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150-723: In February 2008, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor Assistant Professor Christopher Depcik and a group of 5 engineering students from the University of Kansas met to organize a new project recognized by the School of Engineering that builds efficient community cars that run primarily on renewable energy sources. By August, the team added 6 more members to start the Fall Semester. Depcik worked with both General Motors Company and Ford Motor Company in Detroit. They picked an old non functioning car from

300-461: A photodetector (for example infrared detectors ), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity. The operation of a PV cell requires three basic attributes: In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight , for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A "photoelectrolytic cell" ( photoelectrochemical cell ), on

450-421: A "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel". A solar array generates solar power using solar energy . Application of solar cells as an alternative energy source for vehicular applications is a growing industry. Electric vehicles that operate off of solar energy and/or sunlight are commonly referred to as solar cars. These vehicles use solar panels to convert absorbed light into electrical energy that

600-548: A 501(c)(3) independent organization, it represents students from all colleges and schools, manages student funds on campus, and has representatives from each academic unit. The Central Student Government is separate from the University of Michigan administration. Over the years, the Central Student Government has led voter registration drives, revived Homecoming events, changed a football seating policy, and created

750-465: A French-German collaboration between the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (Fraunhofer ISE) , CEA-LETI and SOITEC. In September 2015, Fraunhofer ISE announced the achievement of an efficiency above 20% for epitaxial wafer cells. The work on optimizing the atmospheric-pressure chemical vapor deposition (APCVD) in-line production chain was done in collaboration with NexWafe GmbH,

900-522: A Student Advisory Council for Ann Arbor city affairs. A longstanding goal of the Central Student Government has been to create a student-designated seat on the Board of Regents. In 2000 and 2002, students Nick Waun, Scott Trudeau, Matt Petering, and Susan Fawcett ran for the Board of Regents on the statewide ballot as third-party nominees, though none were successful. A 1998 poll by the State of Michigan concluded that

1050-597: A company spun off from Fraunhofer ISE to commercialize production. For triple-junction thin-film solar cells, the world record is 13.6%, set in June 2015. In 2016, researchers at Fraunhofer ISE announced a GaInP/GaAs/Si triple-junction solar cell with two terminals reaching 30.2% efficiency without concentration. In 2017, a team of researchers at National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), EPFL and CSEM ( Switzerland ) reported record one-sun efficiencies of 32.8% for dual-junction GaInP/GaAs solar cell devices. In addition,

1200-628: A conference on higher education took place at the university, resulting in the establishment of the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges . Under his leadership, construction boomed on campus, and enrollments increased, propelled by the prosperous economy of the Roaring Twenties . He initiated the annual honors convocation, introduced the deans' conference, and increased university income. He fell ill in 1924 and died in 1925. In this emergency, President Emeritus Hutchins

1350-523: A decade prior, and included an array of schools and libraries under a single administration, with the authority to establish additional schools across the territory. It wasn't until Michigan became a state in 1837 that the corporation focused solely on higher education. Promptly after the Territory of Michigan's formation in 1805, prominent citizens acknowledged the need for a college. In 1806, Father Gabriel Richard , who presided over several schools in

1500-541: A diploma system, and introduced coeducation. Women were first admitted in 1870, although Alice Robinson Boise Wood was the first woman to attend classes (without matriculating) in 1866–67. In 1870, Gabriel Franklin Hargo graduated from the law school as the second African American to graduate from a law school in the United States. In 1871, Sarah Killgore became the first woman to graduate from law school and be admitted to

1650-525: A drop in European demand dropped prices for crystalline solar modules to about $ 1.09 per watt down sharply from 2010. Prices continued to fall in 2012, reaching $ 0.62/watt by 4Q2012. Solar PV is growing fastest in Asia, with China and Japan currently accounting for half of worldwide deployment . Global installed PV capacity reached at least 301 gigawatts in 2016, and grew to supply 1.3% of global power by 2016. It

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1800-400: A dump, which was meant to be destroyed and sold in scraps and recycled it into a series hybrid that ran on biodiesel made from used cooking oil from the campus dormitories. Later this was presented to a board saying that the car would get 500 MPG, which generated great media attention. It was a media stunt, and the car ended up getting 54 MPG. Moreover, the recycle of the vehicle itself prevented

1950-447: A fixed $ 15,000 since 1869, still required additional funding. Frustrated, Haven resigned in 1869 to become president of Northwestern , a Methodist institution, a move that sectarians viewed as a setback for secular colleges. The presidency remained vacant from 1869 to 1871, with Professor Henry Simmons Frieze serving as acting president. During this period, the university raised funds for University Hall, overhauled admissions with

2100-419: A layer of glass for strength and protection. Space applications for solar cells require that the cells and arrays are both highly efficient and extremely lightweight. Some newer technology implemented on satellites are multi-junction photovoltaic cells, which are composed of different p–n junctions with varying bandgaps in order to utilize a wider spectrum of the sun's energy. Additionally, large satellites require

2250-518: A majority of voters would approve adding a student regent position if put to a vote. However, amending the composition of the Board of Regents would require a constitutional amendment in Michigan. In addition to the Central Student Government, each college and school at the University of Michigan has its own independent student governance body. Undergraduate students in the College of Literature, Science, and

2400-402: A market study and concluded that a price per watt of about $ 20/watt would create significant demand. The team eliminated the steps of polishing the wafers and coating them with an anti-reflective layer, relying on the rough-sawn wafer surface. The team also replaced the expensive materials and hand wiring used in space applications with a printed circuit board on the back, acrylic plastic on

2550-489: A new enactment, the university itself was created as a "body politic and corporate," maintaining its corporate status through various modifications to its charter. The term "Catholepistemiad," a neologism derived from a blend of Greek and Latin roots, can be loosely translated as "School of Universal Knowledge". This corporation was modeled after the Imperial University of France , an entity established by Napoleon I

2700-465: A notable incident involving the Jesse James Gang, an offshoot of Students for a Democratic Society , hosting an on-campus military recruiter in hostage. Hatcher controversially dismissed three professors for their refusal to cooperate with Joseph McCarthy 's House Un-American Activities Committee . Hatcher's successor, Robben Wright Fleming, an experienced negotiator, guided the university through

2850-615: A number of probes into the solar system, since they offered the best power-to-weight ratio . However, this success was possible because in the space application, power system costs could be high, because space users had few other power options, and were willing to pay for the best possible cells. The space power market drove the development of higher efficiencies in solar cells up until the National Science Foundation "Research Applied to National Needs" program began to push development of solar cells for terrestrial applications. In

3000-450: A period of limited construction funding, these structures exhibited a simple design with minimal ornamentation. However, Kahn's Hill Auditorium (1913), adequately funded by Regent Arthur Hill, features extensive Sullivanesque ornamentation and excellent acoustic design, which was rare for that period. Beginning in 1920, the university received greater funding for construction projects, thanks to President Burton's fiscal persuasiveness with

