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74-600: In November 2001, König Brauerei , a brewery in Duisburg , purchased naming rights to the arena which took effect from January 2002. In December 2021, the arena's naming rights were purchased by Essen -based cleaning company Rudolf Weber GmbH. The maximum capacity of the arena is 12,650, where the seating is arranged on two levels. It is also possible to have a center stage configuration, 12,000 people can attend such events. There are also two possible theatre configurations with 3,000 and 5,200 capacity, respectively. The arena hosts

148-708: A martensitic stainless steel alloy, today known as AISI type 420. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times . The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in London in 1929. Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered one. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and, with

222-678: A better understanding of the brewing process. Today, almost all brewery equipment is made of stainless steel . During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture , and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. In addition to changes in manufacturing capacity, the number of breweries grew throughout industrialization. For example in America, number of breweries rose from 431 to 4,131 between 1850 and 1873. A handful of major breakthroughs have led to

296-575: A body-centered tetragonal crystal structure, and offer a wide range of properties and are used as stainless engineering steels, stainless tool steels, and creep -resistant steels. They are magnetic, and not as corrosion-resistant as ferritic and austenitic stainless steels due to their low chromium content. They fall into four categories (with some overlap): Martensitic stainless steels can be heat treated to provide better mechanical properties. The heat treatment typically involves three steps: Replacing some carbon in martensitic stainless steels by nitrogen

370-440: A conical bottom and a cylindrical top. The cone's aperture is typically around 70°, an angle that will allow the yeast to flow smoothly out through the cone's apex at the end of fermentation, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other solids have fallen to the cone's apex can be simply flushed out through

444-545: A formal education in the subject from institutions such as the Siebel Institute of Technology , VLB Berlin , Heriot-Watt University , American Brewers Guild, University of California at Davis , University of Wisconsin , Olds College or Niagara College . They may hold membership in professional organisations such as the Brewers Association , Master Brewers Association , American Society of Brewing Chemists ,

518-604: A group of investors, formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. Brearley initially called his new alloy "rustless steel". The alloy was sold in the US under different brand names like "Allegheny metal" and "Nirosta steel". Even within the metallurgy industry, the name remained unsettled; in 1921, one trade journal called it "unstainable steel". Brearley worked with

592-511: A local cutlery manufacturer, who gave it the name "stainless steel". As late as 1932, Ford Motor Company continued calling the alloy "rustless steel" in automobile promotional materials. In 1929, before the Great Depression, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and sold in the US annually. Major technological advances in the 1950s and 1960s allowed the production of large tonnages at an affordable cost: Stainless steel

666-451: A lower design criteria and corrosion resistance is required, for example in high temperatures and oxidizing environments. Martensitic , duplex and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic , while austenitic stainless steel is usually non-magnetic. Ferritic steel owes its magnetism to its body-centered cubic crystal structure , in which iron atoms are arranged in cubes (with one iron atom at each corner) and an additional iron atom in

740-509: A more carbonated beer. When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been almost completely digested, the fermentation process slows and the yeast cells begin to die and settle at the bottom of the tank. At this stage, especially if the beer is cooled to around freezing, most of the remaining live yeast cells will quickly become dormant and settle, along with the heavier protein chains, due simply to gravity and molecular dehydration. Conditioning can occur in fermentation tanks with cooling jackets. If

814-714: A notable exception). Heating in the brewhouse usually is achieved through pressurized steam, although direct-fire systems are not unusual in small breweries. Likewise, cooling in other areas of the brewery is typically done by cooling jackets on tanks, which allow the brewer to control precisely the temperature on each tank individually, although whole-room cooling is also common. Today, modern brewing plants perform myriad analyses on their beers for quality control purposes. Shipments of ingredients are analyzed to correct for variations. Samples are pulled at almost every step and tested for [oxygen] content, unwanted microbial infections, and other beer-aging compounds. A representative sample of

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888-635: A port at the apex. Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, making it easy to harvest top-fermenting yeasts. The open tops of the vessels increase the risk of contamination, but proper cleaning procedures help to control the risk. Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel . Simple cylindrical tanks with beveled ends are arranged vertically, and conditioning tanks are usually laid out horizontally. A very few breweries still use wooden vats for fermentation but wood

