Kłodzko Land ( Polish : Ziemia kłodzka ; Czech : Kladsko ; German : Glatzer Land ) is a historical region in southwestern Poland .
168-742: The subject of Czech–Polish rivalry in the High Middle Ages , it became a Bohemian domain since the 12th century, although with periods of rule of the Polish Piast dynasty in the Late Middle Ages . It was raised to the County of Kladsko in 1459 and was conquered by Prussia in the First Silesian War of 1740–42 and incorporated into the Province of Silesia by 1818. After World War II it passed to
336-536: A fief , with Bolesław I recognizing Henry II as his overlord. Henry II refused to allow Bolesław I to keep possession of Meissen, however. Shortly after Bolesław I's departure from Merseburg, an assassination attempt was made against him. Though the attempt failed, Bolesław I was seriously injured. The Polish Duke accused Henry II of instituting the attack, and relations between the two countries were severed. Bolesław I also refused to pay tribute to Germany. Prior to open rebellion in 1004, Boleslaus III, Duke of Bohemia ,
504-607: A Bohemian fief , which upon his death in 1102 was claimed by his son Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland. However, as Bolesław became entangled in a fierce inheritance conflict with Duke Svatopluk of Bohemia and his cousin Borivoj II and campaigned the Bohemian lands several times, he finally had to renounce Kłodzko in favour of Duke Soběslav I of Bohemia in a peace treaty signed at Pentecost in 1137 under pressure from Emperor Lothair III . Under Přemyslid rule, Kladsko became part of
672-731: A Byzantine ally in 1026. Upon assuming the German throne, Henry II revised many policies of his predecessor, Emperor Otto III . Whereas Otto III had promoted a policy of "Restoration of the Roman Empire" ( Renovatio imperii Romanorum ), Henry II sought a policy of "Restoration of the Frankish Kingdom" ( Renovatio regni Francorum ). Compared to the other members of the Ottonian dynasty , Henry II spent relatively little time in Italy, only traveling south of
840-449: A German army and proclaimed himself Duke. The state he regained was a small one, however, as Polish forces would hold Moravia , Silesia , and Lusatia until 1018. During the next part of the offensive, Henry II retook Meissen and, in summer 1005, his army advanced deep into Poland, suffering significant losses along the way. At the Polish city of Poznań , the German forces were ambushed by
1008-630: A basin surrounded by several Mittelgebirge ranges of the Central and Eastern Sudetes : the Owl Mountains and Golden Mountains in the east, the Śnieżnik Mountains in the south, the Bystrzyckie Mountains and Orlické Mountains in the west, and the Stołowe Mountains in the northwest. With its natural boundaries, the valley forms a significant jut into the neighbouring Czech area in
1176-457: A century there were more inventions developed and applied usefully than in the previous thousand years of human history all over the globe. The period saw major technological advances, including the adoption or invention of windmills , watermills , printing (though not yet with movable type), gunpowder , the astrolabe , glasses , scissors of the modern shape, a better clock , and greatly improved ships. The latter two advances made possible
1344-475: A close when Arduin became ill and sought peace with Henry II. He resigned the office of Margrave of Ivrea to become a monk in a monastery at Fruttuaria . He died on 14 December 1015. His brief "reign" as King of Italy would be the last time a native Italian would reign over Italy until its unification under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861. After Arduin's death Henry ordered the Margravate of Ivrea, which had given
1512-414: A comprehensive production of alcohol. Food production also increased during this time as new ways of farming were introduced, including the use of a heavier plow, horses instead of oxen, and a three-field system that allowed the cultivation of a greater variety of crops than the earlier two-field system—notably legumes , the growth of which prevented the depletion of important nitrogen from the soil. During
1680-533: A divine spark. Other notable scholastics included Muhammad Averroes , Roscelin , Abélard, Peter Lombard , and Francisco Suárez . One of the main questions during this time was the problem of universals . Prominent opponents of various aspects of the scholastic mainstream included Duns Scotus , William of Ockham , Peter Damian , Bernard of Clairvaux , and the Victorines . Christian heresies existed in Europe before
1848-524: A great-great-grandson of Emperor Otto I , to succeed him after his death in 1024. Conrad was the first of the Salian dynasty of emperors. Henry was born in May 973, the son of Duke Henry II of Bavaria , and Gisela of Burgundy . Through his father, he was the grandson of Duke Henry I of Bavaria , and the great-grandson of King Henry I of Germany . By his mother, he was the grandson of King Conrad I of Burgundy , and
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#17330861451822016-438: A high demand for wine and steady volume of alcohol consumption inspired a viticulture revolution of progress. The relative protection from famine during this time allowed Europe's population to increase, despite the famine in 1315 that killed 1.5 million people. This increased population contributed to the founding of new towns and an increase in industrial and economic activity during the period. They also established trade and
2184-522: A key role in European trade from then on, making these cities become major financial centers. From the mid-10th to the mid-11th centuries, the Scandinavian kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end of Viking raids, and greater involvement in European politics. King Cnut of Denmark ruled over both England and Norway. After Cnut's death in 1035, England and Norway were both lost, and with
2352-606: A loyal ally of the Empire. However, the protracted German-Polish wars brought the two nations into open warfare for over sixteen years. Henry II inherited several unresolved ecclesiastical disputes from his predecessor Otto III. Issues of particular importance were the reestablishment of the Diocese of Merseburg and the settlement of the Gandersheim Conflict . In May 1017, Empress Cunigunde became seriously ill, while staying at
2520-458: A loyal supporter of Otto III, but Henry II's actions caused Bolesław I to seek new German allies. Of the major candidates seeking to succeed to the German throne, Bolesław I supported Margrave Eckard I of Meissen over Henry. Only after Eckard was assassinated by Saxon nobles in April 1002 did Bolesław I lend his support to Henry II. Bolesław I traveled to Merseburg on 25 July 1002 and paid homage to
2688-692: A period of centralized authority throughout the Holy Roman Empire . He consolidated his power by cultivating personal and political ties with the Catholic Church . He greatly expanded the Ottonian dynasty's custom of employing clerics as counter-weights against secular nobles. Through donations to the Church and the establishment of new dioceses, Henry strengthened imperial rule across the Empire and increased control over ecclesiastical affairs. He stressed service to
2856-442: A pitched battle, and Henry II was forced to turn back, his army weakened by diseases and suffering heavy losses. Henry II almost executed the treacherous prince of Capua, but he relented at the last moment at Pilgrim's pleading. Instead, Henry II sent him off to Germany in chains and appointed Pandulf V to replace him as prince of Capua. The expedition ultimately achieved little, and Pandulf IV would be reinstated as Prince of Capua as
3024-607: A religious experience and became a preacher. He founded the Waldensians which became a Christian sect believing that all religious practices should have strictly scriptural bases. Waldo was denied the right to preach his sermons by the Third Lateran Council in 1179, which he did not obey and continued to speak freely until he was excommunicated in 1184. Waldo was critical of the Christian clergy saying they did not live according to
3192-462: A result of the First Crusade . In the context of the crusades, monastic military orders were founded that would become the template for the late medieval chivalric orders . The Knights Templar were a Christian military order founded after the First Crusade to help protect Christian pilgrims from hostile locals and highway bandits. The order was deeply involved in banking, and in 1307 Philip
3360-564: A revolt against imperial rule in Italy in 1002. Before Henry II could arrive, however, Otto III died of fever, leaving no heir. After defeating several contenders to the throne, Henry II was crowned King of Germany on 9 July 1002 as the first in a line of kings to adopt the title Rex Romanorum as an antedate to his coronation in Rome as Imperator Romanorum . On 15 May 1004, he was anointed King of Italy ("Rex Italiae"). In that same year, Henry II joined Duke Jaromír of Bohemia in his struggle against
3528-683: A similar alliance with other Slavic peoples. With his conquest west of the Oder River in 1002, his domain stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathian Mountains . Furthermore, the Polish Duke was connected by kinship to numerous princes of Scandinavia . Henry II answered Bolesław I's rebellion by invading in the summer of 1004, reaching the Ore Mountains in northern Bohemia. He then conquered
