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60-707: The Cologne Bight is surrounded by the High Fens and the Eifel to the west of the Rhine and by the uplands of Bergisches Land to the east of the Rhine. In the south and southeast the rising Rhine Massif, visible from far off by the silhouette of the Siebengebirge , surround the head of the bight at Königswinter . To the northwest the Cologne Bight opens out into the valleys of the Rhine and

120-409: A 1992 regulation into specific areas to manage access for visitors and tourists. These areas are designated as Zones B, C, and D. Zone B is open to the public daily, with specific regulations: bicycles and dogs are prohibited, visitors must stay on designated tracks, waste must be disposed of in trashcans only, and silence must be maintained. Zone C can be visited only accompanied by a guide authorised by

180-404: A few rhizoids. Soon afterwards, the protonema develops buds and these differentiate into its characteristic, erect, leafy, branched gametophyte with chlorophyllose cells and hyaline cells. Carpets of living Sphagnum may be attacked by various fungi , and one fungus that is also a mushroom , Sphagnurus paluster , produces conspicuous dead patches. When this fungus and other agarics attack

240-408: A height of 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in), further than would be expected by ballistics alone. The acceleration of the spores is about 36,000 g . Spores are extremely important in establishment of new populations in disturbed habitats and on islands. Human activities like slash-and-burn and cattle grazing are believed to promote the growth and expansion of Sphagnum moss. Oceanic islands such as

300-485: A light forked tail. Vertebrates, spiders and insects reported in the reserve are: orvet ( Anguis fragilis ), Odonata Orthoptera , Heteroptera Lepidoptera , diptera , crustaceans , myriapods and shellfish . As the habitat consists of bogs, fire is a major hazard during the drought period, when the Fens are closed except for a small area near Polleur  [ fr ] . Triangular signs painted in red are fixed at

360-644: A nature reserve in 1957, are an upland area, a plateau region in Liège Province , in the east of Belgium and adjoining parts of Germany , between the Ardennes and the Eifel highlands. The High Fens are the largest nature reserve or park in Belgium, with an area of 4,501.2 ha (11,123 acres; 45.012 km ); it lies within the German-Belgian natural park Hohes Venn-Eifel (700 km (270 sq mi)), in

420-553: A pore at one end to allow for water absorption and improved water-holding capacity. These unique cells help Sphagnum to retain water during prolonged UV exposure. Sphagnum , like all other land plants, has an alternation of generations ; like other bryophytes , the haploid gametophyte generation is dominant and persistent. Unlike other mosses, the long-lived gametophytes do not rely upon rhizoids to assist in water uptake. Sphagnum species can be unisexual (male or female, dioecious) or bisexual (male and female gametes produced from

480-524: A reserve in 1957, with their high altitude and unique location, consist mainly of raised bogs , and low, grass- or wood-covered hills, moorland and forest . The provincial capital of Liège is to its west, the German border is to the east and the dark forested hills of the Ardennes surround the southern part. The park stretches between Eupen in the north, Monschau in the east, Spa in the west and Malmedy in

540-539: A shiny green, spherical spore capsule that becomes black with spores. Sporophytes are raised on stalks to facilitate spore dispersal, but unlike other mosses, Sphagnum stalks are produced by the maternal gametophyte. Tetrahedral haploid spores are produced in the sporophyte by meiosis, which are then dispersed when the capsule explosively discharges its cap, called an operculum , and shoots the spores some distance. The spores germinate to produce minute protonemae , which start as filaments, can become thalloid, and can produce

600-473: A single day of 156 millimetres (6.1 in) on 7 October 1982 at the Signal de Botrange. The maximum snowfall recorded at Signal de Botrange was 115 centimetres (45 in) in 1953. The maximum number of frost days (when the temperature remains below 0 °C (32 °F)) in a year is reported to be 158 days and the minimum is 70 days. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.6 °C (−10.5 °F) in 1942, but it