962-469: A protective oxide surface film, such as aluminum and titanium, are also susceptible. Under high contact-force sliding, this oxide can be deformed, broken, and removed from parts of the component, exposing the bare reactive metal. When the two surfaces are of the same material, these exposed surfaces can easily fuse. Separation of the two surfaces can result in surface tearing and even complete seizure of metal components or fasteners. Galling can be mitigated by

1036-406: A useful interchange table. Although stainless steel does rust, this only affects the outer few layers of atoms, its chromium content shielding deeper layers from oxidation. The addition of nitrogen also improves resistance to pitting corrosion and increases mechanical strength. Thus, there are numerous grades of stainless steel with varying chromium and molybdenum contents to suit the environment

1110-408: A wide variety of events, with more than 800,000 people attending about a hundred events. The arena also hosts a variety of shows, e.g. Stomp or Riverdance . The König Pilsener Arena played host to UFC 122 on 13 November 2010. This article about a German sports venue is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a North Rhine-Westphalian building or structure

1184-462: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Brewery A brewery or brewing company is a business that makes and sells beer . The place at which beer is commercially made is either called a brewery or a beerhouse , where distinct sets of brewing equipment are called plant. The commercial brewing of beer has taken place since at least 2500 BC; in ancient Mesopotamia , brewers derived social sanction and divine protection from

1258-406: Is a recent development. The limited solubility of nitrogen is increased by the pressure electroslag refining (PESR) process, in which melting is carried out under high nitrogen pressure. Steel containing up to 0.4% nitrogen has been achieved, leading to higher hardness and strength and higher corrosion resistance. As PESR is expensive, lower but significant nitrogen contents have been achieved using

1332-532: Is an extension of the heating- quenching - tempering cycle, where the final temperature of the material before full-load use is taken down to a cryogenic temperature range. This can remove residual stresses and improve wear resistance. Austenitic stainless steel sub-groups, 200 series and 300 series: Ferritic stainless steels possess a ferrite microstructure like carbon steel, which is a body-centered cubic crystal structure, and contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium with very little or no nickel. This microstructure

1406-425: Is an optional process. Many craft brewers simply remove the coagulated and settled solids and forgo active filtration. In localities where a tax assessment is collected by government pursuant to local laws, any additional filtration may be done using an active filtering system, the filtered product finally passing into a calibrated vessel for measurement just after any cold conditioning and prior to final packaging where

1480-426: Is bent or cut, magnetism occurs along the edge of the stainless steel because the crystal structure rearranges itself. Galling , sometimes called cold welding, is a form of severe adhesive wear, which can occur when two metal surfaces are in relative motion to each other and under heavy pressure. Austenitic stainless steel fasteners are particularly susceptible to thread galling, though other alloys that self-generate

1554-510: Is classified into five main families that are primarily differentiated by their crystalline structure : Austenitic stainless steel is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production. They possess an austenitic microstructure, which is a face-centered cubic crystal structure. This microstructure is achieved by alloying steel with sufficient nickel, manganese, or nitrogen to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all temperatures, ranging from

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1628-501: Is difficult to keep clean and infection-free and must be repitched often, perhaps yearly. After high kräusen, the point at which fermentation is most active and copious foam is produced, a valve known in German as the spundapparat may be put on the tanks to allow the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast to naturally carbonate the beer. This bung device can regulate the pressure to produce different types of beer; greater pressure produces

1702-409: Is near that of ordinary steel, and much higher than the melting points of aluminium or copper. As with most alloys, the melting point of stainless steel is expressed in the form of a range of temperatures, and not a single temperature. This temperature range goes from 1,400 to 1,530 °C (2,550 to 2,790 °F; 1,670 to 1,800 K; 3,010 to 3,250 °R) depending on the specific consistency of