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#17330861451823696-651: A single family. During the High Middle Ages Lithuania emerged as a Duchy of Lithuania in the early 13th century, then briefly becoming the Kingdom of Lithuania from 1251 to 1263. After the assassination of its first Christian king Mindaugas Lithuania was known as Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Unconquered during the Lithuanian Crusade , Lithuania itself rapidly expanded to the East due to conquests and became one of
3864-656: A successful Vlach-Bulgarian rebellion in 1185 , and henceforth the region was divided between the Byzantines in Greece, some parts of Macedonia , and Thrace , the Bulgarians in Moesia and most of Thrace and Macedonia, and the Serbs to the northwest. Eastern and Western churches had formally split in the 11th century, and despite occasional periods of co-operation during the 12th century, in 1204
4032-568: A successful rebellion against Byzantine control of Apulia . The Byzantine Empire struck back in 1018 under Catepan of Italy Basil Boioannes , delivering a devastating defeat to the joint Lombard-Norman force at the Battle of Cannae . Melus fled to the Papal States following the defeat. With the Byzantine successes in southern Italy, Pope Benedict VIII took an unusual step in 1020, traveling north across
4200-753: Is currently inhabited by around 160,000 people. There are 11 towns in the region. The largest is the historical capital, Kłodzko . Several annual festivals are held in the region, most notably the International Chopin Festival in Duszniki-Zdrój , dedicated to Polish virtuoso pianist and composer Fryderyk Chopin , and the International Moniuszko Festival in Kudowa-Zdrój , dedicated to "father of Polish national opera " Stanisław Moniuszko . There are also unique museums in
4368-522: Is hardly exact, for the centre was at Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts. The Albigensians were strong in southern France, northern Italy, and the southwestern Holy Roman Empire . The Bogomils were strong in the Southeastern Europe , and became the official religion supported by the Bosnian kings . Peter Waldo of Lyon was a wealthy merchant who gave up his riches around 1175 after
4536-483: Is named after its historic administrative capital Kłodzko ( Kladsko , Glatz ), formerly the administrative seat of the Bohemian governor ( Zemský hejtman ) and gathering place of the local estates ( Landstände ). The area roughly corresponds to the current Kłodzko County ( Powiat kłodzki ) of Lower Silesian Voivodeship . Historically, the area may have been part of the Great Moravia under King Svatopluk I by
4704-561: The Archbishopric of Magdeburg as well as his re-occupation of the marches of Lusatia and Meissen, including the city of Bautzen . The German counter-offensive began three years later in 1010. It was of no significant consequence, beyond some pillaging in Silesia. In 1012, a second peace treaty between Germany and Poland was signed. Bolesław I quickly broke the peace, however, and once again invaded Lusatia. Bolesław I's forces pillaged and burned
4872-464: The Basilica of San Michele Maggiore . Unlike his predecessors, after gaining the Kingdom of Italy Henry II wore two crowns, one for Germany and one for Italy, instead of a common crown representing both realms. After the coronation a dispute arose between some of the residents and Henry's people. It escalated to where the residents attacked the palace where the king was dining. The army encamped outside
5040-485: The Carolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. Germany was significantly more eastern. Germany was under the banner of the Holy Roman Empire , which reached its high-water mark of unity and political power under Kaiser Frederick Barbarossa . During the successful reign of King David IV of Georgia (1089–1125),
5208-685: The Crusader States in the Levant . Other wars led to the Northern Crusades . The Christian kingdoms took much of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim control, and the Normans conquered southern Italy, all part of the major population increases and the resettlement patterns of the era. The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and artistic works . The age also saw
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5376-604: The Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages , which ended around AD 1500 (by historiographical convention). Key historical trends of the High Middle Ages include the rapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era, and the Renaissance of the 12th century , including the first developments of rural exodus and urbanization . By 1350,
5544-608: The Early Middle Ages was based upon few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire . Most of them were studied only in Latin as knowledge of Greek was very limited. This scenario changed during the Renaissance of the 12th century . The intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities . The increased contact with
5712-616: The Fourth Crusade treacherously captured Constantinople . This severely damaged the Byzantines, and their power was ultimately weakened by the Seljuks and the rising Ottoman Empire in the 14–15th century. The power of the Latin Empire , however, was short-lived after the Crusader army was routed by Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan in the Battle of Adrianople (1205) . The Medieval Warm Period ,
5880-603: The Gross-Rosen concentration camp and forced labour subcamps of the Stalag VIII-B/344 prisoner-of-war camp for Allied POWs in the region. The Kłodzko Fortress housed a prison administered by the Reich Ministry of Justice and Wehrmacht . Both civilians and Allied POWs were imprisoned there. In January and February 1945, German-organized death marches and transports of prisoners from other locations passed through
6048-503: The Habsburg rulers pledged the county several times: first to the Bohemian noble and former governor John III of Pernstein , later to the Salzburg administrator Ernest of Bavaria , who implemented stern measures of Counter-Reformation . After Ernest's death in 1560, his heir Duke Albert V of Bavaria sold Kladsko back to Emperor Maximilian II . The Habsburg rulers raised the pledge sum with
6216-593: The Hanseatic League , a federation of free cities to advance trade by sea, was founded in the 12th century, with the foundation of the city of Lübeck , which would later dominate the League, in 1158–1159. Many northern cities of the Holy Roman Empire became Hanseatic cities, including Amsterdam , Cologne , Bremen , Hanover and Berlin. Hanseatic cities outside the Holy Roman Empire were, for instance, Bruges and
6384-659: The Jesuits to continue the recatholization policies. In December 1740 the Prussian Army under King Frederick the Great invaded Habsburg Silesia and also occupied the County of Kladsko; while they were largely welcomed by the Protestant population of Silesia, Kladsko remained a suspiciously eyed Catholic area. By the 1742 Treaty of Berlin , again confirmed by the 1763 Peace of Hubertusburg ,
6552-634: The King of Italy Arduin in his capital of Ivrea , where he remained until 1015. Henry II arrived in Rome in early 1014, restoring Benedict VIII as pope. On 14 February 1014, the Pope crowned Henry II as Holy Roman Emperor ("Romanorum Imperator") in St. Peter's Basilica . Then, under the presidency of the Emperor and Pope, a synod was held in Rome, appointing five bishops, issuing decrees against simony and promoting chastity within
6720-614: The Kingdom of Bohemia by 1198; it was administrated within the lands of Hradec Králové and governed by Bohemian burgraves like Witiko of Prčice (c.1120–1194), progenitor of the Vítkovci clan. From the 13th century onwards, under the rule of King Wenceslaus I and his son Ottokar II , the area was largely settled by German colonists in the course of the Ostsiedlung migration. The Kladsko estates were temporarily held by Silesian Piast dukes such as Henry IV Probus , who received it from
6888-476: The Kingdom of Georgia grew in strength and expelled the Seljuk Empire from its lands. David's decisive victory in the Battle of Didgori (1121) against the Seljuk Turks, as a result of which Georgia recaptured its lost capital Tbilisi , marked the beginning of the Georgian Golden Age . David's granddaughter Queen Tamar continued the upward rise, successfully neutralizing internal opposition and embarking on an energetic foreign policy aided by further decline of
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7056-442: The Kłodzko Fortress . During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 the area again became a deployment zone of Prussian troops on the eve of the Battle of Nachod . From 1871 it was part of Germany, until the country's defeat in World War II in 1945. From a traditional Czech perspective, Kłodzko Land was culturally and traditionally a part of Bohemia, although the region has been a part of the Lower Silesia region since its conquest by