3150-412: A plug-in series hybrid electric vehicle . The batteries on board were refilled using a biodiesel generator; conversely, it could be plugged into any typical wall socket found in homes. The team also built a solar energy filling station on campus consisting of six 180-watt panels that allowed recharging the car batteries in half a day while it is parked. Cars typically reached 40 mph around campus while

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3300-616: A sharp rise in campus activism, highlighted by the increase in political dissent linked to the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War . In 1964, a group of faculty hosted the nation's first " teach-in " against U.S. policy in Southeast Asia, attended by 2,500 students. Subsequent sit-ins by campus political groups led to administrative crackdowns, further escalating tensions and confrontational tactics among radicals, including

3450-453: A silicon solar cell. Panasonic's was the most efficient. The company moved the front contacts to the rear of the panel, eliminating shaded areas. In addition they applied thin silicon films to the (high quality silicon) wafer's front and back to eliminate defects at or near the wafer surface. In 2015, a 4-junction GaInP/GaAs//GaInAsP/GaInAs solar cell achieved a new laboratory record efficiency of 46.1% (concentration ratio of sunlight = 312) in

3600-563: A small internal combustion engine running on the a planned biodiesel blend and a brushless electric motor allowing for the doubling of torque. Research with ECM , hydrogen fuel cells and Metal hydride storage tanks led to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) grant that wanted to see the group design an infrastructure with Smart grid technologies. The initiatives were supported by National Instruments The groups designs were adopted by

3750-539: A solar module in the mid-1970s. Process improvements and a very large boost in production have brought that figure down more than 99%, to 30¢ per watt in 2018 and as low as 20¢ per watt in 2020. Swanson's law is an observation similar to Moore's Law that states that solar cell prices fall 20% for every doubling of industry capacity. It was featured in an article in the British weekly newspaper The Economist in late 2012. Balance of system costs were then higher than those of

3900-541: A sophomore taught by two professors, Joseph Whiting and George Palmer Williams. In the first commencement of 1845, eleven graduates, including Judson Dwight Collins , were awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree. In subsequent years, the regents established branches across the state as preparatory schools for the university, starting with Pontiac and followed by Kalamazoo , Detroit , Niles , Tecumseh , White Pigeon , and Romeo . However, they struggled to enroll students and some merged with local colleges. Kalamazoo College

4050-730: A student's standardized test scores, application essay and letters of recommendation to be important academic factors, with emphasis on an applicant's academic record and GPA, while ranking an applicant's high school class rank as 'not considered'. In terms of non-academic materials as of 2022, Michigan ranks character/personal qualities and whether the applicant is a first-generation university applicant as 'important' in making first-time, first-year admission decisions, while ranking extracurricular activities, talent/ability, geographical residence, state residency, volunteer work, work experience and level of applicant's interest as 'considered'. Some applicants to Music, Theatre and Dance and some applicants to

4200-557: A supply to the grid. This process was showcased to the US EPA in Washington D.C. , in 2010. In February 2011, city officials of Lawrence, Douglas County declared that the university would be getting an electric car charging station. The group made the first unofficial charging station in May 2010. Education Programs ( K-12 ) The group hosts and organizes various education programs and projects for

4350-577: A turbulent era of student protests and activism. Unlike some other universities, Michigan did not experience violent outbreaks during this period. Shortly after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, the Black Action Movement organized an eight-day campus-wide strike at the university in 1970 to protest the lack of support for minorities on campus, successfully prompting the administration to meet several of their demands. In 1971,

4500-571: A very small volume. The smaller size and weight of these flexible arrays drastically decreases the overall cost of launching a satellite due to the direct relationship between payload weight and launch cost of a launch vehicle. In 2020, the US Naval Research Laboratory conducted its first test of solar power generation in a satellite, the Photovoltaic Radio-frequency Antenna Module (PRAM) experiment aboard

4650-515: A video studio, multimedia workspaces, and a 3D virtual reality room. Other libraries located on North Campus include the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and the Bentley Historical Library . Ross Athletic Campus is the site for the university's athletic programs, including major sports facilities such as Michigan Stadium , Crisler Center , and Yost Ice Arena . The campus area is also

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4800-543: A visiting professorship at the university in 1931. Stephen Timoshenko created the first U.S. bachelor's and doctoral programs in engineering mechanics when he was a faculty professor at the university. Shortly after the war, in 1947, the regents formed a War Memorial Committee to honor students who died in World War II. By 1948, they established the Phoenix Project to explore peaceful atomic energy applications, leading to

4950-655: A voltage dependent efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and allowable shadow angles. Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are substituted: thermodynamic efficiency, quantum efficiency , integrated quantum efficiency , V OC ratio, and fill factor. Reflectance losses are a portion of quantum efficiency under " external quantum efficiency ". Recombination losses make up another portion of quantum efficiency, V OC ratio, and fill factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under fill factor, but also make up minor portions of quantum efficiency, V OC ratio. The fill factor

5100-688: Is an off-campus facility, which the university has owned since the 1950s. The Inglis House is a 10,000-square-foot (930 m ) mansion used to hold various social events, including meetings of the Board of Regents, and to host visiting dignitaries. Another major off-campus facility is the Matthaei Botanical Gardens , which is located on the eastern outskirts of the City of Ann Arbor. The original Central Campus spanned 40 acres (16 ha), bordered by North University Avenue, South University Avenue, East University Avenue, and State Street. The master plan

5250-549: Is configured as a large-area p–n junction made from silicon. Other possible solar cell types are organic solar cells, dye sensitized solar cells, perovskite solar cells, quantum dot solar cells etc. The illuminated side of a solar cell generally has a transparent conducting film for allowing light to enter into the active material and to collect the generated charge carriers. Typically, films with high transmittance and high electrical conductance such as indium tin oxide , conducting polymers or conducting nanowire networks are used for

5400-588: Is divided into four main areas: the Central Campus area, the North Campus area, the North Medical Campus area, and Ross Athletic Campus area. The campus areas include more than 500 major buildings, with a combined area of more than 37.48 million square feet (860 acres; 3.482 km ). The Central and Athletic Campus areas are contiguous, while the North Campus area is separated from them, primarily by

5550-578: Is exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules , known colloquially as "solar panels". Almost all commercial PV cells consist of crystalline silicon , with a market share of 95%. Cadmium telluride thin-film solar cells account for the remainder. The common single-junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts . Photovoltaic cells may operate under sunlight or artificial light. In addition to producing energy, they can be used as