1776-1421: Is one of the most-produced industrial chemicals. At room temperature, type 304 stainless steel is only resistant to 3% acid, while type 316 is resistant to 3% acid up to 50 °C (120 °F) and 20% acid at room temperature. Thus type 304 SS is rarely used in contact with sulfuric acid. Type 904L and Alloy 20 are resistant to sulfuric acid at even higher concentrations above room temperature. Concentrated sulfuric acid possesses oxidizing characteristics like nitric acid, and thus silicon-bearing stainless steels are also useful. Hydrochloric acid damages any kind of stainless steel and should be avoided. All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid and nitric acid at room temperature. At high concentrations and elevated temperatures, attack will occur, and higher-alloy stainless steels are required. In general, organic acids are less corrosive than mineral acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acid. Type 304 and type 316 stainless steels are unaffected by weak bases such as ammonium hydroxide , even in high concentrations and at high temperatures. The same grades exposed to stronger bases such as sodium hydroxide at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking. Increasing chromium and nickel contents provide increased resistance. All grades resist damage from aldehydes and amines , though in

1850-402: Is porous and fragile. In addition, as iron oxide occupies a larger volume than the original steel, this layer expands and tends to flake and fall away, exposing the underlying steel to further attack. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation , spontaneously forming a microscopically thin inert surface film of chromium oxide by reaction with the oxygen in

1924-498: Is present at all temperatures due to the chromium addition, so they are not capable of being hardened by heat treatment. They cannot be strengthened by cold work to the same degree as austenitic stainless steels. They are magnetic. Additions of niobium (Nb), titanium (Ti), and zirconium (Zr) to type 430 allow good weldability. Due to the near-absence of nickel, they are less expensive than austenitic steels and are present in many products, which include: Martensitic stainless steels have

1998-452: Is superior to both aluminium and copper, and comparable to glass. Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted the use of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants. Different types of stainless steel are labeled with an AISI three-digit number. The ISO 15510 standard lists the chemical compositions of stainless steels of the specifications in existing ISO, ASTM , EN , JIS , and GB standards in

2072-485: Is typically divided into distinct sections, with each section reserved for one part of the brewing process. Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. In some form, it can be traced back almost 5000 years to Mesopotamian writings describing daily rations of beer and bread to workers. Before the rise of production breweries, the production of beer took place at home and

2146-562: The Essen firm Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft built the 366-ton sailing yacht Germania featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull, in Germany. In 1911, Philip Monnartz reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance. On 17 October 1912, Krupp engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented as Nirosta the austenitic stainless steel known today as 18/8 or AISI type 304. Similar developments were taking place in

2220-737: The Institute of Brewing and Distilling , and the Society of Independent Brewers . Depending on a brewery's size, a brewer may need anywhere from five to fifteen years of professional experience before becoming a brewmaster. Stainless steel Stainless steel , also known as inox , corrosion-resistant steel ( CRES ), and rustless steel , is an alloy of iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion . It contains iron with chromium and other elements such as molybdenum , carbon , nickel and nitrogen depending on its specific use and cost. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion results from

2294-726: The UEFA Champions League with its namesake lager; Carlsberg sponsors the English Premier League as well as the 2012 and 2016 UEFA European Championships . Meanwhile, the AB InBev Group supports the FA Cup and the FIFA World Cup . The head brewer (UK) or brewmaster (US) is in charge of the production of beer. The major breweries employ engineers with a chemistry / biotechnology background. Brewmasters may have had

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2368-611: The brewer expects to evaporate . Fermentation begins as soon as yeast is added to the cooled wort. This is also the point at which the product is first called beer. It is during this stage that fermentable sugars won from the malt (maltose, maltotriose, glucose, fructose and sucrose) are metabolized into alcohol and carbon dioxide . Fermentation tanks come in many shapes and sizes, from enormous cylindroconical vessels that can look like storage silos , to 20- litre (5  US gal ) glass carboys used by homebrewers. Most breweries today use cylindroconical vessels (CCVs), which have

2442-638: The cryogenic region to the melting point. Thus, austenitic stainless steels are not hardenable by heat treatment since they possess the same microstructure at all temperatures. However, "forming temperature is an essential factor for metastable austenitic stainless steel (M-ASS) products to accommodate microstructures and cryogenic mechanical performance. ... Metastable austenitic stainless steels (M-ASSs) are widely used in manufacturing cryogenic pressure vessels (CPVs), owing to their high cryogenic toughness, ductility, strength, corrosion-resistance, and economy." Cryogenic cold-forming of austenitic stainless steel