7224-402: The Macedonian and Komnenos dynasties gradually gave way to the resurrected Serbia and Bulgaria and to a successor crusader state (1204 to 1261), who continually fought each other until the end of the Latin Empire. The Byzantine Empire was reestablished in 1261 with the recapture of Constantinople from the Latins, though it was no longer a major power and would continue to falter through
7392-602: The March of Verona to face Arduin, but Arduin successfully defeated Otto's troops at the Battle of Fabrica in 1003. In 1004 Henry II responded to calls for aid from Italian bishops and led an invasion into Italy against Arduin. Henry II gathered his troops at Augsburg and marched through the Brenner Pass to Trento , Italy. After initial military successes, much of the Italian clergy and some noble families swore allegiance to Henry II, including Archbishop Arnulf II . Joining Henry II in Bergamo , Arnulf II crowned him as King of Italy ("Rex Italiae") on 14 May 1004 in Pavia , in
7560-416: The Matter of France (stories about Charlemagne and his court), the Acritic songs dealing with the chivalry of Byzantium's frontiersmen, and perhaps the best known cycle, the Matter of Britain , which featured tales about King Arthur , his court, and related stories from Brittany , Cornwall , Wales and Ireland. An anonymous German poet tried to bring the Germanic myths from the Migration Period to
7728-442: The Principality of Capua . A third army, smaller still, under the command of Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia went through the Apennines to join Henry II in besieging the Byzantine fortress of Troia . Though Patriarch Pilgrim captured Pandulf IV of Capua and extracted oaths of allegiance from both Capua and the Principality of Salerno , all three of Henry II's armies failed to take Troia. The Byzantine troops could not be forced into
7896-409: The Republic of Poland according to the 1945 Potsdam Agreement . The region was not destroyed during World War II , thanks to which its rich historical architecture from various periods, from the Middle Ages to modern times, has been preserved. It is also known for its several spa towns . Kłodzko Land, with an approximate area of 1,640 km (630 sq mi), consists of the Kłodzko Valley ,
8064-400: The Romanesque style by combining flying buttresses , gothic (or pointed) arches and ribbed vaults . It was influenced by the spiritual background of the time, being religious in essence: thin horizontal lines and grates made the building strive towards the sky. Architecture was made to appear light and weightless, as opposed to the dark and bulky forms of the previous Romanesque style . It
8232-443: The Silk Road to China. Westerners became more aware of the Far East when Polo documented his travels in Il Milione . He was followed by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such as William of Rubruck , Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , André de Longjumeau , Odoric of Pordenone , Giovanni de' Marignolli , Giovanni di Monte Corvino , and other travellers such as Niccolò de' Conti . Philosophical and scientific teaching of
8400-472: The Utraquist Bohemian regent, and later king, George of Poděbrady re-acquired Kladsko Land from the heirs of the late Hynek Krušina; together with the adjacent Náchod lordship and the Silesian Duchy of Münsterberg, it became his powerbase to assume the Bohemian Crown. Once elected king by the Bohemian estates, in 1458, he raised Kladsko to a county in its own right and conveyed the title of an Imperial count to his second son Victor , for which he obtained
8568-416: The funeral procession moved through the Duchy of Bavaria in February 1002, Henry met the procession in Polling , just north of the Alps. To legitimise his claims, Henry demanded Archbishop Heribert of Cologne give him the Imperial Regalia , chief among them being the Holy Lance . Heribert, however, had sent these ahead of the procession, possibly out of distrust of Henry and possibly because he favoured
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#17330861451828736-412: The intensive agriculture -prevalent model in Muslim-ruled lands did not require territorial expansion. While Muslim lands enjoyed a certain demographic and financial edge , Almoravids and Almohads from northern Africa featured volatile state structures; barring (unsuccessful) attempts to take Toledo, they did not stand out for carrying out an expansionist policy. In Italy, with the Norman conquest,
8904-637: The pagan Slavic Lutici tribe. As a consequence of their military alliance, Henry II halted Christianization efforts among the Slavic peoples. The new alliance with the Western Slavs against Poland was controversial, however. Many German nobles had hoped for continued missionary work and the direct submission of the Elbe Slavs . In addition, many German nobles opposed the war because they had developed family ties with Poland during Otto III's reign. It interfered with Bishop Bruno of Querfurt 's mission to Poland, so he set out for Hungary. In preparation for Henry II's coming military invasion, Bolesław I developed
9072-530: The 11th century but only in small numbers and of local character: in most cases, a rogue priest, or a village returning to pagan traditions. However, beginning in the 11th century, mass-movement heresies appeared. The roots of this can be partially sought in the rise of urban cities, free merchants, and a new money-based economy. The rural values of monasticism held little appeal to urban people who began to form sects more in tune with urban culture. The first large-scale heretical movements in Western Europe originated in
9240-412: The 12th century, the Cluny monks promoted ethical warfare and inspired the formation of orders of chivalry , such as the Templar Knights . Inherited titles of nobility were established during this period. In 13th-century Germany, knighthood became another inheritable title, although one of the less prestigious, and the trend spread to other countries. The East–West Schism of 1054 formally separated
9408-420: The 13th century had a great impact on the east of Europe , as many countries of the region were invaded, pillaged, conquered or vassalized. During the first half of this period ( c. 1025 —1185), Byzantine Empire dominated the Southeast Europe , and under the Komnenian emperors there was a revival of prosperity and urbanization; however, their domination of Southeast Europe was coming to an end with
9576-435: The 14th century, with remnants lasting until the mid 15th century. In the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began a more intensive settlement, targeting "new" lands, some areas of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the Western Roman Empire . In what historian Charles Higounet called the "great clearances", Europeans cleared and cultivated some of the vast forests and marshes that lay across much of
9744-413: The 1919 Treaty of Versailles . While the area remained with the Free State of Prussia and the Weimar Republic , the Czechoslovak government had extended border fortifications erected around the Kłodzko Land just after the Nazi seizure of power in 1933. With the 1938 Munich Agreement , however, these security measures became obsolete. During World War II , the Germans operated several subcamps of
9912-420: The Alps into Germany to discusses the state of affairs in southern Italy with the Emperor. Meeting Henry II in Bamberg , the Pope was accompanied by a large number of Italian secular and ecclesiastical leaders, including Melus. Henry II granted Melus the empty title Duke of Apulia for his actions against the Byzantines. But Melus died just a few days later, on 23 April 1020. After settling some controversies with
10080-434: The Alps three times during his twenty-two year reign. He was absent from the Italian peninsula for over a decade between his expulsion of Margrave Arduin of Ivrea in 1004 and his return in 1014 to claim the imperial title, allowing the kingdom to mostly govern itself. Henry II's absence from Italy was primarily due to his continued conflict with Bolesław I Chrobry of Poland. During the reign of Otto III, Bolesław I had been
10248-473: The British Isles, France and elsewhere, and Norse Christian kingdoms started developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, a Christian Kingdom of Hungary had become a recognized state in Central Europe that was forming alliances with regional powers. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, major nomadic incursions ceased. The powerful Byzantine Empire of
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#173308614518210416-413: The Byzantine advance, Otto II suddenly died while in Rome, with his infant son Otto III succeeding him. With an infant as ruler and a political crisis to address, the Western Empire was unable to challenge Byzantine dominance. This allowed Basil II to build of his defense forces in preparation for a future Western counterattack. In 1017, aided by Norman mercenaries , the Lombard noble Melus of Bari led
10584-406: The Byzantines as a loyal lieutenant of Otto II. By 978, Pandulf had incorporated all three of the southern Lombard principalities – Benevento, Capua, and Salerno – into the Holy Roman Empire. Pandulf's death in 981, however, weakened Western dominance over the Byzantine Empire in southern Italy. By 982, the entire area once ruled by Pandulf had collapsed. The Byzantines still claimed sovereignty over