5700-601: Is governed by the Board of Regents , established by the Organic Act of March 18, 1837. It consists of eight members, elected at large in biennial state elections for overlapping eight-year terms. Before the Office of President was established in 1850, the University of Michigan was directly managed by the appointed regents, with a rotating group of professors responsible for carrying out day-to-day administrative duties. The Constitution of

5850-438: Is leased space in buildings scattered throughout the city, many occupied by organizations affiliated with the University of Michigan Health System. In addition to the University of Michigan Golf Course on Ross Athletic Campus, the university operates a second golf course on Geddes Road called Radrick Farms Golf Course. The university also operates a large office building called Wolverine Tower in southern Ann Arbor. The Inglis House

6000-529: Is located south of Michigan Stadium. It was designed in the late 1920s by Alister MacKenzie , the designer of Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Georgia , home of the Masters Tournament . The course opened to the public in 1931 and has one of "the best holes ever designed by Augusta National architect Alister MacKenzie" according to the magazine Sports Illustrated in 2006. The University of Michigan

6150-421: Is the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product of the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current . This is a key parameter in evaluating performance. In 2009, typical commercial solar cells had a fill factor > 0.70. Grade B cells were usually between 0.4 and 0.7. Cells with a high fill factor have a low equivalent series resistance and a high equivalent shunt resistance , so less of

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6300-498: Is the second-largest recipient of state appropriations for higher education in Michigan for 2022-23, trailing Michigan State University ($ 372 million). The Office of Budget and Planning reports that Michigan Medicine 's auxiliary activities are the largest funding source, contributing $ 6.05 billion to the Auxiliary Funds, which accounts for 55.1% of the total operating budget. Student tuition and fees contributed $ 1.95 billion to

6450-446: Is then stored in batteries . There are multiple input factors that affect the output power of solar cells such as temperature , material properties, weather conditions, solar irradiance and more. The first instance of photovoltaic cells within vehicular applications was around midway through the second half of the 1900's. In an effort to increase publicity and awareness in solar powered transportation Hans Tholstrup decided to set up

6600-593: The Association of American Universities . In the fall of 2023, the university employed 8,189 faculty members and enrolled 52,065 students in its programs. The university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". It consists of nineteen colleges and offers 250 degree programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels. The university is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission . In 2021, it ranked third among American universities in research expenditures according to

6750-511: The Boeing X-37 . Improvements were gradual over the 1960s. This was also the reason that costs remained high, because space users were willing to pay for the best possible cells, leaving no reason to invest in lower-cost, less-efficient solutions. The price was determined largely by the semiconductor industry ; their move to integrated circuits in the 1960s led to the availability of larger boules at lower relative prices. As their price fell,

6900-547: The Catholepistemiad , or University of Michigania , which included thirteen professorships, or didaxiim . The act was enacted on August 26, 1817, with Father Richard appointed Vice-President and Rev. John Monteith as President. Woodward sought funding from the Zion Masonic Lodge , which contributed $ 250, leading to a total of $ 5,000 raised for the university. The cornerstone for the first schoolhouse, situated near

7050-526: The College of Engineering may be interviewed. A portfolio is required and considered for admission for Art, Architecture and the Ross School of Business . Submission of standardized test scores is recommended but not compulsory. Of the 52% of enrolled freshmen in 2023 who submitted SAT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite scores were 1350–1530. Of the 18% of the incoming freshman class who submitted ACT scores;

7200-652: The Huron River . The North Medical Campus area was developed on Plymouth Road, with several university-owned buildings for outpatient care, diagnostics, and outpatient surgery. All four campus areas are connected by bus services, the majority of which connect the North and Central campus areas. There is a shuttle service connecting the University Hospital, which lies between North and Central campus areas, with other medical facilities throughout northeastern Ann Arbor. There

7350-479: The Law School , Ross School of Business , Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy , and the School of Dentistry , are on Central Campus. Two main libraries, Hatcher Graduate Library and Shapiro Undergraduate Library , as well as the university's many museums , are also on Central Campus. The North Campus area built independently from the city on a large plot of farmland—approximately 800 acres (3.2 km )—that

7500-739: The National Science Foundation . The University of Michigan's athletic teams are collectively known as the Wolverines . They compete in NCAA Division I ( FBS ) as members of the Big Ten Conference . The university currently fields varsity teams across 29 NCAA-sanctioned sports. As of 2022, athletes from the university have won 188 medals at the Olympic Games . Notable alumni from the university include 8 domestic and foreign heads of state or heads of government , 47 U.S. senators , 218 members of

7650-580: The Panic of 1837 . In 1841, Mason Hall, the first campus building, was completed, followed by the construction of South College, an identical building to the south, in 1849, leaving a gap for a future grand centerpiece. Asa Gray was appointed the first professor following the university's move to Ann Arbor in 1837, alongside early faculty members Douglass Houghton and Andrew Ten Brook . The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen and

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7800-658: The Rockefeller Church of New York . Following its completion, nearby buildings like the School of Education Building, by Malcomson and Higginbotham , and Emil Lorch's Architecture and Design Building adopted Gothic elements reflecting the style of the Law Quadrangle and Martha Cook Residence. The Central Campus is the location of the College of Literature, Science and the Arts . Most of the graduate and professional schools, including

7950-589: The School of Nursing , the School of Dentistry , the Law School , the Medical School , and the College of Pharmacy . Michigan Medicine , the university's health system, comprises the university's three hospitals, dozens of outpatient clinics, and many centers for medical care, research, and education. U.S. News & World Report rates Michigan "Most Selective" and The Princeton Review rates its admissions selectivity of 96 out of 99. Admissions are characterized as "more selective, lower transfer-in" according to

8100-485: The Spectrum Center was founded as the nation's oldest collegiate LGBT student center , preceding the establishment of Penn 's center. Meanwhile, support among students for marijuana legalization was gaining traction on campus, as highlighted by the annual Hash Bash rally that began in 1972. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, campus unrest began to affect the university's academic standing, which had been ranked among

8250-462: The Town of Detroit , first petitioned for land to found a college. Although Governor William Hull and Woodward promulgated an act in 1809 to establish public school districts, this preliminary endeavor yielded negligible results. Woodward, aspiring to categorize knowledge (which he termed "encathol epistemia"), discussed this with Thomas Jefferson in 1814. In 1817, Woodward drafted a territorial act for

8400-489: The U.S. House of Representatives , 42 U.S. Cabinet secretaries , and 41 U.S. governors . The University of Michigan traces its origins to August 26, 1817, when it was established in the Territory of Michigan as the Catholepistemiad or University of Michigania through a legislative act signed by acting governor and secretary William Woodbridge , chief justice Augustus B. Woodward , and judge John Griffin . In 1821, by