660-524: A surgical dressing , published in Science in 1918, was instrumental in the acceptance of Sphagnum moss use as a medical dressing in place of cotton. Preparations using Sphagnum such as Sphagnol soap have been used for various skin conditions including acne , ringworm , and eczema . The soap was used by the British Red Cross during both World Wars to treat facial wounds and trench sores. Since it

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720-666: A three-bladed propeller erected on a quartzite pedestal, with a cross erected next to it with the inscription "For the American airmen." Sphagnum List of Sphagnum species Sphagnum is a genus of approximately 380 accepted species of mosses , commonly known as sphagnum moss , also bog moss and quacker moss (although that term is also sometimes used for peat ). Accumulations of Sphagnum can store water, since both living and dead plants can hold large quantities of water inside their cells; plants may hold 16 to 26 times as much water as their dry weight, depending on

780-547: A wide array of peatland plants, including sedges and ericaceous shrubs, as well as orchids and carnivorous plants. Sphagnum and the peat formed from it do not decay readily because of the phenolic compounds embedded in the moss's cell walls . In addition, bogs, like all wetlands, develop anaerobic soil conditions, which produces slower anaerobic decay rather than aerobic microbial action. Peat moss can also acidify its surroundings by taking up cations , such as calcium and magnesium , and releasing hydrogen ions. Under

840-414: Is absorptive and extremely acidic, it inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi, so it is used for shipping seeds and live plants. Peat moss is used to dispose of the clarified liquid output (effluent) from septic tanks in areas that lack the proper conditions for ordinary disposal means. It is also used as an environmentally friendly alternative to chlorine in swimming pool sanitation . The moss inhibits

900-486: Is done, the light intensity, and the water table. This "farming" is based on a sustainable management program approved by New Zealand's Department of Conservation ; it ensures the regeneration of the moss, while protecting the wildlife and the environment. Most harvesting in New Zealand swamps is done only using pitchforks without the use of heavy machinery. During transportation, helicopters are commonly employed to transfer

960-574: Is forbidden in Chile since April 2024. Harvesting aside, bogs where Sphagnum grows have also come under threat by the development of wind farms in cool humid areas such as the Cordillera del Piuchén where the San Pedro Wind Farm was constructed in the 2010s. The construction of each wind turbine usually implies the removal of vegetation and the alteration of the soil, changing by the way also of

1020-684: Is sometimes made between sphagnum moss, the live moss growing on top of a peat bog, and 'sphagnum peat moss' (North American usage) or 'sphagnum peat' (British usage), the latter being the slowly decaying matter underneath. Dried sphagnum moss is used in northern Arctic regions as an insulating material. Anaerobic acidic sphagnum bogs have low rates of decay, and hence preserve plant fragments and pollen to allow reconstruction of past environments. They even preserve human bodies for millennia; examples of these preserved specimens are Tollund Man , Haraldskær Woman , Clonycavan Man and Lindow Man . Such bogs can also preserve human hair and clothing, one of

1080-602: The Faroe Islands , the Galápagos or the Azores have recorded a significant increase in their Sphagnum populations after human settlement. Peat moss can be distinguished from other moss species by its unique branch clusters. The plant and stem color, the shape of the branch and stem leaves, and the shape of the green cells are all characteristics used to identify peat moss to species. Sphagnum taxonomy has been very contentious since

1140-646: The Hunsrück , and the Westerwald . Where the water flowed slowly (in the shallow water zones), clay was left behind; where it flowed fast, sand and gravel settled. The shores of the North Sea in those days occasionally reached up to where the cities of Aachen, Erkelenz , and Mönchengladbach are today. The Cologne Lowland is also seismically active today. The region is characterised by its agriculture (with orchards and truck farms ), by open-pit lignite mining, by

1200-637: The Meuse , in the northeast it is bounded by the Münsterländer Kreidebecken (Münster Chalk Basin) of the Westphalian Bight. The Cologne Lowland is among the warmest regions in Germany. While the summers on the upper Rhine are somewhat warmer, winters in the area are so mild that snow remaining on the ground for as much as several days would have been considered rather exceptional in the decades before