2516-438: The starches in the grain into sugars , especially maltose . Lautering is the separation of the extracts won during mashing from the spent grain to create wort . It is achieved in either a lauter tun , a wide vessel with a false bottom, or a mash filter, a plate-and-frame filter designed for this kind of separation. Lautering has two stages: first wort run-off, during which the extract is separated in an undiluted state from

2590-528: The water industry . Precipitation hardening stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than other martensitic grades. There are three types of precipitation hardening stainless steels: Solution treatment at about 1,040 °C (1,900 °F) followed by quenching results in a relatively ductile martensitic structure. Subsequent aging treatment at 475 °C (887 °F) precipitates Nb and Cu-rich phases that increase

2664-719: The 10.5%, or more, chromium content which forms a passive film that can protect the material and self-heal in the presence of oxygen. The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets , plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in cookware , cutlery , surgical instruments , major appliances , vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in paper mills , chemical plants , water treatment ), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products. Some grades are also suitable for forging and casting . The biological cleanability of stainless steel

2738-536: The 1840s, both Britain's Sheffield steelmakers and then Krupp of Germany were producing chromium steel with the latter employing it for cannons in the 1850s. In 1861, Robert Forester Mushet took out a patent on chromium steel in Britain. These events led to the first American production of chromium-containing steel by J. Baur of the Chrome Steel Works of Brooklyn for the construction of bridges. A US patent for

2812-549: The 19th century didn't pay attention to the amount of carbon in the alloyed steels they were testing until in 1898 Adolphe Carnot and E. Goutal noted that chromium steels better resist to oxidation with acids the less carbon they contain. Also in the late 1890s, German chemist Hans Goldschmidt developed an aluminothermic ( thermite ) process for producing carbon-free chromium. Between 1904 and 1911, several researchers, particularly Leon Guillet of France, prepared alloys that would be considered stainless steel today. In 1908,

2886-649: The United States, where Christian Dantsizen of General Electric and Frederick Becket (1875–1942) at Union Carbide were industrializing ferritic stainless steel. In 1912, Elwood Haynes applied for a US patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919. While seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels in 1913, Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, discovered and subsequently industrialized

2960-612: The adverts printed on football team's kit. For example, Liverpool F.C. had the logo of the Denmark-based Carlsberg brewery group on the front of its shirts for nearly twenty years, from 1992 to 2010. Nowadays major brewing corporations are involved in sponsorship on a number of different levels. The prevailing trend is for the leading brand not to be linked to individual teams; rather, they achieve visibility as sponsor of tournaments and leagues, so all fans can engage with them regardless of which team they support. Heineken sponsors

3034-441: The air and even the small amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. This passive film prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and thus prevents corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. This film is self-repairing, even when scratched or temporarily disturbed by conditions that exceed the inherent corrosion resistance of that grade. The resistance of this film to corrosion depends upon

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3108-587: The alloy in question. Like steel , stainless steels are relatively poor conductors of electricity, with significantly lower electrical conductivities than copper. In particular, the non-electrical contact resistance (ECR) of stainless steel arises as a result of the dense protective oxide layer and limits its functionality in applications as electrical connectors. Copper alloys and nickel-coated connectors tend to exhibit lower ECR values and are preferred materials for such applications. Nevertheless, stainless steel connectors are employed in situations where ECR poses

3182-610: The alloy must endure. Corrosion resistance can be increased further by the following means: The most common type of stainless steel, 304, has a tensile yield strength around 210 MPa (30,000 psi) in the annealed condition. It can be strengthened by cold working to a strength of 1,050 MPa (153,000 psi) in the full-hard condition. The strongest commonly available stainless steels are precipitation hardening alloys such as 17-4 PH and Custom 465. These can be heat treated to have tensile yield strengths up to 1,730 MPa (251,000 psi). Melting point of stainless steel