8550-467: The fuel economy was increased to 80 mpge due to solar refilling. The team uses combinations of different fuel sources each year. On a much smaller scale the Ecohawks group researched advanced technologies in the small scale including NiMH , LiCoO 2 , LiFePO 4 batteries. The utilized scaled down RC Cars for testing and validation. Research also conceptualized a parallel hybrid design that utilized

8700-412: The motor of the vehicle. Batteries in solar-powered vehicles differ from those in standard ICE cars because they are fashioned in a way to impart more power towards the electrical components of the vehicle for a longer duration. Multiple solar cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a solar photovoltaic panel or module . Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on

8850-422: The "Research Applied to National Needs" program, which ran from 1969 to 1977, and funded research on developing solar power for ground electrical power systems. A 1973 conference, the "Cherry Hill Conference", set forth the technology goals required to achieve this goal and outlined an ambitious project for achieving them, kicking off an applied research program that would be ongoing for several decades. The program

9000-530: The Ann Arbor campus, is the official residence and office of the University President. Constructed in 1840, the three-story Italianate President's House is the oldest surviving building on the Ann Arbor campus and a University of Michigan Central Campus Historic District contributing property. The Central Student Government, housed in the Michigan Union , is the university's student government . As

9150-674: The Arts are represented by the LS&;A Student Government. Engineering Student Government manages undergraduate student government affairs for the College of Engineering. Graduate students enrolled in the Rackham Graduate School are represented by the Rackham Student Government, and law students are represented by the Law School Student Senate as is each other college with its own respective government. In addition,

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9300-643: The Board of Regents and discontent with his administration, he was forced to resign in 1863. In 1863, Erastus Otis Haven took office as president, having been a professor at the time and needing to prove his right for the presidency. The campus was divided by conflicting views among students, faculty, and regents regarding Tappan's restoration, the homeopathy crisis, and the Civil War . Haven's administration faced routine administrative difficulties and struggled to garner support for increased state aid, despite achieving modest gains. The university, which had received

9450-550: The Building and Grounds Committee, leading to Albert Kahn's growing influence in the University's architectural development. Clements, impressed by Kahn's work on his industrial projects and residence in Bay City , awarded him multiple university commissions and appointed him as the university's supervising architect. The West Engineering Hall (1910), Natural Science Building (1915), and General Library (1920) were all designed by Kahn. During

9600-536: The Carnegie Classification. Michigan received over 83,000 applications for a place in the 2021–22 freshman class, making it one of the most applied-to universities in the United States. Of those students accepted to Michigan's Class of 2027, 7,050 chose to attend. Admission is based on academic prowess, extracurricular activities, and personal qualities. The university's admission process is need-blind for domestic applicants. Admissions officials consider

9750-604: The College of Engineering, the School of Music, Theatre & Dance , the Stamps School of Art & Design , the Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning , and an annex of the School of Information . The campus area is served by Duderstadt Center, which houses the Art, Architecture and Engineering Library. Duderstadt Center also contains multiple computer labs, video editing studios, electronic music studios, an audio studio,

9900-608: The General Fund, accounting for 11% of the total budget. Research grants and contracts from the U.S. federal government contributed $ 1.15 billion to the Expendable Restricted Funds, accounting for 10.4% of the total budget. The university's current (FY 2022–23) operating budget has four major sources of funding: The university's financial endowment , known as the "University Endowment Fund", comprises over 12,400 individual funds. Each fund must be spent according to

10050-591: The Martin Luther King, Jr. Spirit Award  honoring Salma Hamamy, a pro-Palestinian student,  who shared footage of Israeli drones summarily executing unarmed Palestinians. In response 65 MLK Spirit Award Recipients returned their awards. In 2024 five Shanghai Jiao Tong University students who participated in an exchange program with the University of Michigan were charged with espionage related offenses after being caught during exerscises at Camp Grayling which included Taiwanese forces. The founding of

10200-491: The Philippines, thanks to the efforts of Michigan alumni, including Dean Conant Worcester and George A. Malcolm . Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa , who graduated as valedictorian in 1880, becoming the first Puerto Rican to earn a university degree in the United States. Ida Gray graduated from the School of Dentistry in June 1890, becoming the first African-American woman dentist in

10350-562: The School of Engineering and talked with the students regarding the auto industry and answered questions about the technological, financial, cultural and political realities facing Ford. The Ecohawks group is one of the largest and most promising initiatives of the University of Kansas and was funded and sponsored by highly efficient automotive car company Aptera Motors , The Coca-Cola Company , Daimler Trucks North America , Grundfos , Yokohama Rubber Company and Black & Veatch among others, at various stages. The team then constructed

10500-452: The State of Michigan of 1850 restructured the university's administration. It established the Office of the President and transitioned the Board of Regents to an elected body. The state constitution granted the Board of Regents the power to appoint a non-voting presiding president to lead their meetings, effectively elevating the board to the level of a constitutional corporation independent of

10650-464: The United States cost per watt for a utility scale system had declined to $ 0.94. The photovoltaic effect was experimentally demonstrated first by French physicist Edmond Becquerel . In 1839, at age 19, he built the world's first photovoltaic cell in his father's laboratory. Willoughby Smith first described the "Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current" in a 20 February 1873 issue of Nature . In 1883 Charles Fritts built

10800-562: The United States. In the early 20th century, the university emerged as a preferred option for Jewish students pursuing secular education due to quotas on Jewish admissions at denominational colleges, and it has since become a haven for the Jewish-American academic community. Angell retired in 1909, and seven years later, he died in the President's House , which had been his home for forty-five years. His successor, Harry Burns Hutchins , who

10950-679: The University of Michigan in the 19th century was influenced by the transatlantic Republic of Letters , an intellectual community that spanned Europe and the Americas. Key figures, such as Henry Philip Tappan , were instrumental in aligning the university with the ideals championed by the intellectual community, including liberty, reason, and scientific inquiry. Alumni and faculty from Michigan, like Andrew Dixon White , carried these ideals forward as they shaped other institutions. Notably, Cornell alumni David Starr Jordan and John Casper Branner later introduced these concepts to Stanford University in

11100-557: The addition of many extracurricular activities, such as the intercollegiate football team and the marching band . Though a reformer, Angell was not authoritarian; he encouraged open debate and aimed for near-unanimous agreement before implementing changes, rather than pushing through with only a narrow majority. In 1871-72, Charles Kendall Adams first introduced the German seminar method of study, marking its first use in America. In 1875,

11250-515: The arts. The university's 15th and current president, Santa Ono , was elected in 2022. In April 2024, Michigan  students joined other campuses across the United States in protests and setting up encampments against the Israel–Hamas war and genocide of Palestinians   in Gaza. The protestors called for the University to divest from Israel . In May 2024, the University of Michigan revoked