10752-432: The Christian church into two parts: Roman Catholicism in Western Europe and Eastern Orthodoxy in the east. It occurred when Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael I excommunicated each other, mainly over disagreement over the filioque , an addition to the creed concerning the origin of the Holy Spirit, as well as disputes as to the existence of papal authority over the four Eastern patriarchs , use of unleavened bread in
10920-429: The Church and promoted monastic reform. For his remarkable personal piety and enthusiastic promotion of the Church, he was canonized by Pope Eugene III in 1146. He is the only medieval German monarch ever to have been honoured as a saint . Henry II's wife was the equally pious Empress Cunigunde , who was canonized in 1200 by Pope Innocent III . As the union produced no children, the German nobles elected Conrad II ,
11088-450: The Emperor soon agreed to release Mieszko II. At the same time, Henry II entertained Yaroslav , the pretender to the throne of the Kievan Rus' . A son of Kievan Grand Duke Vladimir the Great , he was vice-regent of the Principality of Novgorod at the time of his father's death in 1015. Yaroslav's eldest surviving brother, Sviatopolk I of Kiev , killed three of his other brothers and seized power in Kiev. Henry II's support of Yaroslav
11256-427: The Emperor's death. Accompanied by Archbishop Arnulf II of Milan , Arduin won the support of the Italian territorial magnates. Arduin, however, had been excommunicated in 997 for the murder of the Bishop of Vercelli . This allowed Arduin's enemies in the Church, led by Archbishop Frederick of Ravenna , to side with the German King Henry II as the rightful ruler of Italy. Henry II sent Duke Otto I of Carinthia , over
11424-401: The Fair (Philippine le Bel) had the entire order arrested in France and dismantled on charges of alleged heresy. The Knights Hospitaller were originally a Christian organization founded in Jerusalem in 1080 to provide care for poor, sick, or injured pilgrims to the Holy Land . After Jerusalem was taken in the First Crusade, it became a religious / military order that was charged with
11592-415: The German crown. Upon assuming the throne, however, Henry II refused to honour his promise and instead supported the rights of the Bavarians to elect their own duke. With Henry II's support, Count Henry I of Luxembourg became the Duke of Bavaria as Henry V. Betrayed by the King, Margrave Henry allied with Bolesław I of Poland against him. However, his rebellion was soon quashed and the Nordgauian Margrave
11760-418: The Habsburg empress Maria Theresa ceded Kladsko to the Kingdom of Prussia. During the Napoleonic War , in 1807, Kłodzko Castle was besieged by Confederation troops led by Jérôme Bonaparte , but successfully defended by the Prussian garrison under General Friedrich Wilhelm von Götzen the Younger . In the same year, manoralism was finally abolished in the course of the Stein-Hardenberg Reforms . By 1818
11928-501: The High Middle Ages, the idea of a Christian warrior started to change as Christianity grew more prominent in Medieval Europe. The Codes of Chivalry promoted the ideal knight to be selfless, faithful, and fierce against those who threaten the weak. Household heavy cavalry ( knights ) became common in the 11th century across Europe, and tournaments were invented. Tournaments allowed knights to establish their family name while being able to gather vast wealth and renown through victories. In
12096-572: The Holy Lands, the order moved to Transylvania in 1211 and later, after being expelled, invaded pagan Prussia with the intention of Christianizing the Baltic region . Yet, both before and after the Order's main pagan opponent, Lithuania , converted to Christianity, the Order had already attacked other Christian nations such as Novgorod and Poland . The Teutonic Knights' power hold, which became considerable,
12264-548: The Imperial army crossed the Oder river and marched across Poland, Henry II's forces killed or captured several thousand Poles, including women and children. But the Imperial army suffered heavy losses throughout the campaign. Bolesław I sent a detachment of Moravian knights under the command of Mieszko II in a diversionary attack against the Empire's Eastern March . The Imperial army retreated from Poland to Merseburg in order to address
12432-640: The Islamic world in Spain and Sicily during the Reconquista , and the Byzantine world and Muslim Levant during the Crusades , allowed Europeans access to scientific Arabic and Greek texts, including the works of Aristotle , Alhazen , and Averroes . The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. At
12600-694: The Kingdom of Prussia in 1742. Referred to as "Little Prague", the Kłodzko Valley region on the Nysa Kłodzka river was the focus of several attempts to reincorporate the area into Czechoslovakia , one of several Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts . After the defeat of the German Empire in World War I , the newly established First Czechoslovak Republic raised claims to Kłodzko Land, that were however rejected in
12768-448: The Kingdom to govern itself. Henry returned to Germany to take military action against the rebellious Bolesław I of Poland. The untimely death of Emperor Otto III at age 21 in 1002 upset the young Emperor's ambitious renovatio plans, which were never fully implemented. Henry II reversed Otto III's eastern policies, damaging the excellent relationship Germany and Bolesław I of Poland had enjoyed during Otto III's reign. Bolesław I had been
12936-528: The Lombard principalities, and the lack of single leader to prevent their advances into Lombard territory allowed the Byzantines to make inroads further north. While in Byzantine territory, Otto II encountered a large Muslim army brought into the region by Abu al-Qasim , Emir of Sicily , and was soundly defeated in the ensuing battle of Stilo on 14 July 982. The defeat shifted the balance of power in southern Italy into Byzantine favor. While preparing to counterattack
13104-450: The Ottonian emperors so much trouble, dissolved. The peace agreement of 1013 between Henry II and Bolesław I of Poland quickly deteriorated. In 1014, with Henry II absent from Germany, Bolesław I sent his son Mieszko II Lambert to the Duchy of Bohemia in order to persuade the new Bohemian Duke Oldřich into an alliance against Henry II. The mission failed and Oldřich imprisoned Mieszko II. He
13272-570: The Platonist-Augustinian belief that the mind is an immaterial substance. The most famous of the scholastics was Thomas Aquinas (later declared a " Doctor of the Church "), who led the move away from the Platonic and Augustinian and towards Aristotelianism. Aquinas developed a philosophy of mind by writing that the mind was at birth a tabula rasa ("blank slate") that was given the ability to think and recognize forms or ideas through
13440-623: The Poles, thus effectively incorporating the Duchy of Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire . Unlike his predecessor Otto III, who had imposed plans on sovereign administration and active political involvement in Italy , Henry spent most of his reign concerned with the renovation of the imperial territories north of the Alps , a policy summed up on his seal as Renovatio regni Francorum , which replaced Otto's Renovatio imperii Romanorum . A series of conflicts with
13608-600: The Polish Duke Bolesław I , who had already conquered a number of countries surrounding him, required Henry II's full attention and years of political and military maneuvering. Henry did, however, lead three expeditions into Italy to enforce his feudal claim ( Honor Imperii ): twice to suppress secessionist revolts and once to address Byzantine attempts to obtain dominance over southern Italy . On 14 February 1014, Pope Benedict VIII crowned Henry Holy Roman Emperor in Rome. The rule of Henry II has been characterized as
13776-556: The Polish army and suffered significant losses. Meeting in Poznań, Henry II and Bolesław I signed a peace treaty . According to its terms, Bolesław I lost Lusatia and Meissen and was forced to give up his claim to the Bohemian throne. The peace lasted only two years as neither party recognized the claims of the other. In 1007, Henry II denounced the Peace of Poznań, resulting in Bolesław I's attack on
13944-530: The Polish city of Gdańsk (Danzig), as well as Königsberg, capital of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. In Bergen , Norway and Veliky Novgorod , Russia the league had factories and middlemen. In this period the Germans started colonising Europe beyond the Empire, into Prussia and Silesia . In the late 13th century, a Venetian explorer named Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel
14112-567: The Pope so as not to be confused with actual heretical movements such as the Waldensians . Catharism was a movement with Gnostic elements that originated around the middle of the 10th century, branded by the contemporary Roman Catholic Church as heretical . It existed throughout much of Western Europe , but its origination was in Languedoc and surrounding areas in southern France. The name Cathar stems from Greek katharos , "pure". One of
