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45-526: The forest lies on undulating terrain, mostly between 1500 and 1600 meters elevation. It is in the watershed of the Isiukhu and Yala rivers, which originate on the Nandi Escarpment to the east and flow westwards through the forest before emptying into Lake Victoria . The forest including reserves encloses about 238 square kilometers, a little less than half of which currently remains as indigenous forest. In

90-598: A few large hills. Most of the population are Luo , but in some areas the people are mainly Luhya . About 43% of the land is used for crops, and 55% for grazing livestock. Livestock includes cows, bulls, chickens, goats and sheep. There are few trees, and widespread soil erosion. As of 2016 a feasibility study had been completed for development of the Nandi Forest dam to support irrigation, water supply and power generation. The power plant would have two 25 MW Pelton turbines and would supply 185 GWh annually. In April 2020 it

135-608: A freshwater deltaic wetland with an average depth of 3 metres (9.8 ft), which is fed by the floodwaters of the Nzoia and Yala rivers and by the backflow of water from Lake Victoria. The lake provides a refuge for several species of fish that are no longer present in Lake Victoria. In the past the Yala River flowed through the eastern 20% of the Yala Swamp into Lake Kanyaboli, then into

180-541: A rocky bed, with a notable absence of alluvial flats and terraces. The main channel is about 30 metres (98 ft) wide, apart from the Yala Swamp. The river runs through the southeast of the Kakamega Forest , where it has a dramatic 20-metre (66 ft) waterfall. The Yala Swamp at the mouth of the river covers about 175 square kilometres (68 sq mi) along the northern shore of Lake Victoria. The swamp contains 1,500 hectares (3,700 acres) Lake Kanyaboli ,

225-483: A single order, Polyxenida (bristle millipedes). All other millipedes belong to the subclass Chilognatha consisting of two infraclasses: Pentazonia, containing the short-bodied pill millipedes, and Helminthomorpha (worm-like millipedes), containing the great majority of the species. The higher-level classification of millipedes is presented below, based on Shear, 2011, and Shear & Edgecombe, 2010 (extinct groups). Recent cladistic and molecular studies have challenged

270-454: A variety of chemicals secreted from pores along the body, although the tiny bristle millipedes are covered with tufts of detachable bristles. Its primary defence mechanism is to curl into a tight coil, thereby protecting its legs and other vital delicate areas on the body behind a hard exoskeleton. Reproduction in most species is carried out by modified male legs called gonopods , which transfer packets of sperm to females. First appearing in

315-781: A variety of primates including the blue monkey , redtail monkey , De Brazza's monkey , baboon , potto and the occasional vervet monkey . Leopards have been occasionally reported, but the last official sighting was in 1991. Amphibians and reptiles are also found in Kakamega Forest. Insects are abundant and some are quite spectacular, such as Goliath beetles , pink and green flower mantis , and numerous colorful butterflies (489 species). Particularly well represented groups are ants (Formicidae), Lepidopterans , Orthopterans , and beetles . Gastropods , millipedes and spiders are also common. The flora and fauna of Kakamega Forest has not been extensively studied. Kakamega Forest Reserve

360-455: A west Kenyan rain forest remnant: further evidence from analysis of its reptile fauna. 0°17′30″N 34°51′22″E  /  0.29167°N 34.85611°E  / 0.29167; 34.85611 Yala River The Yala River is a river in western Kenya, a tributary of Lake Victoria . It generally flows fast over a rocky bed through a wide valley before joining the Nzoia River to form

405-539: Is a result of two single segments fused together. Most millipedes have very elongated cylindrical or flattened bodies with more than 20 segments, while pill millipedes are shorter and can roll into a tight ball. Although the name "millipede" derives from Latin for "thousand feet", no species was known to have 1,000 or more until the discovery in 2020 of Eumillipes persephone , which can have over 1,300 legs. There are approximately 12,000 named species classified into 16 orders and around 140 families , making Diplopoda

450-445: Is called a diplopodologist. The term "millipede" is widespread in popular and scientific literature, but among North American scientists, the term "milliped" (without the terminal e) is also used. Other vernacular names include "thousand-legger" or simply "diplopod". The science of millipede biology and taxonomy is called diplopodology: the study of diplopods. Approximately 12,000 millipede species have been described. Estimates of

495-402: Is famous for its birds. 367 bird species have been recorded in the forest such as the west African Great blue turaco and black-and-white-casqued hornbill . At least 9 birds are not found anywhere else. Mammals that occur in the park include bush pig , duikers , bushbuck , African clawless otter , mongoose , giant African water shrew , squirrels , tree pangolin , porcupine , bats and