11400-518: The authority to either terminate the president's tenure or extend it for an additional term. The university's current president is Santa Ono , formerly the president of the University of British Columbia in Canada. After an extensive presidential search conducted by the executive search firm Isaacson, Miller, the board announced its selection of Santa Ono as the university's 15th President on July 13, 2022. Ono assumed office on October 14, 2022, succeeding

11550-479: The bar of any state in the United States. A promoter of music education, Frieze oversaw the formation of the University Musical Society . Student discipline remained problematic, with frequent class rushes and hazing. Past efforts to curb these disorders had proven ineffective, which Frieze blamed on decentralized faculty control. James Burrill Angell became president in 1871 and would remain in

11700-448: The battery pack. During the day, a plug in solar carport would be constructed and depending on the needs of the electric grid , power can be drawn from the solar carport and from the vehicle battery pack to augment, or even completely supply the grid. Keeping enough charge for the car to get home, the consumer of the EV would actually be able to profit by giving the excess miles during the day as

11850-492: The board, and Father Richard served on the board until his death in 1832. The trustees continued to manage the schools and classical academy, but established no new schools. By 1827, all schools had closed, and the Detroit schoolhouse was leased to private teachers. In 1837, following Michigan admission to the Union, its constitution enabled the appointive regents to oversee university operations directly alongside professors, without

12000-481: The campus's physical growth and fundraising efforts. Duderstadt's successor, Lee Bollinger , conducted several major construction projects like the School of Social Work building and the Tisch Hall, named in honor of alumnus Preston Robert Tisch . In 2003, two lawsuits involving the university's affirmative action admissions policy reached the U.S. Supreme Court: Grutter v. Bollinger and Gratz v. Bollinger . In 2002,

12150-483: The case of an organic solar cell ), producing electron-hole pairs . If the electron-hole pairs are created near the junction between p-type and n-type materials the local electric field sweeps them apart to opposite electrodes, producing an excess of electrons on one side and an excess of holes on the other. When the solar cell is unconnected (or the external electrical load is very high) the electrons and holes will ultimately restore equilibrium by diffusing back across

12300-465: The creation of the Michigan Glee Club , the oldest student organization at the university, and the publication of the first student newspaper, The Peninsular Phoenix and Gazetteer , in 1857. Despite these accomplishments, Tappan's 11-year presidency was marked by considerable tension. His impartial stance on religion faced backlash during a time of heightened religious fervor. Due to changes in

12450-466: The current produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses. Single p–n junction crystalline silicon devices are now approaching the theoretical limiting power efficiency of 33.16%, noted as the Shockley–Queisser limit in 1961. In the extreme, with an infinite number of layers, the corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated sunlight. In 2014, three companies broke the record of 25.6% for

12600-527: The date for grid parity in the US. The Photovoltaic Association reported in 2012 that Australia had reached grid parity (ignoring feed in tariffs). The price of solar panels fell steadily for 40 years, interrupted in 2004 when high subsidies in Germany drastically increased demand there and greatly increased the price of purified silicon (which is used in computer chips as well as solar panels). The recession of 2008 and

12750-574: The dean of the law school at his alma mater, where he introduced the case method of instruction. Hutchins was acting president when Angell was absent. During his presidency, Hutchins established the Graduate School , doubled enrollment, and increased the faculty. He secured more state aid and alumni support to fund the university's capital needs, including the gothic Law Quadrangle, Martha Cook Building , Hill Auditorium , and Michigan Union , which became campus landmarks. Hutchins enhanced

12900-409: The device p-type and the other n-type, for example in the case of silicon by introducing small concentrations of boron or phosphorus respectively. In operation, photons in sunlight hit the solar cell and are absorbed by the semiconductor. When the photons are absorbed, electrons are excited from the valence band to the conduction band (or from occupied to unoccupied molecular orbitals in

13050-422: The donor's specifications. Approximately 28% of the total endowment is allocated to support academic programs, while 22% is designated for student scholarships and fellowships. Approximately 19% of the endowment was allocated to Michigan Medicine and can only be used to support research, patient care, or other purposes specified by donors. As of 2023 , the university's endowment, valued at $ 17.9 billion, ranks as

13200-541: The early 1990s the technology used for space solar cells diverged from the silicon technology used for terrestrial panels, with the spacecraft application shifting to gallium arsenide -based III-V semiconductor materials, which then evolved into the modern III-V multijunction photovoltaic cell used on spacecraft. In recent years, research has moved towards designing and manufacturing lightweight, flexible, and highly efficient solar cells. Terrestrial solar cell technology generally uses photovoltaic cells that are laminated with

13350-534: The early 2000s, the university faced declining state funding, prompting suggestions for privatization. Despite being a state institution de jure, it adopted private funding models. A 2008 legislative panel further recommended converting it to a private institution due to its minimal ties to the state. Mark Schlissel succeeded Coleman in 2014. Before his firing in 2022, Schlissel expanded financial aid offerings, enhanced international engagement, and raised student diversity. He also led initiatives in biosciences and

13500-729: The faculty. Goudsmit mentored famous students at the university, including Robert Bacher and Wu Ta-You , the Father of Chinese Physics, who in turn taught Zhu Guangya and two Nobel laureates, Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee . From 1928 to 1941, the Summer Symposium in Theoretical Physics featured renowned physicists like Niels Bohr , Werner Heisenberg , Paul Dirac , and Erwin Schrödinger , with at least fifteen attendees being Nobel laureates or future laureates. Wolfgang Pauli held

13650-469: The first solid state photovoltaic cell by coating the semiconductor selenium with a thin layer of gold to form the junctions; the device was only around 1% efficient. Other milestones include: Solar cells were first used in a prominent application when they were proposed and flown on the Vanguard satellite in 1958, as an alternative power source to the primary battery power source. By adding cells to

13800-550: The first edition of the World Solar Challenge in 1987. It was a 3000 km race across the Australian outback where competitors from industry research groups and top universities around the globe were invited to compete. General Motors ended up winning the event by a significant margin with their Sunraycer vehicle that achieved speeds of over 40 mph. Contrary to popular belief however solar powered cars are one of

13950-485: The front, and silicone glue between the two, "potting" the cells. Solar cells could be made using cast-off material from the electronics market. By 1973 they announced a product, and SPC convinced Tideland Signal to use its panels to power navigational buoys , initially for the U.S. Coast Guard. Research into solar power for terrestrial applications became prominent with the U.S. National Science Foundation's Advanced Solar Energy Research and Development Division within

14100-461: The group formulated a plan to make money from selling excess energy generated from the integrated renewable energy systems and optimizing the uses through a smart grid technology, i.e. the car would be a power plant by itself. Considering a finite range for an electric vehicle, and estimating that only a fraction is used for daily purposes, looking at the statistic for Kansas, the team proposed that they could potentially use wind energy at night to charge