14280-633: The Saxon Margrave Eckard I of Meissen. Henry II's involvement in Italian politics and his coronation as emperor inevitably brought him into conflict with the Byzantine Empire . In 969, Emperor Otto I entered into an alliance with Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes in which both Eastern and Western Empires would jointly-govern southern Italy . Otto I's death in 973 and John I's death in 976 caused this alliance to deteriorate. Otto I's successor in
14448-590: The Silesian duke John I of Münsterberg was fought at Stary Wielisław on 27 December 1428. Duke John was killed in action and Půta received his Duchy of Münsterberg (Ziębice) as well as Kladsko and the adjacent Silesian lands of Ząbkowice as a pledge from the hands of Emperor Sigismund . After Půta's death, his widow Anne of Colditz sold Kladsko Land to the former Hussite leader Hynek Krušina of Lichtenburg in September 1440, and married him three weeks later. In 1454
14616-745: The Visitation in Wambierzyce is an important regional Catholic pilgrimage site. Gompa Drophan Ling in Darnków , Poland's only Buddhist gompa , is located in Kłodzko Land. High Middle Ages Central Europe Guelf , Hohenstaufen , and Ascanian domains in Germany about 1176 The High Middle Ages , or High Medieval Period , was the period of European history that lasted from AD 1000 to 1300. The High Middle Ages were preceded by
14784-507: The West, his son Emperor Otto II, and John I's successor in the East, his nephew Basil II , brought the two empires once again into conflict over control of southern Italy. Under Otto I and Otto II, the Lombard leader Pandulf Ironhead expanded Western imperial control over central and southern Italy. Originally appointed by Otto I as Prince of Benevento and Capua in 961, Pandulf waged war against
14952-507: The assault without making any permanent territorial gains east of the Oder River. During the retreat to Germany, Gero II , margrave of the Eastern March, was ambushed by Polish forces and killed late in 1015. Following the attack on the Eastern March, Bolesław I's forces took the offensive. Bolesław I sent Mieszko II to besiege Meissen in 1017, then under the command of Mieszko II's brother-in-law Margrave Herman I . His attempt at conquering
15120-449: The beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural science contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste , Roger Bacon , Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus . Precursors of
15288-456: The beginning of the conflict in 1004, the Imperial army simultaneously marched in a pincer movement from the German north, south, and center. Henry II himself commanded the center army, supported by allied Slavic tribes, and moved from Magdeburg to cross the Oder river into Poland. Henry II was soon joined from the south by Bohemian Duke Oldřich and from the north by Duke Bernard II of Saxony . As
15456-561: The bishops of Mainz and Würzburg , the Pope convinced Henry II to return to Italy for a third campaign to counter the growing power of the Byzantine Empire. In 1022, Henry II set out down the Adriatic coast for southern Italy commanding a large force. He sent Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne ahead with a slightly smaller army along the Tyrrhenian littoral with the objective of subjugating
15624-420: The borderlands in the southern meseta . Agricultural models in areas with Mediterranean climate were generally based on biennial crop rotation . Despite population growth, agricultural output remained relatively rigid throughout the period; between the 10th and 13th centuries, migration southwards to exposed areas was incentivized by the possibility of enjoying privileges and acquiring properties. Conversely,
15792-508: The care and defence of the Crusader states . After the Holy Lands were eventually taken by Muslim forces, it moved its operations to Rhodes , and later Malta . The Teutonic Knights were a German religious order formed in 1190, in the city of Acre , to aid Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Lands and to operate hospitals for the sick and injured in Outremer . After Muslim forces captured
15960-401: The castle at Žatec and wiped out the Polish army left there. At the same time, Jaromir (the younger brother of the deposed Bohemian Duke Boleslaus III) invaded Bohemia with German military support. At Merseburg, Jaromír promised to hold Bohemia as a vassal under Henry II, definitively incorporating Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire . Forcing Bolesław I to flee, Jaromír occupied Prague with
16128-460: The castle in Meissen in an act of war. Returning from Italy after reclaiming the Italian throne, Henry II launched a military campaign against Poland in 1004 that would last until 1018, spanning three wars and several smaller campaigns. Returning from his first expedition to Italy, in 1004 Henry II gathered an army to march against Poland. The previous year in 1003, Henry II had formed an alliance with
16296-424: The city failed, however, and he was forced to retreat back to Poland. Henry II and Bolesław I then opened peace negotiations and a ceasefire was declared in summer 1017. As negotiations failed by autumn 1017, Henry II again marched his army into Poland. His army reached Głogów , where Bolesław I was entrenched, but it was unable to take the city. Henry II then besieged Niemcza , but was likewise unable to capture
16464-578: The city of Lubusz . In 1013, a third peace treaty was signed at Merseburg, requiring in part that Bolesław I recognize Henry II as his overlord in exchange for receiving the March of Lusatia and the March of Meissen as fiefs . To seal their peace, Bolesław I's son Mieszko II married Richeza of Lotharingia , daughter of the Count Palatine Ezzo of Lotharingia , granddaughter of Emperor Otto II . John XVIII reigned as pope from 1003 until 1009. He
16632-411: The city swiftly moved to protect the king, and in the onslaught the city caught fire and many residents were killed. After receiving the homage of the remaining Italian nobles, Henry returned to Germany in the early summer of 1004 without first traveling to Rome to claim the Imperial crown. This is most likely due to opposition from Pope John XVIII . Henry would not return to Italy for a decade, leaving
16800-480: The city. As his army besieged Niemcza, disease brought about from the winter cold devastated the Imperial forces. His attacks unsuccessful, Henry II was forced to retreat back to Merseburg in Germany. With this defeat, Henry II was ready to end the war and begin serious peace negotiations with Bolesław I. On 30 January 1018, Henry II and Bolesław I signed a fourth peace treaty, known as the Peace of Bautzen . The Polish duke
16968-456: The clergy, and ordering the restitution of Church property. Shortly afterwards, the Emperor moved north again where he established the Diocese of Bobbio . Celebrating Easter in Pavia and Italy, Henry then returned to Germany in mid-May 1014. He left the rule of Rome to the Pope and thereafter rarely intervened in the politics of Italy or the Papal States . In 1015 the conflict with Arduin came to
17136-709: The confirmation by Emperor Frederick III the next year. The comital title became hereditary in 1462 and could also be bequeathed by Victor's brothers Henry of the Elder Münsterberg and Henry the Younger of Poděbrady . Henry the Elder ruled Kladsko upon King George's death in 1471; he attached the Lordship of Homole to his comital lands by 1477 and had Kladsko Castle rebuilt as his permanent residence. His overindebted sons and heirs Albert , George and Charles , however, had to sell
17304-632: The continent. At the same time, settlers moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers beyond the Elbe River , which tripled the size of Germany in the process. The Catholic Church , which reached the peak of its political power around then, called armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuk Turks . The crusaders occupied the Holy Land and founded
17472-420: The county was finally abolished, and the territory was reformed into the three Landkreise of Glatz , Habelschwerdt and Neurode within the Silesian province. During the 19th-century Polish national liberation fights , Polish publicist Włodzimierz Adolf Wolniewicz [ pl ] , Polish historian Wojciech Kętrzyński and Polish priest Augustyn Szamarzewski [ pl ] were imprisoned in
17640-500: The dawn of the Age of Discovery . These inventions were influenced by foreign culture and society. Alfred W. Crosby described some of this technological revolution in The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600 and other major historians of technology have also noted it. Art in the High Middle Ages includes these important movements: Gothic architecture superseded
17808-643: The defeat of Valdemar II in 1227, Danish predominance in the region came to an end. Meanwhile, Norway extended its Atlantic possessions, ranging from Greenland to the Isle of Man , while Sweden, under Birger Jarl , built up a power-base in the Baltic Sea . However, the Norwegian influence started to decline already in the same period, marked by the Treaty of Perth of 1266. Also, civil wars raged in Norway between 1130 and 1240. By