1260-596: The Northern Hemisphere in peat bogs, conifer forests, and moist tundra areas. Their northernmost populations lie in the archipelago of Svalbard , Arctic Norway , at 81° N. In the Southern Hemisphere , the largest peat areas are in southern Chile and Argentina , part of the vast Magellanic moorland ( circa 44,000 square km; 17,000 sq. mi.). Peat areas are also found in New Zealand and Tasmania . In

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1320-521: The Sphagnales reflecting an ancestral relationship with the Tasmanian endemic Ambuchanania and long phylogenetic distance to the rest of Sphagnum . Within main clade of Sphagnum , phylogenetic distance is relatively short, and molecular dating methods suggest nearly all current Sphagnum species are descended from a radiation that occurred just 14 million years ago. Sphagnum mosses occur mainly in

1380-482: The cortical layer which serves to absorb water and protect the pith. Mosses have no vascular system to move water and nutrients around the plant. Thus tissues are thin and usually one cell thick to allow them to diffuse easily. Sphagnum mosses have two distinct cell types. There are small, green, living cells with chlorophyll ( chlorophyllose cells) that produce food for the plant. Additionally there are larger hyaline or retort cells that are barrel shaped and have

1440-406: The operculum is forced off, followed by a cloud of spores. The exact mechanism has traditionally attributed to a "pop gun" method using air compressed in the capsule, reaching a maximum velocity of 3.6 meters (12 feet) per second, but alternative mechanisms have been recently proposed. High-speed photography has shown vortex rings are created during the discharge, which enable the spores to reach

1500-419: The protonema , Sphagnum is induced to produce nonphotosynthetic gemmae that can survive the fungal attack and months later germinate to produce new protonema and leafy gametophytes. As with many other mosses , Sphagnum species disperse spores through the wind. The tops of spore capsules are only about 1 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 ") above ground, and where wind is weak. As the spherical spore capsule dries,

1560-432: The wild boar , roe deer , hen harrier , black grouse , wood mouse , grasshopper warbler , great grey shrike , meadow pipit , European stonechat and northern wheatear . The black grouse, a protected species, is found in small numbers. It is a sedentary bird. The male species has black plumage with a red wattle above the eyes while the female species has a brown plumage with black, grey and white stripes and possesses

1620-562: The 2010s, Sphagnum peat in Chile has begun to be harvested at a large scale for export to countries like Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States. Sphagnum ’s ability to absorb excess water and release it during dry months means that overexploitation may threaten the water supply in the fjords and channels of Chile . Extraction of Sphagnum in Chile is regulated by law since 2 August 2018. Between 2018 and 2024, Chilean law allowed for

1680-465: The Ardennes. Its highest point, at 694 metres (2,277 ft) above sea level , is the Signal de Botrange near Eupen , and also the highest point in Belgium. A tower 6 metres (20 ft) high was built here that reaches 700 metres (2,297 ft) above sea level. The reserve is a rich ecological endowment of Belgium covered with alpine sphagnum raised bogs (not " fens " as the name would imply) both on

1740-501: The High Fens is permitted on specified forest tracks which are located in the outskirts or even outside the nature reserve. Hiking trails have been reorganized outside the parks reserved areas. The walk routes would be limited to undergrowth adjacent to nature reserve. Bicycle routes have been specified outside the nature reserve in nearby forests. The subalpine climate may change to subarctic condition and hence when taking adventure walks in

1800-794: The Southern Hemisphere, however, peat landscapes may contain many moss species other than Sphagnum . Sphagnum species are also reported from "dripping rocks" in mountainous, subtropical Brazil . Several of the world's largest wetlands are sphagnum-dominated bogs , including the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowland and the Mackenzie River Valley. These areas provide habitat for common and rare species. They also store large amounts of carbon, which helps reduce global warming. According to an article written in 2013,