14250-789: The high standard of National Honor, raised by the fathers, be lowered by their sons. Let learning, liberty and law be exalted and enthroned." With his presidency, Angell focused the university on preparing a new generation of secular leaders in public service. Angell himself was frequently called upon by the White House for diplomatic missions. In 1880, President Rutherford Hayes appointed him as Minister to China, where he successfully negotiated an immigration treaty that increased Chinese student enrollment. Later, in 1887, 1896, and 1897, President Grover Cleveland appointed him to fisheries and waterways commissions. That same year, President William McKinley named him Envoy Extraordinary to Turkey. By

14400-491: The intersection of Bates Street and Congress Street in Detroit, was laid on September 24, 1817, and by the following year, a Lancasterian school , taught by Lemuel Shattuck , and a classical academy were operational. Additional schools were established in Monroe and Mackinaw by the end of September 1817. In 1821, a new act placed the corporation under the control of a board of trustees. Rev. Monteith, no longer President, joined

14550-463: The junction against the field and recombine with each other giving off heat, but if the load is small enough then it is easier for equilibrium to be restored by the excess electrons going around the external circuit, doing useful work along the way. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity. An inverter can convert the power to alternating current (AC). The most commonly known solar cell

14700-409: The late 1990s and early 2000s led to the wide availability of large, high-quality glass sheets to cover the panels. During the 1990s, polysilicon ("poly") cells became increasingly popular. These cells offer less efficiency than their monosilicon ("mono") counterparts, but they are grown in large vats that reduce cost. By the mid-2000s, poly was dominant in the low-cost panel market, but more recently

14850-533: The late 19th century, the university had gained an international reputation, partly due to Angell's diplomatic efforts. During this period, over 80 subjects of the Emperor of Japan were sent to Ann Arbor to study law as part of the opening of that empire to external influence. The university was also involved in building the Philippine education, legal, and public health systems during the era of American colonization of

15000-399: The late 19th century. Early university leaders, such as James Burrill Angell , played a significant role in establishing other state universities by sharing their insights and experiences. Consequently, Clark Kerr , the first chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley , referred to Michigan as the "mother of state universities." The University of Michigan's campus in Ann Arbor

15150-403: The legislature, propelled by a prosperous economy. This allowed campus buildings to be constructed in a grand manner. Kahn's Italian Renaissance Clements Library (1923), Classical Greek Angell Hall (1924), and Art Deco Burton Memorial Tower (1936) all feature unusual and costly materials and are considered some of his most elegant university buildings. The last of Kahn's university commissions

15300-506: The library and museum collections, established the law school, and supervised the construction of the Detroit Observatory . In 1855, Michigan became the second university in the country to issue Bachelor of Science degrees. The following year, the country's first chemical laboratory was built on campus, specifically designed for chemistry education, providing additional space for classes and laboratories. Tappan's tenure also saw

15450-532: The main campus in Ann Arbor. The president retains authority over the branch campuses in Dearborn and Flint but is not directly involved in their day-to-day management. Instead, two separate chancellors are appointed by the president to serve as chief executive officers overseeing each branch campus. All presidents are appointed by the Board of Regents to serve five-year terms, at the board's discretion, and there are no term limits for university presidents. The board has

15600-451: The maximum capacity under optimal conditions. ) As of the end of 2016, it was reported that spot prices for assembled solar panels (not cells) had fallen to a record-low of US$ 0.36/Wp. The second largest supplier, Canadian Solar Inc., had reported costs of US$ 0.37/Wp in the third quarter of 2016, having dropped $ 0.02 from the previous quarter, and hence was probably still at least breaking even. Many producers expected costs would drop to

15750-402: The middle 50 percent Composite score was between 31 and 34. Solar cell A solar cell or photovoltaic cell ( PV cell ) is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect . It is a form of photoelectric cell, a device whose electrical characteristics (such as current , voltage , or resistance ) vary when it

15900-570: The mono returned to widespread use. Manufacturers of wafer-based cells responded to high silicon prices in 2004–2008 with rapid reductions in silicon consumption. In 2008, according to Jef Poortmans, director of IMEC 's organic and solar department, current cells use 8–9 grams (0.28–0.32 oz) of silicon per watt of power generation, with wafer thicknesses in the neighborhood of 200 microns . Crystalline silicon panels dominate worldwide markets and are mostly manufactured in China and Taiwan. By late 2011,

16050-562: The nation's first academic program in nuclear science and engineering, funded by over 25,000 contributors, including the Ford Motor Company . In 1951, Harlan Hatcher succeeded Ruthven and served as president until 1968, overseeing the construction of North Campus, the founding of Flint Senior College , and the establishment of the Dearborn Center . The tenures of Hatcher and his successor, Robben Wright Fleming , were marked by

16200-568: The need for a president. The regents met in Ann Arbor and accepted the town's proposal for the university to relocate, based on a 40 acres (16 ha) grant from the Treaty of Fort Meigs . Alexander Jackson Davis devised the original campus plan in Gothic Revival style , and the regents unanimously approved his proposal; however, the plan was abandoned due to financial constraints resulting from

16350-478: The oldest alternative energy vehicles. Current solar vehicles harness energy from the Sun via Solar panels which are a collected group of solar cells working in tandem towards a common goal. These solid-state devices use quantum mechanical transitions in order to convert a given amount of solar power into electrical power. The electricity produced as a result is then stored in the vehicle's battery in order to run

16500-522: The oldest building on campus. The Chemical Laboratory, built by Albert Jordan in 1856 and operational until 1980, was notable for housing the nation's first instructional chemistry lab. After the completion of the Old Medical Building (1850–1914) and the Law Building (1863–1950), an open space known as The Diag began to take shape. Among the prominent structures on the original Central Campus

16650-513: The onset of Chinese manufacturing caused prices to resume their decline. In the four years after January 2008 prices for solar modules in Germany dropped from €3 to €1 per peak watt. During that same time production capacity surged with an annual growth of more than 50%. China increased market share from 8% in 2008 to over 55% in the last quarter of 2010. In December 2012 the price of Chinese solar panels had dropped to $ 0.60/Wp (crystalline modules). (The abbreviation Wp stands for watt peak capacity, or

16800-468: The other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by Edmond Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells ), or to a device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination. Photovoltaic cells and solar collectors are the two means of producing solar power . Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules that generate electrical power from sunlight , as distinguished from

16950-463: The outgoing president Mark Schlissel . Ono is the first Asian American president of the university, as well as the second to have been born in Canada, since the 10th president, Harold Tafler Shapiro . Laurie McCauley has been serving as the 17th and current provost of the university since May 2022, and she was recommended by the president to serve a full term through June 30, 2027. The President's House , located at 815 South University Avenue on