17976-540: The eastern territories of Bohemia until they were overthrown by the rivalling Přemyslid family in 995. While the Přemyslid Dukes of Bohemia obtained the status of immediate Princes of the Holy Roman Empire , their rule was disrupted by internal dynastical struggles: during the rivalry between Duke Boleslaus III and his brother Jaromir in 1003, the Polish duke Bolesław I the Brave invaded Bohemia, but had to pull back
18144-532: The elder Henry in Ingelheim . After escaping, Henry again revolted against Otto II . When this second revolt failed, Otto II deposed Henry as Duke of Bavaria and sent him into exile under the custody of the Bishop of Utrecht in April 978. As a consequence of his revolt, the Emperor stripped the Duchy of Bavaria of its southeastern territories bordering Italy and formed the Duchy of Carinthia . During his father's exile,
18312-435: The elder Henry to be released from custody and to return from exile. The elder Henry claimed regency over Otto III , the three-year-old child of Otto II. After a failed attempt to claim the German throne for himself in 985, the elder Henry relinquished the regency to the child's mother Theophanu . In return for his submission to the child king, Henry was restored as Duke of Bavaria . The younger Henry, now thirteen years old,
18480-480: The end of 1013, Henry II gathered his army at Augsburg to march into Italy. Earlier in 1013, Henry signed a peace treaty with Duke Bolesław of Poland at Merseburg . The peace with Poland gave Henry opportunity to address affairs in Italy. On the march across the Alps, Henry was accompanied by his wife, Queen Cunigunde , and a number of clerics. Upon reaching Pavia other bishops and abbots joined him. Henry's forces trapped
18648-628: The estates to their brother-in-law, the Austrian noble Ulrich of Hardegg . Nevertheless, their descendants retained the comital title until the extinction of the line in 1647. When the Bohemian Crown fell to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy in 1526, the rights of the Hardegg family were confirmed by King Ferdinand I . Johann von Hardegg finally sold Kladsko to Ferdinand in 1534/37; from that time on,
18816-421: The first great and powerful state was formed, the Kingdom of Sicily with hereditary monarchy. Subsequently joined to the Holy Roman Empire, it had its moment of maximum splendor with the emperor Frederick II . In the rest of Italy, independent city states grew affluent on Eastern Mediterranean maritime trade. These were in particular the thalassocracies of Pisa , Amalfi , Genoa and Venice , which played
18984-448: The first recorded uses is Eckbert von Schönau who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra Germania catharos appellat." ([In] our Germany [one] calls these [people] "Cathars".) The Cathars are also called Albigensians . This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of Albi (the ancient Albiga). The designation
19152-556: The following year, after which, although recognizing the minor Hermann III as his father's titular successor, Henry II effectively assumed all power over the Duchy himself. In 1003 Henry of Schweinfurt , Margrave of Nordgau in Bavaria , revolted against Henry II's rule. Henry II had promised to install the Margrave as his successor to the Duchy of Bavaria in exchange for supporting his claim to
19320-468: The great-grandson of King Rudolf II of Burgundy . The elder Henry came into conflict with his cousin Holy Roman Emperor Otto II , in 974. The elder Henry and Otto II disputed each other's claims to authority over the Duchy of Swabia : Henry claimed the duchy as his birthright while Otto II maintained his right to name a duke of his choosing. After an initial failed revolt, Otto II imprisoned
19488-468: The hands of King Rudolph I of Germany in 1280, or Henry VI the Good (in 1327) and Bolko II of Ziębice (in 1336); each time, the lands fell back to the Bohemian monarch as a reverted fief upon their death. About 1300, Kladsko was governed by the Bohemian noble Arnošt (Ernest) of Hostýně, whose son Arnošt of Pardubice became the first Archbishop of Prague by appointment of Pope Clement VI in 1344. He also
19656-592: The hostile Seljuk Turks . Relying on a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated vast lands spanning from present-day southern Russia on the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea . Georgia remained a leading regional power until its collapse under the Mongol attacks within two decades after Tamar's death. In the High Middle Ages, Hungary became one of
19824-657: The imperial estates in Kaufungen . Henry II vowed to found a monastery on the site if she recovered. Upon her recovery in 1018, Henry ordered the construction of the Kaufungen Abbey . After Henry II's death in 1024, Cunigunde retreated to the Abbey, where she remained until her own death in 1040. Sincerely religious, Henry II supported service to the Church (he was celibate ) and promoted various monastic reforms. He also strongly enforced clerical celibacy , perhaps partly in order that
19992-510: The largest states in Europe. In the mid-10th century Poland emerged as a duchy after Mieszko I , the ruler of the Polans , conquered the surrounding Lechitic tribes in the region. Then in 1025 under the rule of Bolesław I the Brave , Poland became a kingdom. The High Middle Ages saw the height and decline of the Slavic state of Kievan Rus' and emergence of Cumania . Later, the Mongol invasion in
20160-564: The late 9th century, though the extent of his realm is disputed. According to the Chronica Boëmorum (1125) by the Prague dean Cosmas , the provincia glacensis belonged to the dominions of the Bohemian nobleman Slavník , residing at the castle of Kłodzko on the road from Prague to Wrocław in Silesia until his death in 981 AD. The Slavník dynasty , among them Prince Slavník's heir Soběslav and his brother Saint Adalbert of Prague , ruled in
20328-547: The level of the French and British epics, producing the Nibelungenlied . There was also a quantity of poetry and historical writings which were written during this period, such as Historia Regum Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth . Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II ( German : Heinrich II ; Italian : Enrico II ; Latin : Henricus ; 6 May 973 – 13 July 1024 AD), also known as Saint Henry , Obl. S. B. ,
20496-598: The liturgy, and fasting days. The Catholic Crusades occurred between the 11th and 13th centuries. They were conducted under papal authority, initially with the intent of reestablishing Christian rule in The Holy Land by taking the area from the Muslim Fatimid Caliphate . The Fatimids had captured Palestine in AD 970, lost it to the Seljuk Turks in 1073 and recaptured it in 1098, just before they lost it again in 1099 as
20664-466: The modern scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus . During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. In less than
20832-518: The most famous sacral building of the time: Notre Dame de Paris . A variety of cultures influenced the literature of the High Middle Ages, one of the strongest among them being Christianity. The connection to Christianity was greatest in Latin literature , which influenced the vernacular languages in the literary cycle of the Matter of Rome . Other literary cycles, or interrelated groups of stories, included
21000-497: The most powerful medieval states in Europe. The Christian Kingdom of Hungary was established in 1000 under King Saint Stephen I of Hungary , and ruled by the Árpád dynasty for the following centuries. King Saint Ladislaus completed the work of King Saint Stephen . He consolidated the Hungarian state power and strengthened the influence of Christianity . His charismatic personality, strategic leadership and military talents resulted
21168-401: The new German king. Bolesław I had taken advantage of Germany's internal strife following Otto III's death, occupying important German territories west of the Oder River : the March of Meissen and the March of Lusatia . Bolesław I took control of these territories following the assassination of Margrave Eckard I. Henry II accepted Bolesław I's gains, allowing the Polish Duke to keep Lusatia as
21336-429: The newly urbanized areas such as southern France and northern Italy and were probably influenced by the Bogomils and other dualist movements . These heresies were on a scale the Catholic Church had never seen before and as such the response was one of elimination for some (such as the Cathars ). Some Catholic monastic leaders, such as Francis of Assisi , the founder of the Franciscans , had to be recognized directly by
21504-448: The next year, facing the forces of King Henry II of Germany . In turn the Bohemian duke Bretislaus I campaigned the adjacent northern territory of Silesia in 1039. An armistice mediated by Emperor Henry III in 1054 demarcated the spheres of influence, leaving Kłodzko with Bohemia. When about 1080 the Polish Piast duke Władysław I Herman married Judith Přemyslovna , daughter of Duke Vratislaus II of Bohemia , he received Kłodzko as