1860-469: The U.S. got up to 80% of sphagnum peat moss it uses from Canada. At that time, in Canada, the peat bog mass harvested each year was roughly 1/60th of the peat mass that annually accumulated. About 0.02% of the 1.1 million km (420,000 sq mi) of Canadian peat bog are used for peat moss mining. Some efforts are being made to restore peat bogs after peat mining, and some debate exists as to whether

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1920-607: The biodiversity of an unharvested bog." PittMoss, a peat moss alternative made from recycled newspaper, has emerged as a sustainable substitute in growing media. Coir has also been touted as a sustainable alternative to peat moss in growing media. Another peat moss alternative is manufactured in California from sustainably harvested redwood fiber. Semi-open cell polyurethane materials available in flaked and sheet stock are also finding application as sphagnum replacements with typical usage in green wall and roof garden substrates. In

1980-447: The broad plateau from 694 to 700 metres (2,277 to 2,297 ft). Large urban centres in the vicinity of the reserve are Eupen, Verviers , Spa and Malmedy. Part of the High Fens reserve remains closed during the spring breeding season of the endangered black grouse ( Tetrao tetrix ). During the summer there is a risk of fire in the forest area. Boardwalks cross the bogs, permitting access across these areas. Paths lead to many areas of

2040-551: The early 1900s; most species require microscopic dissection to be identified. In the field, most Sphagnum species can be identified to one of four major sections of the genus—classification and descriptions follow Andrus 2007 (Flora North America): The reciprocal monophyly of these sections and two other minor ones ( Rigida and Squarrosa ) has been clarified using molecular phylogenetics . All but two species normally identified as Sphagnum reside in one clade; two other species have recently been separated into new families within

2100-461: The fire hazard locations. In April 2011 in a fire that broke out in the High Fens 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) of land were destroyed. It is said to be the biggest ever fire in the Fens and 300 firefighters supported by a helicopter were involved in dousing and controlling the fires. The winter sports activities allowed in the Fens in specified area and outside conserved area of the fens are skiing , bicycling and trekking . Cross-country skiing in

2160-441: The ground by the purple moor-grass , a herb, had caused problems for the ecology of the region. These negative aspects are now being rectified by special projects titled "Life-Nature Project". The common heather or Calluna , a small bush of 20–50 centimetres (8–20 in) height is grazed by sheep and also has healing qualities; the bilberry , in the family Ericaceae , is a shrub found at an altitude of 500 m (around 1600 feet);

2220-611: The landscapes of the Voreifel and the Bergisches Land as well as by 325 fortresses and castles , which were usually built as water castles . List of places in North Rhine-Westphalia 50°56′17″N 6°57′25″E  /  50.9381°N 6.9569°E  / 50.9381; 6.9569 High Fens The High Fens ( German : Hohes Venn ; French : Hautes Fagnes ; Dutch : Hoge Venen ), which were declared

2280-793: The local hydrology . Europe has a long history of the exploitation of peatlands. The Netherlands , for example, once had large areas of peatland, both fen and bog. Between 100 AD and the present, they were drained and converted to agricultural land. The English broadlands have small lakes that originated as peat mines. More than 90% of the bogs in England have been damaged or destroyed. A handful of bogs has been preserved through government buyouts of peat-mining interests. Over longer time scales, however, some parts of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales have seen expansion of bogs, particularly blanket bogs, in response to deforestation and abandonment of agricultural land. New Zealand has, like other parts of

2340-405: The manual extraction of Sphagnum using only pitchforks or similar tools as an aid. In a given designated harvesting area (polygon) at least 30% of Sphagnum coverage had to be left unharvested. Harvested Sphagnum fibers we not allowed to exceed 15 cm (5.9 in) in length and the remaining Sphagnum after harvest was not to be left with a length of less than 5 cm (2.0 in) over