3256-699: The alloy. The invention of stainless steel followed a series of scientific developments, starting in 1798 when chromium was first shown to the French Academy by Louis Vauquelin . In the early 1800s, British scientists James Stoddart, Michael Faraday , and Robert Mallet observed the resistance of chromium-iron alloys ("chromium steels") to oxidizing agents . Robert Bunsen discovered chromium's resistance to strong acids. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys may have been first recognized in 1821 by Pierre Berthier , who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery. In

3330-627: The beer is put into the containers for shipment or sale. The container may be a bottle , can , of keg , cask or bulk tank. Filters come in many types. Many use pre-made filtration media such as sheets or candles. Kieselguhr, a fine powder of diatomaceous earth , can be introduced into the beer and circulated through screens to form a filtration bed. Filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine, and sterile. Rough filters remove yeasts and other solids, leaving some cloudiness, while finer filters can remove body and color. Sterile filters remove almost all microorganisms. Brewing companies range widely in

3404-491: The beer's marketing, sales, and distribution, while leaving the brewing and packaging to the producer-brewery (which confusingly may also be referred to as a contract brewer). Often the contract brewing is performed when a small brewery can not supply enough beer to meet demands and contracts with a larger brewery to help alleviate their supply issues. Some breweries do not own a brewing facility, these contract brewers have been criticized by traditional brewing companies for avoiding

3478-810: The beer. Most brewers would produce enough beer during winter to last through the summer, and store it in underground cellars, or even caves, to protect it from summer's heat. The discovery of microbes by Louis Pasteur was instrumental in the control of fermentation. The idea that yeast was a microorganism that worked on wort to produce beer led to the isolation of a single yeast cell by Emil Christian Hansen . Pure yeast cultures allow brewers to pick out yeasts for their fermentation characteristics, including flavor profiles and fermentation ability. Some breweries in Belgium, however, still rely on "spontaneous" fermentation for their beers (see lambic ). The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing

3552-499: The brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Breweries today are made predominantly of stainless steel , although vessels often have a decorative copper cladding for a nostalgic look. Stainless steel has many favourable characteristics that make it a well-suited material for brewing equipment. It imparts no flavour in beer, it reacts with very few chemicals, which means almost any cleaning solution can be used on it (concentrated chlorine [bleach] being

3626-445: The brewer to make greater quantities of beer, as human power was no longer a limiting factor in moving and stirring. Carl von Linde , along with others, is credited with developing the refrigeration machine in 1871. Refrigeration allowed beer to be produced year-round, and always at the same temperature. Yeast is very sensitive to temperature, and, if a beer were produced during summer, the yeast would impart unpleasant flavours onto

3700-580: The center. This central iron atom is responsible for ferritic steel's magnetic properties. This arrangement also limits the amount of carbon the steel can absorb to around 0.025%. Grades with low coercive field have been developed for electro-valves used in household appliances and for injection systems in internal combustion engines. Some applications require non-magnetic materials, such as magnetic resonance imaging . Austenitic stainless steels, which are usually non-magnetic , can be made slightly magnetic through work hardening . Sometimes, if austenitic steel

3774-544: The chemical composition of the stainless steel, chiefly the chromium content. It is customary to distinguish between four forms of corrosion: uniform, localized (pitting), galvanic, and SCC (stress corrosion cracking). Any of these forms of corrosion can occur when the grade of stainless steel is not suited for the working environment. The designation "CRES" refers to corrosion-resistant (stainless) steel. Uniform corrosion takes place in very aggressive environments, typically where chemicals are produced or heavily used, such as in

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3848-819: The costs associated with a physical brewery. Gypsy, or nomad, brewing usually falls under the category of contract brewing. Gypsy breweries generally do not have their own equipment or premises. They operate on a temporary or itinerant basis out of the facilities of another brewery, generally making "one-off" special occasion beers. The trend of gypsy brewing spread early in Scandinavia . Their beers and collaborations later spread to America and Australia. Gypsy brewers typically use facilities of larger makers with excess capacity . Prominent examples include Pretty Things, Stillwater Artisanal Ales, Gunbarrel Brewing Company, Mikkeller , and Evil Twin . For example, one of Mikkeller's founders, Mikkel Borg Bjergsø, has traveled around

