Empire, reform included rapid expansion, the complete abolition of slavery in the African possessions and the end of transportation of convicts to Australia . Restrictions on colonial trade were loosened and responsible (i.e. semi-autonomous) government was introduced in some territories. Throughout most of the 19th century Britain was the most powerful country in the world. The period from 1815 to 1914 , known as
5202-615: The Catholic church. Following the Protestant Reformation , reformers aimed to bring music "back to the people". To enable the common person to sing church music, great efforts were made to translate musical texts from Latin into the native languages that people spoke. Martin Luther , the father of Lutheran Christianity , encouraged congregational singing during the Mass , in addition to spreading
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#17328691925015304-921: The Hurons in Canada. In accordance with a medieval tradition, the Christmas Peace is declared every year on Christmas Eve in Porvoo , Finland, with a local band and male choir performing Christmas carols. "Dans cette étable" and "Venez Divin Messie" are also popular Christmas carols. Perhaps the best known traditional French carol, " Il est né, le divin Enfant ", comes from the region of Provence . Some carols familiar in English are translations of German Christmas songs ( Weihnachtslieder ). Pastoral Weihnachtslieder are sometimes called Hirtenlieder ("shepherd songs"). Martin Luther wrote
5406-530: The Midnight Clear ", a New England carol written by Edmund H. Sears and Richard S. Willis. The publication in 1871 of Christmas Carols, New and Old by Henry Ramsden Bramley and Sir John Stainer was a significant contribution to a revival of carols in Victorian Britain . In 1916, Charles Lewis Hutchins published Carols Old and Carols New , a scholarly collection which suffered from a short print run and
5508-549: The Origin of Species (1859), which sought to explain biological evolution by natural selection, gained a high profile in the public consciousness. Simplified (and at times inaccurate) popular science was increasingly distributed through a variety of publications which caused tension with the professionals. There were significant advances in various fields of research, including statistics , elasticity , refrigeration , natural history , electromagnetism , and logic . Known as
5610-449: The UK, including expanding the electoral franchise. The Great Famine caused mass death in Ireland early in the period. The British Empire had relatively peaceful relations with the other great powers . It participated in various military conflicts mainly against minor powers. The British Empire expanded during this period and was the predominant power in the world. Victorian society valued
5712-496: The United States ranges from popular songs, such as " Jingle Bells ", to Christmas carols, such as " Away in a Manger ", " O Little Town of Bethlehem ", and numerous others of varying genres. Church and college choirs celebrate with special programs and online recordings. Carol (music) A carol is a festive song, generally religious but not necessarily connected with Christian church worship, and sometimes accompanied by
5814-631: The Victorian view of femininity, but their involvement did increase as the period progressed. For the middle classes, many leisure activities such as table games could be done in the home while domestic holidays to rural locations such as the Lake District and Scottish Highlands were increasingly practical. The working classes had their own culture separate from that of their richer counterparts, various cheaper forms of entertainment and recreational activities provided by philanthropy . Trips to resorts such as Blackpool were increasingly popular towards
5916-447: The West." The rapid growth in the urban population included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as Edinburgh and London. Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants. Overcrowding was a major problem with seven or eight people frequently sleeping in a single room. Until at least
6018-608: The accompaniment of his song cycle Weihnachtslieder , Op. 8. Other examples include: In Austria, Belgium and Germany, Epiphany , the last feast of the Christmas season, is marked by star singers , children dressing as the Three Kings , carrying a star on a pole. Going from house to house from New Year's Day to 6 January, the children sing religious songs and collect money for charity. They are often rewarded with extra sweets or money. In Australia, South Africa and New Zealand, where it
6120-497: The accuracy of the Old Testament grew among people with higher levels of education. Northern English and Scottish academics tended to be more religiously conservative, whilst agnosticism and even atheism (though its promotion was illegal) gained appeal among academics in the south. Historians refer to a 'Victorian Crisis of Faith', a period when religious views had to readjust to accommodate new scientific knowledge and criticism of
6222-571: The audience hold lit candles and join in singing some of the carols in accompaniment with the celebrities. Similar events are now held all over Australia, usually arranged by churches, municipal councils, or other community groups. They are normally held on Christmas Eve or the Sunday or weekend before Christmas. A similar recent trend in South Africa and New Zealand are for smaller towns to host their own Carols by Candlelight concerts. William Garnet "Billy" James (1892–1977) wrote music for Christmas carol lyrics written by John Wheeler (both men worked for
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#17328691925016324-411: The basis for welfare provision into the 20th century. While many people were prone to vices, not least alcoholism, historian Bernard A. Cook argues that the main reason for 19th century poverty was that typical wages for much of the population were simply too low. Barely enough to provide a subsistence living in good times, let alone save up for bad. Improvements were made over time to housing along with