2400-425: The most noteworthy examples being Egtved Girl , Denmark . Because of the acidity of peat, however, bones are dissolved rather than preserved. These bogs have also been used to preserve food. Up to 2000-year-old containers of butter or lard have been found. Sphagnum moss has been used for centuries as a dressing for wounds, including through World War I . Botanist John William Hotson 's paper, Sphagnum as

2460-485: The newly harvested moss from the swamp to the nearest road. Decayed, dried sphagnum moss has the name of peat or peat moss. This is used as a soil conditioner which increases the soil's capacity to hold water and nutrients by increasing capillary forces and cation exchange capacity – uses that are particularly useful in gardening. This is often desired when dealing with very sandy soil, or plants that need increased or steady moisture content to flourish. A distinction

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2520-413: The night through the park it could be hazardous unless one is properly equipped for taking such a risk. Another notable monument is at Gèyeté (Gayetay) within the municipal boundary of Sart and Jalhay ; it is in memory of eight American airmen who were the crews of two Douglas C-47 Skytrains from 50th Troop Carrier Squadron that collided in flight on 6 April 1945 due to fog. The memorial consists of

2580-479: The onset of the current climatic change . Due to the orographic rainfall on the surrounding mountain ranges the climate is relatively damp as well. In combination with the valuable loess soil , these factors make the Cologne Bight one of the most fertile regions of Germany. About 30 million years ago, parts of the Rhine Massif sank and formed a lowland region. Due to the subtropical climate at that time, there

2640-616: The original law project presented in 2018 sought the extablish a definitive ban on the harvest. Along Rubens River in Magallanes Region there are some historically important harvesting fields of peat in Sphagnum peatlands. Sphagnum peatlands in Chile disturbed by peat extraction have been found to host various invasive plant species including Rumex acetosella , Carex canescens , Holcus lanatus and Hieracium pilosella . Harvesting of peat in Sphagnum mosses or any where else

2700-465: The park administration. However no access to this zone is allowed from mid-March to late June, when an endangered species, the black grouse , breeds here. Zone D is a totally protected reserve area, with no access to the public. In the High Fens the habitats of many plants and animals typically found further north or in the mountains, result from the geology and relief, the harsh climate, high rainfall, long and cold winters and low average temperatures in

2760-561: The park, and there are signposts to guide visitors through the park. The nature reserve of the High Fens is coordinated under the Nature Division and Forests of the Walloon Region. The reserve is one of the wettest and coldest parts of Belgium. It is frequently shrouded in mist and low cloud. It has a subalpine climate with strong winds and fierce winters, which are occasionally subarctic. The Fagnes plateau intercepts clouds brought by

2820-435: The peat bogs can be restored to their premining condition and how long the process takes. "The North American Wetlands Conservation Council estimates that harvested peatlands can be restored to 'ecologically balanced systems' within five to 20 years after peat harvesting." Some wetlands scientists assert that "a managed bog bears little resemblance to a natural one. Like tree farms, these peatlands tend toward monoculture, lacking

2880-404: The plant ( capitulum) has compact clusters of young branches that give the plant its characteristic tuft-like appearance. Along the stem are scattered leaves of various shapes, named stem leaves; the shape varies according to species. Sphagnum has a distinctive cellular structure. The stem portion consists of two important sections. The pith which is the site of food production and storage, and

2940-493: The plateau and in the valley basin; the bogs, which are over 10,000 years old, with their unique subalpine flora, fauna and microclimate, are key to the conservation work of the park. In 1966, the European Council awarded the "Diploma of Conservation" to the High Fens, for their ecological value. In 2008, Belgium has added the High Fens to its tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage sites. The High Fens, established as

3000-480: The prevailing Atlantic winds, and this results in copious precipitation, with an average of 1,400 millimetres (55 in) of rain per year. However, beneath the fragile composition of the overlying soils are rocky beds and clay that prevent infiltration of water and thus create the conditions for wetlands, marshes and bogs. The highest and lowest annual rainfall recorded are 2,024 millimetres (79.7 in) and 762 millimetres (30.0 in) respectively, with maximum on