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540-408: Is one of the largest Kenyan rivers feeding Lake Victoria, with an average discharge of 27.4 cubic metres per second (970 cu ft/s). The river contributes about 5% of the annual inflow to Lake Victoria. The Yala River flows through a wide, mature valley that appears to have been rejuvenated during the tilting associated with the rifting movements of the mid- Pleistocene . It runs swiftly over

585-626: Is similar to the one originally proposed by Verhoeff, and remains the currently accepted classification scheme (shown below), despite more recent molecular studies proposing conflicting relationships. A 2011 summary of millipede family diversity by William A. Shear placed the order Siphoniulida within the larger group Nematophora. Polyxenida Glomeridesmida Glomerida Sphaerotheriida Platydesmida Siphonocryptida Polyzoniida Siphonophorida Chordeumatida Callipodida Stemmiulida Siphoniulida Polydesmida Julida Spirobolida Spirostreptida In addition to

630-491: Is the earliest member of the millipedes from the late Wenlock epoch of the late Silurian around 428  million years ago , or early Lochkovian of the early Devonian around 414 million years ago, known from 1 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2  in) long fragment and has clear evidence of spiracles (breathing holes) attesting to its air-breathing habits. Other early fossils of millipedes are Kampecaris obanensis and Archidesmus sp. from 425 millions years ago in

675-609: The Kenya Forest Service is the most accessible in Tourism. There is the well known Mama Mtere tree, a historic tree and the most photographed tree in Kakamega forest, there are also strangler fig trees. There are hiking trails in the forest that allow for forest walking, camping, hiking, primate watching, bird and butterfly watching, game watching and village walks. The Kakamega Rainforest Tour Guides (KRFTG) can arrange tours to visit

720-533: The Silurian period, millipedes are some of the oldest known land animals . Some members of prehistoric groups, such as Arthropleura , grew to over 2 m ( 6 + 1 ⁄ 2  ft); the largest modern species reach maximum lengths of 27 to 38 cm ( 10 + 1 ⁄ 2 to 15 in). The longest extant species is the giant African millipede ( Archispirostreptus gigas ). Among myriapods, millipedes have traditionally been considered most closely related to

765-741: The Uasin Gishu District includes Lake Lessos , one of the Yala River's main sources. The block has level terrain with medium gradient hills with shallow depressions. There are wetlands and small permanent streams. The farms are large and there is little subsistence agriculture. The cultivated land is interspersed with grasslands. Dairy production is important. 22% of the plots showed soil erosion in 2008. The Middle Yala Block in Vihiga District and Kakamega District contains mountainous highlands with many small streams, and held clusters of wetlands. There are preserved remnants of forest throughout

810-685: The Yala Swamp on the border of Lake Victoria. The land along its course is mostly cultivated or used for grazing, with relatively few remnants of the original forest. Soil erosion is visible throughout the river basin, particularly in the lower parts. Projects are underway to exploit the river for hydroelectricity. The Yala River rises in the Nandi Escarpment in the Rift Valley Province , Kenya. It flows west for 219 kilometres (136 mi) to its mouth on Lake Victoria in Siaya County , Kenya. It

855-520: The "modern era" of millipede taxonomy. In 1980, the American biologist Richard L. Hoffman published a classification of millipedes which recognized the Penicillata, Pentazonia, and Helminthomorpha, and the first phylogenetic analysis of millipede orders using modern cladistic methods was published in 1984 by Henrik Enghoff of Denmark. A 2003 classification by the American myriapodologist Rowland Shelley

900-497: The 16 living orders, there are 9 extinct orders and one superfamily known only from fossils. The relationship of these to living groups and to each other is controversial. The extinct Arthropleuridea was long considered a distinct myriapod class, although work in the early 21st century established the group as a subclass of millipedes. Several living orders also appear in the fossil record. Below are two proposed arrangements of fossil millipede groups. Extinct groups are indicated with

945-821: The French zoologist Pierre André Latreille proposed the name Chilognatha as the first group of what are now the Diplopoda, and in 1840 the German naturalist Johann Friedrich von Brandt produced the first detailed classification. The name Diplopoda itself was coined in 1844 by the French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville . From 1890 to 1940, millipede taxonomy was driven by relatively few researchers at any given time, with major contributions by Carl Attems , Karl Wilhelm Verhoeff and Ralph Vary Chamberlin , who each described over 1,000 species, as well as Orator F. Cook , Filippo Silvestri , R. I. Pocock , and Henry W. Brölemann . This

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990-467: The Yala and Nzoia river basins issued a baseline report in 2008. It studied three representative 10 by 10 square kilometres (3.9 by 3.9 sq mi) blocks of land in the Yala basin. In all three blocks much of the land was cultivated. Subsistence crops included maize , beans , sorghum , banana , cassava and sweet potato , while cash crops included tea , wheat and mango . The Upper Yala Block in