6426-468: The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later edited to " Hark! the Herald Angels Sing ". A tune from a cantata, Festgesang , by Felix Mendelssohn in 1840 was adapted by William H. Cummings to fit Wesley's words. This combination first appeared in "Hymns Ancient and Modern" in 1861. " Silent Night " comes from Austria. The carol was first performed in the Nikolauskirche in Oberndorf on 24 December 1818. Mohr had composed
6528-496: The better known modern Christmas carols. Almost all the well-known carols were not sung in church until the second half of the 19th century. Hymns Ancient and Modern 1861–1874 included several carols. Isaac Watts , the "father of English hymnody", composed " Joy to the World ", which has become a popular Christmas carol even though it is widely believed that Watts did not write it to be sung only at Christmas. Charles Wesley wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols, of which
6630-554: The birth of Christ; this is often based on the famous Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols at King's College, Cambridge . In the 1680s and 1690s, two French composers incorporated carols into their works. Louis-Claude Daquin wrote 12 noels for organ. Marc-Antoine Charpentier wrote a few instrumental versions of noels, plus one major choral work Messe de minuit pour Noël . Johann Sebastian Bach included Christmas carols in his cantatas for Christmastide , including his Christmas Oratorio . Peter Cornelius included carol melodies in
6732-413: The building of public baths and wash houses but, since the act was only permissive rather than mandatory, improvement was slow. Conditions were particularly bad in London, where the population rose sharply and poorly maintained, overcrowded dwellings became slum housing. Kellow Chesney wrote of the situation: Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up
6834-429: The carol " Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her ", which can be acted as a play of the Christmas story . He also wrote " Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ " and " Christum wir sollen loben schon ". The carol " Vom Himmel hoch, o Engel, kommt " was written by Friedrich Spee in 1622 to an older melody, a lullaby singing "of Jesus and Mary", and for peace. Two well-known later examples are " O Tannenbaum " (O Christmas tree), from
6936-489: The children in school; in 1840 only about 20 per cent of the children in London had any schooling. By the 1850s, around half of the children in England and Wales were in school (not including Sunday school ). From the 1833 Factory Act onwards, attempts were made to get child labourers into part time education, though this was often difficult to achieve. Only in the 1870s and 1880s did children begin to be compelled into school. Work continued to inhibit children's schooling into
7038-454: The death of her uncle, William IV —until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII . Her reign lasted 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era. The era can also be understood in a more extensive sense—the 'long Victorian era'—as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from
7140-567: The diplomatic struggles of the Great Game and the Scramble for Africa . In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha . The couple had nine children, who themselves married into various royal families, and the queen thus became known as the 'grandmother of Europe'. In 1861, Albert died. Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years. In 1871, with republican sentiments growing in Britain, she began to return to public life. In her later years, her popularity soared as she became
7242-401: The early 20th century. 19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution. In the 1901 census , more than three out of every four people were classified as living in an urban area, compared to one in five a century earlier. Historian Richard A. Soloway wrote that "Great Britain had become the most urbanized country in
7344-488: The end of period. Initially the industrial revolution increased working hours, but over the course of the 19th century a variety of political and economic changes caused them to fall back down to and in some cases below pre-industrial levels, creating more time for leisure. Before the Industrial Revolution, daily life had changed little for hundreds of years. The 19th century saw rapid technological development with
7446-453: The end of the century. Private education for wealthier children, boys and more gradually girls, became more formalised over the course of the century. The growing middle class and strong evangelical movement placed great emphasis on a respectable and moral code of behaviour. This included features such as charity, personal responsibility, controlled habits, child discipline and self-criticism. As well as personal improvement, importance
7548-470: The end of the century. In 1876, an American patented the telephone . A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city. Guglielmo Marconi developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period. The railways were important economically in the Victorian era, allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around, stimulating trade and industry. They were also
7650-516: The family, and the idea that marriage should be based on romantic love gained popularity. A clear separation was established between the home and the workplace, which had often not been the case before. The home was seen as a private environment, where housewives provided their husbands with a respite from the troubles of the outside world. Within this ideal, women were expected to focus on domestic matters and to rely on men as breadwinners. Women had limited legal rights in most areas of life, and
7752-591: The implication is that these songs were composed for church choristers, or perhaps for an educated audience at the Royal courts. The most famous survival of these early macaronic carols is "The Boar's Head". The tradition of singing carols outside of church services early in the 19th century is best illustrated by Thomas Hardy 's novel Under the Greenwood Tree (1872). In England and other countries, such as Poland (kolęda), Romania ( colindă ) and Bulgaria ( koledari ), there