21672-420: The period from the 10th century to about the 14th century in Europe, was a relatively warm and gentle interval ended by the generally colder Little Ice Age which would continue until the Middle of the 19th century. Farmers grew wheat well north into Scandinavia, and wine grapes in northern England, although the maximum expansion of vineyards appeared to occur within the Little Ice Age period. During this time,
21840-411: The period to expand Scholasticism , a combination of Judeo-Islamic and Catholic ideologies with the ancient philosophy. For much of this period, Constantinople remained Europe's most populous city, and Byzantine art reached a peak in the 12th century . In architecture, many of the most notable Gothic cathedrals were built or completed around this period. The Crisis of the Late Middle Ages began at
22008-428: The public land and offices he granted to clerics would not be devised to heirs. He encouraged the reform of the Church, fostered missionary activity, and made several charitable foundations for the poor. Henry II wished to become a monk, and in virtue of his imperial power he ordered the Abbot of Verdun to accept him in his monastery. Thereupon, the Abbot ordered him, in virtue of the vows he had professed, to continue
22176-411: The region to Kłodzko, and many were then sent further west to Bautzen . The last Czech attempt to capture the region occurred at the end of World War II , when Czechoslovak forces tried to annex the area on behalf of the Czech minority present in the western part of the Kłodzko Valley known as the " Czech Corner ". Pressure brought on by the Soviet Union led to a ceasing of military operations, with
22344-410: The region, such as the Museum of Papermaking in Duszniki-Zdrój , located in a 17th-century paper mill, and the Phillumenist Museum [ pl ] in Bystrzyca Kłodzka , Poland's only phillumenist museum. The Museum of Kłodzko Land ( Muzeum Ziemi Kłodzkiej ) in Kłodzko is dedicated to the history of the region. The population of Kłodzko Land is predominantly Catholic . The Basilica of
22512-414: The remaining German population and the Czech minority being expelled to Germany and Czechoslovakia. With most of the former Silesia province, Kłodzko Land passed to Poland in 1945. According to canon law of the Roman Catholic Church , the area remained part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague until 1972. The region suffered during the 1997 and 2024 Central European floods . The region
22680-420: The rise of ethnocentrism , which evolved later into modern national identities in most of Europe, the ascent of the great Italian city-states and the rise and fall of the Islamic civilization of Al-Andalus . The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle , at first indirectly through medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophy , led Maimonides , Ibn Sina , Ibn Rushd , Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers of
22848-699: The robust population increase had greatly benefited the European economy, which had reached levels that would not be seen again in some areas until the 19th century. That trend faltered during the Late Middle Ages because of a series of calamities , most notably the Black Death , but also numerous wars as well as economic stagnation. From around 780, Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more socially and politically organized. The Carolingian Renaissance stimulated scientific and philosophical activity in Northern Europe. The first universities started operating in Bologna , Oxford , Paris , Salamanca , Cambridge and Modena . The Vikings settled in
23016-459: The rule of independent native princes until the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd in 1282. The Exchequer was founded in the 12th century under King Henry I , and the first parliaments were convened. In 1215, after the loss of Normandy , King John signed the Magna Carta into law, limiting the power of English monarchs . A key geo-strategic development in the Iberian Peninsula was the Christian conquest of Toledo in 1085. Dominated by war,
23184-448: The societal structures and relations in the northern Christian kingdoms were subordinated to the demands of omnipresent military conflict. The territorial expansion of the northern Christian kingdoms to the south brought the creation of border societies, where military demands on knights and foot soldiers and the promotion of settlement were prioritized over potential seigneurial income; military orders also played an important role in
23352-433: The southeast. It is crossed by the Eastern Neisse ( Nysa Kłodzka ) river, a left tributary of the Oder . Despite its enclosed geographical situation, Kłodzko Land since ancient times has been traversed by the Amber Road and other important trade routes connecting Bohemia with Silesia and Moravia , running over easily accessible mountain passes in the south and west, and along the Nysa water gap at Bardo . The land
23520-475: The start of the 14th century and marked the end of the period. In England, the Norman Conquest of 1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by a Francophone nobility. The Normans invaded Ireland in 1169 and soon established themselves in most of the country, although their stronghold was the southeast. Likewise, Scotland and Wales were subdued into vassal states at about the same time, though Scotland later asserted its independence and Wales remained largely under
23688-507: The succession of his relative Duke Herman II of Swabia as the next king. In order to force Herman II to relinquish the Holy Lance to him, Henry imprisoned the Archbishop and his brother the Bishop of Würzburg . With neither the symbols of imperial authority, the crown jewels, nor the cooperation of Heribert, Henry was unable to convince the nobles attending Otto III's funeral procession to elect him as king. A few weeks later, at Otto III's funeral in Aachen Cathedral , Henry again attempted to gain
23856-409: The support of the Saxons, Henry arranged for Archbishop Willigis to crown his wife, Cunigunde of Luxembourg as Queen of Germany on 10 August 1002 in Paderborn , in present-day Germany. Henry II spent the next several years consolidating his political power within his borders. Herman II, Duke of Swabia , in particular fiercely contested Henry II's right to the throne. The Swabian Duke believed he
24024-433: The support of the kingdom's nobles and was again rejected. So it was without the support of the kingdom's nobility that Henry took the radical action of having himself anointed and crowned King of Germany ("Rex Romanorum") by Willigis , Archbishop of Mainz on 9 July 1002 at Mainz , in present-day Germany. Henry's action marked the first time a German king was not crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Emperor Otto I began
24192-406: The support of the local estates, and the Counter-Reformation efforts ended. When the Thirty Years' War broke out, Kladsko became a centre of the Protestant revolt in Bohemia. Even after the lost Battle of White Mountain , the estates refused to submit to Emperor Ferdinand II , who had their lands occupied and numerous punitive measures enacted. His son and successor Ferdinand III commissioned
24360-415: The termination of internal power struggles and foreign military threats. The Kingdom of Hungary expanded to the Adriatic coast and entered a personal union with Croatia in 1102, by establish other vassal states , Hungary became a small empire that extended its control over the Southeast Europe and the Carpathian region. The Hungarian royal Árpád dynasty gave the world the most saints and blessed from
24528-404: The time of the High Middle Ages, the Carolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. France pushed to the west. The Angevin Empire controlled much of France in the 12th century and early 13th century until the French retook much of their previous territory. By the time of the High Middle Ages,
24696-425: The towns and estates of Kłodzko Land was forged in Paczków near Kłodzko Land against the Hussites . From about 1425 onwards, Hussite forces campaigned the lands and used Homole Castle as a base for their attacks. They laid siege to Karpień Castle and devastated the towns of Bystrzyca , Radków and Nowa Ruda . A major battle with the royal Bohemian forces led by the Kladsko governor Půta III of Častolovice and
24864-458: The tradition in 936 and the first time a German king assumed the throne without election by the German nobility. Under the regal name of "King Henry II", he appeared before the Saxons in mid-July in full regal apparel. There, Henry convinced Bernard I, Duke of Saxony , to support his claims to the throne. In return for his support, Henry guaranteed Bernard's right to rule the Saxons and to represent their interests before him. Shortly after gaining
25032-548: The various duchies of his kingdom – Saxony , Bavaria , Swabia , Upper Lorraine , Lower Lorraine , Franconia . This was done in order to obtain the general consent of his subjects as opposed to traditional election. Henry II's familial ties to the Ottonian dynasty eventually caused the kingdom's nobles to accept him as king. After being defeated at a battle near Strasburg , Herman II submitted to Henry II's authority on 1 October 1002. In exchange for this surrender, Henry II allowed Herman II to remain Duke of Swabia until his death