3922-413: The finished product often is stored for months for comparison, when complaints are received. Brewing is typically divided into 9 steps: milling, malting, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering, and filling. Mashing is the process of mixing milled , usually malted , grain with water, and heating it with rests at certain temperatures to allow enzymes in the malt to break down

3996-574: The four largest brewing companies ( Anheuser-Busch InBev , SABMiller , Heineken International , and Carlsberg Group ) controlled 50% of the market The biggest brewery in the world is the Belgian company Anheuser-Busch InBev . In the United States, there were 69,359 people employed in breweries in 2017. This is up from 27,805 in 2001. Some commonly used descriptions of breweries are: Contract brewing –When one brewery hires another brewery to produce its beer. The contracting brewer generally handles all of

4070-482: The goddess Ninkasi . Brewing was initially a cottage industry , with production taking place at home; by the ninth century, monasteries and farms would produce beer on a larger scale, selling the excess; and by the eleventh and twelfth centuries larger, dedicated breweries with eight to ten workers were being built. The diversity of size in breweries is matched by the diversity of processes, degrees of automation , and kinds of beer produced in breweries. A brewery

4144-492: The modern brewery and its ability to produce the same beer consistently. The steam engine , vastly improved in 1775 by James Watt , brought automatic stirring mechanisms and pumps into the brewery. It gave brewers the ability to mix liquids more reliably while heating, particularly the mash , to prevent scorching, and a quick way to transfer liquid from one container to another. Almost all breweries now use electric-powered stirring mechanisms and pumps. The steam engine also allowed

4218-502: The most widely used. Many grading systems are in use, including US SAE steel grades . The Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS) was developed by the ASTM in 1970. Europe has adopted EN 10088 . Unlike carbon steel , stainless steels do not suffer uniform corrosion when exposed to wet environments. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to a combination of air and moisture. The resulting iron oxide surface layer

4292-414: The product was issued in 1869. This was followed with recognition of the corrosion resistance of chromium alloys by Englishmen John T. Woods and John Clark, who noted ranges of chromium from 5–30%, with added tungsten and "medium carbon". They pursued the commercial value of the innovation via a British patent for "Weather-Resistant Alloys". Scientists researching steel corrosion in the second half of

4366-560: The production process, so that gravity could assist with the transfer of product from one stage to the next. This layout often is preserved in breweries today, but mechanical pumps allow more flexibility in brewery design. Early breweries typically used large copper vats in the brewhouse, and fermentation and packaging took place in lined wooden containers. Such breweries were common until the Industrial Revolution , when better materials became available, and scientific advances led to

4440-429: The pulp and paper industries. The entire surface of the steel is attacked, and the corrosion is expressed as corrosion rate in mm/year (usually less than 0.1 mm/year is acceptable for such cases). Corrosion tables provide guidelines. This is typically the case when stainless steels are exposed to acidic or basic solutions. Whether stainless steel corrodes depends on the kind and concentration of acid or base and

4514-574: The solution temperature. Uniform corrosion is typically easy to avoid because of extensive published corrosion data or easily performed laboratory corrosion testing. Acidic solutions can be put into two general categories: reducing acids, such as hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid , and oxidizing acids , such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. Increasing chromium and molybdenum content provides increased resistance to reducing acids while increasing chromium and silicon content provides increased resistance to oxidizing acids. Sulfuric acid

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4588-404: The spent grains, and sparging , in which extract that remains with the grains is rinsed off with hot water. Boiling the wort ensures its sterility, helping to prevent contamination with undesirable microbes. During the boil, hops are added, which contribute aroma and flavour compounds to the beer, especially their characteristic bitterness. Along with the heat of the boil, they cause proteins in

4662-949: The standard AOD process. Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the ideal ratio being a 50:50 mix, though commercial alloys may have ratios of 40:60. They are characterized by higher chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the yield strength of austenitic stainless steel. Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic stainless steel types 304 and 316. Duplex grades are usually divided into three sub-groups based on their corrosion resistance: lean duplex, standard duplex, and super duplex. The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. The pulp and paper industry