17100-421: The outside of the body, the mission time could be extended with no major changes to the spacecraft or its power systems. In 1959 the United States launched Explorer 6 , featuring large wing-shaped solar arrays, which became a common feature in satellites. These arrays consisted of 9600 Hoffman solar cells . By the 1960s, solar cells were (and still are) the main power source for most Earth orbiting satellites and

17250-604: The panels. Large commercial arrays could be built, as of 2018, at below $ 1.00 a watt, fully commissioned. As the semiconductor industry moved to ever-larger boules , older equipment became inexpensive. Cell sizes grew as equipment became available on the surplus market; ARCO Solar's original panels used cells 2 to 4 inches (50 to 100 mm) in diameter. Panels in the 1990s and early 2000s generally used 125 mm wafers; since 2008, almost all new panels use greater than 156mm cells, and by 2020 even larger 182mm ‘M10’ cells. The widespread introduction of flat screen televisions in

17400-403: The post for nearly four decades. Shortly after his arrival, University Hall was completed and dedicated. During his presidency, he broadened the curriculum, founded various professional schools, resolved the long-standing homeopathy problem, restored campus discipline, raised entrance and graduation requirements, and persuaded the legislature to increase state aid. Angell's tenure saw

17550-567: The price of the resulting cells did as well. These effects lowered 1971 cell costs to some $ 100 per watt. In late 1969 Elliot Berman joined Exxon 's task force which was looking for projects 30 years in the future and in April 1973 he founded Solar Power Corporation (SPC), a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon at that time. The group had concluded that electrical power would be much more expensive by 2000, and felt that this increase in price would make alternative energy sources more attractive. He conducted

17700-408: The purpose. Solar cell efficiency may be broken down into reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency. The overall efficiency is the product of these individual metrics. The power conversion efficiency of a solar cell is a parameter which is defined by the fraction of incident power converted into electricity. A solar cell has

17850-474: The release of a few tons of carbon to the atmosphere. They ran the car on different feedstock like ethanol, biodiesel and electricity and stressed efficiency over performance, as noted by co-founder Louis McKown in 2008. In 2009, another co-founder, Sunny Sanwar in an exhibition said that the point of the initiative is trying to get people to think about how 'inefficient' the auto industry is. In May 2009, Ford Motor Company President and CEO Alan Mulally visited

18000-534: The reverse bias applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated partners. Although modules can be interconnected to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity, which can be done with or without using independent MPPTs ( maximum power point trackers ) or, specific to each module, with or without module level power electronic (MLPE) units such as microinverters or DC-DC optimizers . Shunt diodes can reduce shadowing power loss in arrays with series/parallel connected cells. By 2020,

18150-647: The site of the Buhr library storage facility, Revelli Hall, home of the Michigan Marching Band , the Institute for Continuing Legal Education, and the Student Theatre Arts Complex, which provides shop and rehearsal space for student theatre groups. The university's departments of public safety and transportation services offices are located on Ross Athletic Campus. The University of Michigan Golf Course

18300-412: The state administration and making the University of Michigan the first public institution of higher education in the country so organized. As of 2021–22, the Board of Regents is chaired by Jordan B. Acker (B.A. '06). The Board of Regents delegates its power to the university president who serves as the chief executive officer responsible for managing the day-to-day operations of the university, that is,

18450-668: The state to grant doctoral degrees until the late 1940s. Ann Arbor's scholarly reputation grew during this period due to the contributions of the university's intellectual community, which included philosophers like John Dewey , Charles Horton Cooley , George Herbert Mead , and Robert Ezra Park . By the turn of the 19th century, the university was the nation's second largest after Harvard in Cambridge, Massachusetts . "Stand up for America; devote your life to its cause; love your homes, and prove as worthy of our cherished free institutions as they are worthy of your allegiance and service. Let not

18600-457: The students who live in the residence halls are represented by the University of Michigan Residence Halls Association , which contains the third most constituents after Central Student Government and LS&A Student Government. In the fiscal year 2022–23, the State of Michigan spent $ 333 million on the university, which represents 3.03% of its total operating revenues of $ 11 billion. The university

18750-437: The sun-facing side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers . Solar cells are usually connected in series creating additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel yields a higher current. However, problems in paralleled cells such as shadow effects can shut down the weaker (less illuminated) parallel string (a number of series connected cells) causing substantial power loss and possible damage because of

18900-408: The surrounding schools. University of Michigan-Ann Arbor The University of Michigan ( U-M , UMich , or simply Michigan ) is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan , United States. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest institution of higher education in the state. The University of Michigan is one of the earliest American research universities and is a founding member of

19050-400: The tenth largest among all universities in the country. The university ranks 86th in endowment per student. The law school 's endowment, totaling over $ 500 million, has a significantly higher per-student value compared to that of its parent university. It ranks as the eighth wealthiest law school in the nation in 2022. There are thirteen undergraduate schools and colleges. By enrollment,

19200-505: The three largest undergraduate units are the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts , the College of Engineering , and the Ross School of Business . At the graduate level, the Rackham School of Graduate Studies serves as the central administrative unit of graduate education at the university. There are 18 graduate schools and colleges. Professional degrees are conferred by the Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning ,

19350-467: The top five in the nation. This standing started to decline during Fleming's tenure. Campus unrest persisted during Harold Tafler Shapiro 's presidency, which began in 1980, fueled by controversies surrounding the anti-missile Strategic Defense Initiative and investments in South Africa . President James Duderstadt would succeed Shapiro and remain president until 1996. He facilitated achievements in

19500-481: The university bought in 1952. Architect Eero Saarinen devised the early master plan for the North Campus area and designed several of its buildings in the 1950s, including the Earl V. Moore School of Music Building . The North Campus Diag features a bell tower called Lurie Tower , which contains a grand carillon. The university's largest residence hall, Bursley Hall , is in the North Campus area. The North Campus houses

19650-547: The university elected its first female president, Mary Sue Coleman , by unanimous vote. Throughout her presidency, Michigan's endowment saw continued growth, accompanied by a major fundraising drive known as "The Michigan Difference". The Coleman's administration faced labor disputes with the university's labor unions, notably with the Lecturers' Employees Organization and the Graduate Employees Organization. In

19800-417: The university founded the College of Dental Surgery , followed by the establishment of the College of Pharmacy by Albert B. Prescott in 1876. That year, the university awarded its first Doctor of Philosophy degrees: to Victor C. Vaughan in chemistry and William E. Smith in zoology. They were among the first doctoral degrees to be conferred in the nation. The university remained the only institution in

19950-411: The university from legislative control, changed the regent position from appointed to elected, and established a president selected by the regents. Henry Philip Tappan became the university's first president in 1852, with the ambition to shape the institution as a model for future universities. During his decade of service, he overhauled the curriculum, secularized faculty appointments, expanded