7854-549: The influence of indigenous, Hispanic and American musical traditions, reflecting the country's complex history . Carollers ( Tagalog : Namamaskô ) begin wassailing in November, with mostly children and young adults participating in the custom. Christmas carols are very popular in Poland, where they have a long history, the oldest dating to the 15th century or earlier. There is a tradition of singing Christmas carols until 2 February which
7956-522: The internationally popular Christmas carol " What Child is This? ". Little research has been conducted on carol singing, but one of the few sociological studies of caroling in the early 21st century in Finland determined that the sources of songs are often misunderstood, and that it is simplistic to suggest caroling is mostly related to Christian beliefs, for it also reinforces preservation of diverse national customs and local family traditions. A modern form of
8058-583: The kind of drone polyphony practised in the Balkans , and accompanied by C- clarinets and fiddles ; just across the straits, on Corfu Island, the style is tempered harmonic polyphony, accompanied by mandolins and guitars. Generally speaking, the musical style of each carol closely follows the secular music tradition of each region. The most popular Italian Christmas carol is " Tu scendi dalle stelle ", written in 1732 by Saint Alphonsus Liguori . Christmas carols in predominantly Catholic Philippines exhibit
8160-438: The label 'Victorian', though there have also been defences of it. Michael Sadleir was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one". He distinguished early Victorianism—the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850 —and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of aestheticism and imperialism , from the Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw
8262-517: The latter period as characterised by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic prudery , and complacency —what G. M. Trevelyan called the 'mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity'. The Reform Act , which made various changes to the electoral system including expanding the franchise, had been passed in 1832. The franchise was expanded again by the Second Reform Act in 1867. The Third Reform Act in 1884 introduced
8364-420: The management of sewage and water eventually giving the UK the most advanced system of public health protection anywhere in the world. The quality and safety of household lighting improved over the period with oil lamps becoming the norm in the early 1860s, gas lighting in the 1890s and electric lights beginning to appear in the homes of the richest by the end of the period. Medicine advanced rapidly during
8466-444: The middle of the 19th century to 'diminished cruelty to animals, criminals, lunatics, and children (in that order)'. Legal restrictions were placed on cruelty to animals. Restrictions were placed on the working hours of child labourers in the 1830s and 1840s. Further interventions took place throughout the century to increase the level of child protection. Use of the death penalty also decreased. Crime rates fell significantly in
8568-451: The periods adjacent to it, in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the Reform Act 1832 , which introduced a wide-ranging change to the electoral system of England and Wales . Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of
8670-504: The population in 1800 to less than a third by 1901. However, 1890s studies suggested that almost 10% of the urban population lived in a state of desperation lacking the food necessary to maintain basic physical functions. Attitudes towards the poor were often unsympathetic and they were frequently blamed for their situation. In that spirit, the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 had been deliberately designed to punish them and would remain
8772-540: The practice of caroling can be seen in " Dial-A-Carol ," an annual tradition held by students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , wherein potential audiences call the singers to request a performance over phone call. It is not clear whether the word carol derives from the French "carole" or the Latin "carula" meaning a circular dance. Traditionally, carols have often been based on medieval chord patterns, and it
8874-543: The practice of caroling outside the liturgy. Composers such as William Byrd composed motet -like works for Christmas that they termed carols; and folk-carols continued to be sung in rural areas. Nonetheless, some famous carols were written in this period, and they were more strongly revived from the nineteenth century and began to be written and adapted by eminent composers. In modern times, songs that may once have been regarded as carols are now no longer classified as such (especially Christmas songs ), even those that retain
8976-405: The second half of the 19th century. Sociologist Christie Davies linked this change to attempts to morally educate the population, especially at Sunday schools . Contrary to popular belief, Victorian society understood that both men and women enjoyed copulation . Chastity was expected of women, whilst attitudes to male sexual behaviour were more relaxed. The development of police forces led to
9078-568: The snow is falling)", " Tochter Zion, freue dich " (Daughter Zion, rejoice) and " Es ist für uns eine Zeit angekommen " ("Unto us a time has come"). " Lasst uns froh und munter sein " ("Let us be happy and cheerful"), " Kling, Glöckchen ", ("Ring, Little Bell"), " Ihr Kinderlein, kommet " ("Oh, come, little children") and " Schneeflöckchen, Weißröckchen " (lit.: "tiny snowflake, white, tiny skirt") are popular German songs introduced in Kindergarten and primary school . Ingeborg Weber-Kellermann wrote