1035-623: The block used for cultural purposes, and logging in the Kaimosi forest in the southeast of the block. Most of the farms are overcropped, without traditional rotation and fallow periods. The farms are managed better in the north of the block, with more trees and hedges, while in the southern part steep slopes are cultivated with no conservation measures. About half the block shows evidence of soil erosion. The Lower Yala block in Kisumu District and Siaya District has low to medium gradient terrain with

1080-985: The driest months. Temperature is fairly constant throughout the year, ranging between 20°C - 30°C. The forest lies in the Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic ecoregion . The forest's flora and fauna include many species associated with the moist forests of the Guineo-Congolian region , which lie further west in the basin of the Congo River. Flora found in the park include some of Africa's greatest hard and soft woods: Elgon teak ( Olea welwitschii ) , red stinkwood ( Prunus africana ) , white stinkwood , several varieties of croton , and Aningeria altissima . There are 380 recorded species of plants. This includes 60 species of ferns, 150 species of trees and shrubs, and 170 species of flowering plants including 60 species of orchids with 9 species found only in this forest. The forest

1125-467: The first animals to have colonised land during the Silurian period . Early forms probably ate mosses and primitive vascular plants . There are two major groups of millipedes whose members are all extinct: the Archipolypoda ("ancient, many-legged ones") which contain the oldest known terrestrial animals, and Arthropleuridea , which contain the largest known land invertebrates. Pneumodesmus newmani

1170-519: The glades, while the smallest creeks flow through open grasslands, often forming small marshy patches. Köppen climate classification map for Kenya for 1980–2016 The Kakamega Forest is wet, with an average of 1200 mm – 1700 mm of rain per year. Rainfall is heaviest in April and May ("long rains"), with a slightly drier June and a second peak in August to September ("short rains"). January and February are

1215-418: The glades. The region is said to be one of the most densely populated rural areas in the world, and pressure on the forest resources is considerable. The German funded project BIOTA East worked in the forest from 2001 until 2010, creating forest inventories for many life forms and aiming to find strategies for a sustainable use of the forest. The Southern part of Kakamega forest, Isecheno Forest station run by

1260-593: The lake by a culvert, which created the 500 hectares (1,200 acres) Lake Sare through back-flooding. Lake Sare, with its direct link to Lake Victoria, is important in preserving the cichlid fish fauna of Lake Victoria. The river water enters Lake Victoria from Lake Sare through a channel crossed by a bridge that carries the C27 coastal highway along the Goye causeway. The Yala River drainage basin covers 3,351 square kilometres (1,294 sq mi). An ecosystem management study of

1305-546: The largest class of myriapods , an arthropod group which also includes centipedes and other multi-legged creatures. Most millipedes are slow-moving detritivores , eating decaying leaves and other dead plant matter; however, some eat fungi or drink plant fluid. Millipedes are generally harmless to humans, although some can become household or garden pests . Millipedes can be an unwanted nuisance particularly in greenhouses where they can potentially cause severe damage to emergent seedlings. Most millipedes defend themselves with

1350-577: The late Silurian . During the Upper Carboniferous ( 340 to 280 million years ago ), Arthropleura became the largest known land-dwelling invertebrate on record, reaching lengths of at least 2 m ( 6 + 1 ⁄ 2  ft). Millipedes also exhibit the earliest evidence of chemical defence, as some Devonian fossils have defensive gland openings called ozopores . Millipedes, centipedes, and other terrestrial arthropods attained very large sizes in comparison to modern species in

1395-405: The main swamp, and then through a small gulf into Lake Victoria. Today the eastern part of the swamp has been drained, and the river flows directly into the 8,000 hectares (20,000 acres) main swamp. It is cut off from Lake Kanyaboli by a silt-clay dyke. Lake Kanyaboli now receives its water from the surrounding catchment area and from back-seepage from the swamp. The river's gulf has been cut off from

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1440-579: The north of the forest is the 4,468 hectares (45 km; 17 sq mi) Kakamega National Reserve, given national forest reserve status in 1985. Just to the north is the Kisere Forest Reserve . Throughout the forest are a series of grassy glades, ranging in size from about 1 to 50, with a few larger clearings. The origins of the glades are uncertain. Some are certainly recent clearings, but others predate recent records. These may have originated from past human activity such as cattle grazing or may be

1485-450: The oxygen-rich environments of the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, and some could grow larger than one metre. As oxygen levels lowered through time, arthropods became smaller. The history of scientific millipede classification began with Carl Linnaeus , who in his 10th edition of Systema Naturae , 1758, named seven species of Julus as "Insecta Aptera" (wingless insects). In 1802,