20100-450: The university health service, but wartime distractions plagued his presidency. The influenza epidemic, which caused student deaths from poor care, deeply troubled him. Well-liked by the regents who encouraged him to remain president, nonetheless, Hutchins retired in 1920. The 1920s at the university were marked by the brief tenures of two presidents, Marion LeRoy Burton and Clarence Cook Little . In 1920, when Burton assumed office,

20250-498: The university when the KU Libraries started using vehicles that were converted by the ecohawks. The KU Libraries mail vehicle traveled about 22 miles on average on a given day. The electric vehicle would travels 80 to 90 miles before a recharge. The library car was a Chevrolet K5 Blazer , while the neighborhood EV was a 1974 Volkswagen Beetle In an article by Wired magazine it was estimated that profits, both financial and societal

20400-658: The university's various student organizations. Alumni Memorial Hall, funded by contributions from alumni in memory of the University's Civil War dead, was completed by Donaldson and Meier . It was designated as the University Museum of Art in 1946. The area just south of The Diag is predominantly Gothic in character, contrasting with the classical designs prevalent in many of Kahn's university buildings. The Martha Cook Building (1915), completed by York and Sawyer , Samuel Parsons , and George A. Fuller in 1915, draws inspiration from England's Knole House and Aston Hall . It

20550-525: The use of large solar arrays to produce electricity. These solar arrays need to be broken down to fit in the geometric constraints of the launch vehicle the satellite travels on before being injected into orbit. Historically, solar cells on satellites consisted of several small terrestrial panels folded together. These small panels would be unfolded into a large panel after the satellite is deployed in its orbit. Newer satellites aim to use flexible rollable solar arrays that are very lightweight and can be packed into

20700-418: The vicinity of $ 0.30 by the end of 2017. It was also reported that new solar installations were cheaper than coal-based thermal power plants in some regions of the world, and this was expected to be the case in most of the world within a decade. A solar cell is made of semiconducting materials , such as silicon , that have been fabricated into a p–n junction . Such junctions are made by doping one side of

20850-695: The world's electricity generation. Solar-specific feed-in tariffs vary by country and within countries. Such tariffs encourage the development of solar power projects. Widespread grid parity , the point at which photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than grid power without subsidies, likely requires advances on all three fronts. Proponents of solar hope to achieve grid parity first in areas with abundant sun and high electricity costs such as in California and Japan . In 2007 BP claimed grid parity for Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use diesel fuel to produce electricity. George W. Bush set 2015 as

21000-485: Was University Hall (1872–1950), designed by alumnus Edwin Shannon Jennison . The Central Campus today, however, bears little resemblance to its 19th-century appearance, as most of its structures were constructed in the early 20th century. These structures are predominantly the works of Albert Kahn , the university's supervising architect during that period. In 1909, Regent William L. Clements became chairman of

21150-542: Was anticipated that electricity from PV will be competitive with wholesale electricity costs all across Europe and the energy payback time of crystalline silicon modules can be reduced to below 0.5 years by 2020. Falling costs are considered one of the biggest factors in the rapid growth of renewable energy, with the cost of solar photovoltaic electricity falling by ~85% between 2010 (when solar and wind made up 1.7% of global electricity generation) and 2021 (where they made up 8.7%). In 2019 solar cells accounted for ~3 % of

21300-586: Was called by the regents to assist, with Alfred Henry Lloyd serving as acting president until Little's arrival. Clarence Cook Little was elected president in 1925, advocating for individualized education and reforming curricula, particularly for women. Little proposed a curriculum division after two years to address knowledge gaps, leading to the University College proposal, which was ultimately abandoned after his resignation in 1929. Following Little's resignation, Alexander Grant Ruthven , an alumnus,

21450-461: Was developed by Alexander Jackson Davis . The first structures built included four Greek Revival faculty residences in 1840, as well as Mason Hall (1841–1950) and South College (1849–1950), which functioned as both academic spaces and dormitories. Only one of the original faculty residences remains today; it has been renovated in the Italianate style to serve as the President's House , making it

21600-589: Was elected president by unanimous vote. He would lead the university through the Great Depression and World War II . Under Ruthven's leadership, the university administration became more decentralized with the creation of the university council, various divisions, and a system of committees For years, the university was a backwater in theoretical physics. Nonetheless, this changed under department head Harrison McAllister Randall , who brought theorists Samuel Goudsmit , George Uhlenbeck , and Otto Laporte onto

21750-626: Was eventually taken over by the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), which was later merged into the U.S. Department of Energy . Following the 1973 oil crisis , oil companies used their higher profits to start (or buy) solar firms, and were for decades the largest producers. Exxon, ARCO, Shell, Amoco (later purchased by BP) and Mobil all had major solar divisions during the 1970s and 1980s. Technology companies also participated, including General Electric, Motorola, IBM, Tyco and RCA. Adjusting for inflation, it cost $ 96 per watt for

21900-566: Was once his student, would lead the university through World War I and the Great Influenza epidemic . In 1910, Harry Burns Hutchins assumed the presidency, becoming the first alumnus to hold that position. He had spent seven years in Ithaca, New York , where he was called by Andrew Dickson White and Charles Kendall Adams to establish the Cornell Law School . Hutchins then became

22050-459: Was one of the university’s early women’s residences. York and Sawyer also designed the Law Quadrangle, which features a flagstone courtyard by landscape architect Jacob Van Heiningan. The Lawyers' Club, part of the quadrangle, includes a clubhouse, dining hall, and dormitory, modeled after English clubs with an Elizabethan-style lounge and a dining hall inspired by the chapels of Eaton . The Law Library's main reading room showcases craftsmanship from

22200-433: Was possible if the ecohawks project was replicated on a larger scale The ecohawks also proposed a plan to take the vehicles completely off grid. They installed six monocrystalline solar cells on their workspace and charged the cars from it, with no energy taken from the grid. Their workspace does not have an HVAC system, but uses biodiesel space heater. In addition, all small appliances are powered by solar energy. Later

22350-477: Was the Kalamazoo Branch of the University of Michigan from 1840 to 1850. Furthermore, the university struggled with issues due to its regents' dependence on the legislature from 1837 to 1850. Despite several attempts to gain independence, progress was slow until the late 1840s, when regents gained leverage, supported by Michigan citizens. This led to a revision of the organic act on April 8, 1851, which freed

22500-795: Was the Ruthven Museums Building (1928), designed in the Renaissance style. Other architects who contributed to the Central Campus include Spier & Rohns , who designed Tappan Hall (1894) and the West Medical Building (1904); Smith, Hinchman and Grylls , the architects of the Chemistry Building (1910) and East Engineering Building; and Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton , who designed University High School (1924). The Michigan Union (1919) and Michigan League (1929), completed by alumni Irving Kane Pond and Allen Bartlit Pond , house

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