9180-402: The spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem. The population of England, Scotland and Wales grew rapidly during the 19th century. Various factors are considered contributary to this, including a rising fertility rate (though it was falling by the end of the period), the lack of a catastrophic pandemic or famine in the island of Great Britain during
9282-625: The theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to Arianism . Corde natus ex Parentis ( Of the Father's heart begotten ) by the Spanish poet Prudentius (d. 413) is still sung in some churches today. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas sequence (or prose) was introduced in Northern European monasteries, developing under Bernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymed stanzas . In
9384-868: The traditional attributes of a carol – celebrating a seasonal topic, alternating verses and chorus, and danceable music. Some writers of carols, such as George Ratcliffe Woodward who wrote " Ding Dong Merrily on High " and William Morris who wrote " Masters in This Hall ", reverted to a quasi-mediaeval style; this became a feature of the early twentieth-century revival in Christmas Carols. Some composers have written extended works based on carols. Examples include Benjamin Britten ( A Ceremony of Carols ), Ralph Vaughan Williams ( Fantasia on Christmas Carols ) and Victor Hely-Hutchinson ( Carol Symphony ). Important anthologies of carols include: Victorian era In
9486-718: The tune is disputed. Carols gained in popularity after the Reformation in the countries where Protestant churches gained prominence (as well-known Reformers like Martin Luther authored carols and encouraged their use in worship). This was a consequence of the fact that the Lutheran reformation warmly welcomed music. During the years that the Puritan ban on Christmas was in place in England, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret. The publication of Christmas music books in
9588-650: The two countries. Examples of the latter are the Peloponnesian Christmas carol "Christoúgenna, Prōtoúgenna" ("Christmas, Firstmas"), the Constantinopolitan Christmas carol "Kalēn hespéran, árchontes" ("Good evening, lords"), and the New Year's carol "Archimēniá ki archichroniá" ("First of the month, first of the year"). The oldest known carol, commonly referred to as the "Byzantine Carol" ( Byzantine Greek : Άναρχος θεός καταβέβηκεν, Ánarkhos Theós katabébēken , "God, who has no beginning, descended"),
9690-402: The war effort, and the evangelical movement's push for moral improvement. There is evidence that the expected standards of moral behaviour were reflected in action as well as rhetoric across all classes of society. For instance, an analysis suggested that less than 5% of working class couples cohabited before marriage. Historian Harold Perkin argued that the change in moral standards led by
9792-437: The words much earlier, in 1816, but on Christmas Eve brought them to Gruber and asked him to compose a melody and guitar accompaniment for the church service. The first English translation was in 1871 where it was published in a Methodist hymnal. Several different Christmas episodes, apart from the birth of Jesus itself, are described in Christmas carols, such as: In addition, some carols describe Christmas-related events of
9894-594: The world. The songs that were chosen for singing in church omitted the wassailing carols, and the words "hymn" and "carol" were used almost interchangeably. Shortly before, in 1878, the Salvation Army , under Charles Fry, instituted the idea of playing carols at Christmas, using a brass band . Carols can be sung by individual singers, but are also often sung by larger groups, including professionally trained choirs. Most churches have special services at which carols are sung, generally combined with readings from scripture about
9996-752: Was further popularised in the 20th century when OUP published one of the most popular carol books in the English-speaking world, Carols for Choirs . First published in 1961 and edited by David Willcocks and Reginald Jacques , this bestselling series has since expanded to a five-volume set. Along with editor John Rutter , the compilers included many arrangements of carols derived from sources such as Piae Cantiones , as well as pieces by modern composers such as William Walton , Benjamin Britten , Richard Rodney Bennett , William Mathias and John Rutter. Today carols are regularly sung at Christian religious services. Some compositions have words that are clearly not of
10098-478: Was generally then known as natural philosophy, but it took a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the Royal Society admitted only professionals from 1847 onwards. The British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living as a scientist alone. Scientific knowledge and debates such as that about Charles Darwin 's On
10200-448: Was given to social reform. Utilitarianism was another philosophy that saw itself as based on science rather than on morality, but also emphasised social progress. An alliance formed between these two ideological strands. The reformers emphasised causes such as improving the conditions of women and children, giving police reform priority over harsh punishment to prevent crime, religious equality, and political reform in order to establish
10302-401: Was low, punishments severe, work was dangerous and disrupted children's development (often leaving them too tired to play even in their free time). Early labour could do lifelong harm; even in the 1960s and '70s, the elderly people of industrial towns were noted for their often unusually short stature, deformed physiques, and diseases associated with unhealthy working conditions. Reformers wanted
10404-432: Was well developed, education and the arts were mediocre. Wage rates continued to improve in the later 19th century: real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 per cent higher in 1901 compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831 to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million. Children had always played
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