1530-414: The result of herbivory and movements by large mammals such as buffalo and elephants (both now extirpated from the region). The glades vary a great deal in structure, some being open grass and others having a considerable number of trees or shrubs. A number of streams and small creeks run through the reserve. The larger creeks are usually bordered by a few to tens of meters of forest on either side which divide

1575-499: The river and the adjacent lake. The watershed must also be rehabilitated to maintain farm productivity and to reduce erosion and sedimentation of the wetlands and river. A 2005 report noted changes in Lake Sare that threatened the lake ecosystem through eutrophication and pollution. It recommended an inclusive management plan for the Yala swamp complex to prevent further degradation of the ecosystem. As of 2019 BirdLife International scored

1620-535: The river, deforestation and resulting river bank erosion, and sand extraction. Development potential includes irrigation and drainage projects in the lower and middle parts of the basin, hydroelectricity, wetlands products, eco-tourism and water sports tourism, and perhaps carbon sequestration . Conversion of the wetlands for crop production must be carefully managed to ensure environmental sustainability. Sufficient wetlands must be maintained to control erosion and improve water quality, which in turn affects fisheries in

1665-483: The threat to the swamp complex as high, and was pessimistic about action being taken. Millipedes Millipedes (originating from the Latin mille , "thousand", and pes , "foot") are a group of arthropods that are characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments; they are known scientifically as the class Diplopoda , the name derived from this feature. Each double-legged segment

1710-410: The tiny pauropods , although some molecular studies challenge this relationship. Millipedes can be distinguished from the somewhat similar but only distantly related centipedes (class Chilopoda), which move rapidly, are venomous , carnivorous , and have only a single pair of legs on each body segment. The scientific study of millipedes is known as diplopodology, and a scientist who studies them

1755-537: The traditional classification schemes above, and in particular the position of the orders Siphoniulida and Polyzoniida is not yet well established. The placement and positions of extinct groups (†) known only from fossils is tentative and not fully resolved. After each name is listed the author citation : the name of the person who coined the name or defined the group, even if not at the current rank. Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844 Millipedes are among

1800-482: The true number of species on earth range from 15,000 to as high as 80,000. Few species of millipede are at all widespread; they have very poor dispersal abilities, depending as they do on terrestrial locomotion and humid habitats. These factors have favoured genetic isolation and rapid speciation , producing many lineages with restricted ranges. The living members of the Diplopoda are divided into sixteen orders in two subclasses. The basal subclass Penicillata contains

1845-639: The weeping stone (Crying stone) at Ilesi, located along the Kakamega-Kisumu road, or Kisere Forest to see the De-brazes monkey in the north of Kakamega. Also bird watching, morning 6:30 am – 8:30 am is fantastic walk or evening 4:30 pm – 6:30 pm. Forest tours have attracted prominent personalities including outgoing US Ambassador to Kenya Robert Godec who paid a visit in April 2018 and marveled at its beauty. 13. Wagner, P., Köhler, J., Schmitz, A., & Böhme, W. (August 01, 2008). The biogeographical assignment of

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1890-455: Was a period when the science of diplopodology flourished: rates of species descriptions were on average the highest in history, sometimes exceeding 300 per year. In 1971, the Dutch biologist C. A. W. Jeekel published a comprehensive listing of all known millipede genera and families described between 1758 and 1957 in his Nomenclator Generum et Familiarum Diplopodorum , a work credited as launching

1935-473: Was announced that Tembo Power of Mauritius, along with Metier and WK Construction of South Africa had signed an agreement for development of a run-of-the-river hydroelectricity plant on the Yala River. The Kaptis Hydroelectric Power Station was to have a 15MW capacity and would be operational by 2022. The project would cost $ 30 million. The electricity would be fed to the grid operated by the state-owned Kenya Power and Lighting Company (KPLC). The power plant

1980-698: Was designated in 1933. It currently has an area of 178.38 km. In 1967 the Isecheno and Yala or Lirhanda nature reserves were established within the forest reserve. Kakamega National Reserve was designated in 1985, composed of the northern portion of the Kakamega Forest Reserve and the Kisere Forest Reserve to the north. It has an area of 44.7 km. Many local inhabitants rely on the forest to supply important resources, such as firewood, building poles and traditional medicines. Cattle grazing occurs in some of

2025-418: Was to be located near the town of Kakamega . A study of discharge data from 1950 to 2000 showed a general increase in discharge. This may be due to destruction of land cover, including indigenous forests. Yearly discharge of nutrients into the lake is about 1,000 tonnes of nitrogen and 102 tonnes of phosphorus . Threats to the river ecology include garbage from panning for minerals, oil spills in and near

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