3060-486: The region. The High Venn's plateau thus is rich in flora and fauna some of which have become rare and threatened in the last more than three centuries. The heathers and turf moors in the reserve have a significant role to maintain biodiversity for the rare and threatened flora and fauna as it ensures regulation of the water balance and maintains value of the landscape. However, since the 17th century, peat cutting, drainage, inappropriate spruce plantations, infestation of

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3120-440: The right conditions, peat can accumulate to a depth of many meters. Different species of Sphagnum have different tolerance limits for flooding and pH, and any one peatland may have a number of different Sphagnum species. An individual Sphagnum plant consists of a main stem , with tightly arranged clusters of branch fascicles usually consisting of two or three spreading branches and two to four hanging branches. The top of

3180-619: The rootless peat mosses ( Sphagnum ) of about 40 centimetres (16 in) grow at 3 centimetres (1 in) a year and form the basic turf moors through the buildup of organic matter; cotton grass , a perennial plant in wet regions; sundew ( Drosera rotundfolia ) found in the acid turfs of the reserve which are carnivores and consumes insects. The logo of the park is the seven-petalled flower of Chickweed-Wintergreen ( Lysimachia europaea ), not to be confused with other plants with similar names such as Chickweed ( Cerastium spp.) or Wintergreen ( Gaultheria spp.). Faunal species recorded are:

3240-411: The same plant; monoecious ); In North America, 80% of Sphagnum species are unisexual. Gametophytes have substantial asexual reproduction by fragmentation , producing much of the living material in sphagnum peatlands. Swimming sperm fertilize eggs contained in archegonia that remain attached to the female gametophyte . The sporophyte is relatively short-lived, and consists almost entirely of

3300-515: The south. It stretches north of Malmedy as far as Eupen and marks the end of the Ardennes proper. It is contiguous with the Eifel hills, which stretch east from the German border to form the large Deutsch–Belgischer Naturpark . Signal de Botrange located in the Haute Fagnes is marked by a Telecom Tower erected over an older artificial, earthen mound with stone steps that was built to raise a small part of

3360-416: The species. The empty cells help retain water in drier conditions. As Sphagnum moss grows, it can slowly spread into drier conditions, forming larger mires , both raised bogs and blanket bogs . Thus, Sphagnum can influence the composition of such habitats, with some describing Sphagnum as 'habitat manipulators' or 'autogenic ecosystem engineers'. These peat accumulations then provide habitat for

3420-503: The water table. In the regions of Los Ríos (40°S) and Los Lagos (41–43°S) the same plots could be harvested after 12 years, while further south in Aysén (44–48°S) and Magallanes (49–56°S) 85 years had to pass before the same area can be harvested again. According to a 2024 law harvesting of Sphagnum can only be done with land-management plans approved by Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero . Some environmental organisations expressed regret as

3480-411: The world, lost large areas of peatland . The latest estimates for wetland loss in New Zealand are 90% over 150 years. In some cases, better care is taken during the harvesting of Sphagnum to ensure enough moss is remaining to allow regrowth. An 8-year cycle is suggested, but some sites require a longer cycle of 11 to 32 years for full recovery of biomass, depending on factors including whether reseeding

3540-456: Was a luxuriant plant growth of abundant varieties. About 15 million years ago, these plants died out and formed a peat layer up to 270 metres thick. From the pressure of earth layers lying over it, the peat was compressed into lignite (brown coal). The predecessor rivers of today's Rhine dug a broad river bed through the rock . These Rhine forerunners brought debris from the Alps , the Eifel ,

3600-533: Was −25.2 °C (−13.4 °F) in 1952 at Baraque-Michel. Several rivers have their sources in the High Fens: the Vesdre , Hoëgne , Warche , Gileppe , Eau Rouge , Amblève , Our , Kyll , and Rur . In winter all the water sources freeze into snow making the High Fens one of the best ski resorts in Belgium. During winter the swamps appear as if "wrapped in white fluffy snow shawl". The region has been zoned under

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