25200-541: The word. He rejected the practice of selling indulgences ( simony ), as well as the common saint cult practices of the day. Waldensians are considered a forerunner to the Protestant Reformation , and they melted into Protestantism with the outbreak of the Reformation and became a part of the wider Reformed tradition after the views of John Calvin and his theological successors in Geneva proved very similar to their own theological thought. Waldensian churches still exist, located on several continents. In Northern Europe,
25368-412: The younger Henry lived in Hildesheim . As a child he was educated in the Christian faith by Bishop Wolfgang of Regensburg , and then studied at the Hildesheim Cathedral . The Emperor himself ensured the younger Henry received an ecclesiastical education in order that by becoming a religious official he would be prevented from participating in the Imperial government. The death of Otto II in 983 allowed
25536-506: Was Holy Roman Emperor ("Romanorum Imperator") from 1014. He died without an heir in 1024, and was the last ruler of the Ottonian line . As Duke of Bavaria , appointed in 995, Henry became King of the Romans ("Rex Romanorum") following the sudden death of his second cousin, Emperor Otto III in 1002, was made King of Italy ("Rex Italiae") in 1004, and crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII in 1014. The son of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria , and his wife Gisela of Burgundy , Emperor Henry II
25704-417: Was Otto III's true successor, as he had married a daughter of Liudof , eldest son of Emperor Otto I . Armed conflicts between Henry II and Herman II broke out but proved to be inconclusive. This forced the two men to fight each other politically for the support of the Swabian nobles. Unable to decisively defeat Herman in Swabia, Henry II attempted to legitimize his seizing the throne by traveling throughout
25872-401: Was a close advisor to the Luxembourg emperor Charles IV , who in 1348 separated Kladsko Land from Bohemia and raised it to an immediate Land of the Bohemian Crown . Under Charles' rule, Kladsko flourished; the development, however, ended abruptly with the beginning of the Hussite Wars in the early 15th century. In 1424, an alliance between Duke John I of Ziębice of the Piast dynasty and
26040-554: Was a great-grandson of German king Henry the Fowler and a member of the Bavarian branch of the Ottonian dynasty . Since his father had rebelled against two previous emperors, the younger Henry spent long periods of time in exile, where he turned to Christianity at an early age, first finding refuge with the Bishop of Freising and later during his education at the cathedral school in Hildesheim. He succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995 as "Henry IV". As duke, he attempted to join his second-cousin, Emperor Otto III, in suppressing
26208-457: Was able to keep the contested marches of Lusatia and Meissen on purely nominal terms of vassalage , with Bolesław I recognizing Henry II as his feudal lord. Henry II also promised to support Bolesław I in the Polish ruler's expedition to Kiev to ensure his son-in-law, Sviatopolk, claimed the Kievan throne. To seal the peace, Bolesław I, then a widower, reinforced his dynastic bonds with the German nobility by marrying Oda of Meissen , daughter of
26376-471: Was also expressed by the relatively large size of these buildings. A gothic cathedral therefore not only invited the visitors to elevate themselves spiritually, it was also meant to demonstrate the greatness of God. The floor plan of a gothic cathedral corresponded to the rules of scholasticism: According to Erwin Panofsky 's Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism , the plan was divided into sections and uniform subsections. These characteristics are exhibited by
26544-859: Was broken in 1410, at the Battle of Grunwald , where the Order suffered a devastating defeat against a joint Polish-Lithuanian army. After Grunwald, the Order declined in power until 1809 when it was officially dissolved. There were ten crusades in total. The new Christian method of learning was influenced by Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) from the rediscovery of the works of Aristotle , at first indirectly through Medieval Jewish and Muslim Philosophy ( Maimonides , Avicenna , and Averroes ) and then through Aristotle 's own works brought back from Byzantine and Muslim libraries; and those whom he influenced, most notably Albertus Magnus , Bonaventure and Abélard . Many scholastics believed in empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. They opposed Christian mysticism , and
26712-466: Was captured, blinded, and imprisoned, where he would remain until his death some thirty years later. Claiming dominion over Bohemia for himself, Bolesław I invaded Bohemia in 1003 and conquered the duchy without any serious opposition. Bohemia had previously been under the influence and protection of Germany, with the Polish invasion further increasing tension between Germany and Poland. Bolesław I openly rebelled against Henry II's rule in 1004, burning down
26880-506: Was commonly thought that light was an expression of God; therefore, architectural techniques were adapted and developed to build churches that reflected this teaching. Colorful glass windows enhanced the spirit of lightness. As color was much rarer at medieval times than today, it can be assumed that these virtuoso works of art had an awe-inspiring impact on the common man from the street. High-rising intricate ribbed, and later fan vaultings demonstrated movement toward heaven. Veneration of God
27048-453: Was deposed in 1004. Henry II then abolished the March of Nordgau, established the Diocese of Bamberg in 1007, and transferred secular authority over the March's former territory to the Diocese in order to prevent further uprisings. The death of Otto III in 1002 and the resulting political turmoil over his successor allowed Italy to fall from German control. Margrave Arduin of Ivrea proclaimed himself King of Italy at Pavia soon after
27216-414: Was elected to succeed him. Upon assuming the chair of St. Peter , however, Benedict VIII was forced to flee Rome by Gregory VI , an antipope , whom John Crescentius installed as the new head of the Catholic Church. Fleeing across the Alps to Germany, Benedict VIII appealed to Henry II for protection. Henry II agreed to restore Benedict VIII to his papal throne in return for his coronation as emperor. Near
27384-412: Was in direct opposition to not only Sviatopolk but to Bolesław I as well. Years before, Bolesław I had married one of his daughters to Sviatopolk, making the new Kievan Grand Duke a son-in-law to the Polish Duke. Henry II returned to Germany in 1015 after being crowned Emperor by Pope Benedict VIII and prepared for a third invasion of Poland. With three armies at his command, the largest contingent since
27552-561: Was named his regent over Bavaria. When the elder Henry died in 995, the younger Henry was elected by the Bavarian nobles as the new duke to succeed his father. In 999 Henry married Cunigunde of Luxembourg , a daughter of Count Siegfried of Luxembourg . This marriage granted him an extensive network of contacts in Germany's western territories. In 1001, Emperor Otto III experienced a revolt against his reign in Italy. The Emperor sent word for Henry II to join him with reinforcements from Germany, but then died unexpectedly in January 1002. Otto
27720-442: Was only 21 at the time of his death and had left no children and no instructions for the Imperial succession. In the Ottonian dynasty , succession to the throne had belonged to the Saxon branch, not the Bavarian line of which Henry was a member. Rival candidates for the throne, including Count Ezzo of Lotharingia , Margrave Eckard I of Meissen , and Duke Herman II of Swabia , strongly contested Henry's right to succeed Otto III. As
27888-445: Was ousted in a revolt in 1002. Bolesław I intervened in the Bohemian affair and reinstalled Boleslaus III upon the Bohemian throne in 1003. Boleslaus III soon undermined his own position, however, by ordering a massacre of his leading nobles. Bohemian nobles secretly sent a messenger to Bolesław I, requesting his direct intervention in the crisis. The Polish duke willingly agreed and invited the Bohemian duke to Poland. There, Boleslaus III
28056-426: Was released only after the intervention of the Emperor, who, despite the planned invasion of Poland, loyally acted on behalf of his nominal vassal Bolesław I. As a result, Mieszko II was sent to Henry II's imperial court in Merseburg as a hostage. Henry II probably wanted to force the presence of Bolesław I in Merseburg and make him explain his actions. The plan failed, however, because, under pressure from his relatives,
28224-463: Was succeeded by Sergius IV from 1009 to 1012. Both John XVIII and Sergius IV, though the nominal Pope, were subservient to the power John Crescentius . As leader of the Crescentii clan and Patrician of Rome , John Crescentius was the effective ruler of the city. John Crescentius' influence prevented Henry II from meeting the Pope on numerous occasions, preventing him from claiming the imperial title. Following Sergius IV's death in 1012, Benedict VIII
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