4736-536: The strength up to above 1,000 MPa (150,000 psi) yield strength. This outstanding strength level is used in high-tech applications such as aerospace (usually after remelting to eliminate non-metallic inclusions, which increases fatigue life). Another major advantage of this steel is that aging, unlike tempering treatments, is carried out at a temperature that can be applied to (nearly) finished parts without distortion and discoloration. Typical heat treatment involves solution treatment and quenching . At this point,

4810-695: The structure remains austenitic. Martensitic transformation is then obtained either by a cryogenic treatment at −75 °C (−103 °F) or by severe cold work (over 70% deformation, usually by cold rolling or wire drawing). Aging at 510 °C (950 °F) — which precipitates the Ni 3 Al intermetallic phase—is carried out as above on nearly finished parts. Yield stress levels above 1400   MPa are then reached. The structure remains austenitic at all temperatures. Typical heat treatment involves solution treatment and quenching, followed by aging at 715 °C (1,319 °F). Aging forms Ni 3 Ti precipitates and increases

4884-487: The use of dissimilar materials (bronze against stainless steel) or using different stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic). Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling. Nitronic 60, made by selective alloying with manganese, silicon, and nitrogen, has demonstrated a reduced tendency to gall. The density of stainless steel ranges from 7.5 to 8.0 g/cm (0.27 to 0.29 lb/cu in) depending on

4958-453: The volume and variety of beer produced, ranging from small breweries to massive multinational conglomerates, like Molson Coors or Anheuser-Busch InBev , that produce hundreds of millions of barrels annually. There are organizations that assist the development of brewing, such as the Siebel Institute of Technology in the United States and the Institute of Brewing and Distilling in the UK. In 2012

5032-412: The whole fermentation cellar is cooled, conditioning must be done in separate tanks in a separate cellar. Some beers are conditioned only lightly, or not at all. An active yeast culture from an ongoing batch may be added to the next boil after a slight chilling in order to produce fresh and highly palatable beer in mass quantity. Filtering the beer stabilizes flavour and gives it a polished, shiny look. It

5106-512: The world between 2006 and 2010, brewing more than 200 different beers at other breweries. Breweries and football have had a symbiotic relationship since the very beginnings of the game. The English Football League was founded in 1888, and by the next decade several teams already had their own brewery sponsor. In return for their financial support, the breweries were given concessions to sell beer to spectators and advertise their products in stadiums. The most outwardly visible sign of sponsorship are

5180-574: The world is believed to be the German state-owned Weihenstephan brewery in the city of Freising , Bavaria . It can trace its history back to 1040 AD. The nearby Weltenburg Abbey brewery, can trace back its beer-brewing tradition to at least 1050 AD. The Žatec brewery in the Czech Republic claims it can prove that it paid a beer tax in 1004 AD. Early breweries were almost always built on multiple stories, with equipment on higher floors used earlier in

5254-400: The wort to coagulate and the pH of the wort to fall, and they inhibit the later growth of certain bacteria. Finally, the vapours produced during the boil volatilize off-flavours , including dimethyl sulfide precursors. The boil must be conducted so that it is even and intense. The boil lasts between 60 and 120 minutes, depending on its intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of wort

5328-415: The yield strength to about 650 MPa (94,000 psi) at room temperature. Unlike the above grades, the mechanical properties and creep resistance of this steel remain very good at temperatures up to 700 °C (1,300 °F). As a result, A286 is classified as an Fe-based superalloy , used in jet engines, gas turbines, and turbo parts. Over 150 grades of stainless steel are recognized, of which 15 are

5402-476: Was one of the first to extensively use duplex stainless steel. Today, the oil and gas industry is the largest user and has pushed for more corrosion resistant grades, leading to the development of super duplex and hyper duplex grades. More recently, the less expensive (and slightly less corrosion-resistant) lean duplex has been developed, chiefly for structural applications in building and construction (concrete reinforcing bars, plates for bridges, coastal works) and in

5476-422: Was the domain of women, as baking and brewing were seen as "women's work". Breweries, as production facilities reserved for making beer, did not emerge until monasteries and other Christian institutions started producing beer not only for their own consumption but also to use as payment. This industrialization of brewing shifted the responsibility of making beer to men. The oldest, still functional, brewery in

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