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47-574: Juliaca ( Spanish: [xuˈljaka] ; Quechua and Aymara : Hullaqa ) is the capital of San Román Province in the Puno Region of southeastern Peru . It is the region's largest city with a population of 276,110 inhabitants ( 2017 ). On the Altiplano , Juliaca is 3,825 metres (12,549 ft) above sea level, is located on the Collao Plateau and is northwest of Lake Titicaca (45 km). It

94-410: A subtropical highland climate ( Köppen Cwb/Cwc ) bordering on an alpine tundra climate ( ETH ) with cool to cold temperatures most of the year. The average annual precipitation is 610 millimetres or 24 inches. Winters are dry with freezing nights and mornings, and pleasant afternoon temperatures. The city of Juliaca and its surroundings have various natural and historical tourist attractions, among

141-1043: A fourth, a northern or Peruvian branch. The latter causes complications in the classification, however, as various dialects (e.g. Cajamarca–Cañaris , Pacaraos , and Yauyos ) have features of both Quechua I and Quechua II, and so are difficult to assign to either. Torero classifies them as the following: Willem Adelaar adheres to the Quechua I / Quechua II (central/peripheral) bifurcation. But, partially following later modifications by Torero, he reassigns part of Quechua II-A to Quechua I: Ancash (Huaylas–Conchucos) Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga Yaru Wanka (Jauja–Huanca) Yauyos–Chincha (Huangáscar–Topará) Pacaraos Lambayeque (Cañaris) Cajamarca Lincha Laraos Kichwa ("Ecuadorian" or Highlands and Oriente) Chachapoyas (Amazonas) Lamas (San Martín) Ayacucho Cusco Puno (Collao) Northern Bolivian (Apolo) Southern Bolivia Santiago del Estero Landerman (1991) does not believe

188-601: A hierarchy of smaller centers and villages scattered throughout the northern basin of the Titicaca. The name originates from the town of Pukara, one of the largest settlements in the region. The modern town of Pucará is located half a mile to the east of the archaeological site. The Pukara culture is unrelated to the stone fortresses, pukaras , built across the Andes during the Inca Empire. Its sphere of influence reached as far north as

235-535: A reference point, the overall degree of diversity across the family is a little less than that of the Romance or Germanic families, and more of the order of Slavic or Arabic . The greatest diversity is within Central Quechua, or Quechua I, which is believed to lie close to the homeland of the ancestral Proto-Quechua language. Alfredo Torero devised the traditional classification, the three divisions above, plus

282-574: A significant influence on other native languages of the Americas, such as Mapuche . It is difficult to measure the number of Quechua speakers. The number of speakers given varies widely according to the sources. The total in Ethnologue 16 is 10 million, primarily based on figures published 1987–2002, but with a few dating from the 1960s. The figure for Imbabura Highland Quechua in Ethnologue , for example,

329-578: A true genetic classification is possible and divides Quechua II so that the family has four geographical–typological branches: Northern, North Peruvian, Central, and Southern. He includes Chachapoyas and Lamas in North Peruvian Quechua so Ecuadorian is synonymous with Northern Quechua. Quechua I (Central Quechua, Waywash ) is spoken in Peru's central highlands, from the Ancash Region to Huancayo . It

376-459: Is 300,000, an estimate from 1977. The missionary organization FEDEPI, on the other hand, estimated one million Imbabura dialect speakers (published 2006). Census figures are also problematic, due to under-reporting. The 2001 Ecuador census reports only 500,000 Quechua speakers, compared to the estimate in most linguistic sources of more than 2 million. The censuses of Peru (2007) and Bolivia (2001) are thought to be more reliable. Additionally, there

423-453: Is a major transit point in the region and has strong ties with Peru's southern cities, including Arequipa , Puno , Tacna , Cuzco , Ilo , and with La Rinconada and Bolivia . Like Chicago , Illinois, it is nicknamed "The Windy City", in its case, because of the city's location on the windy Collao Plateau. It is also called the "Sock City" or "Knitting City" because Juliaca was a major center of sock, sweater, and handicraft production. Now

470-637: Is a secondary division in Quechua II between the grammatically simplified northern varieties of Ecuador, Quechua II-B, known there as Kichwa , and the generally more conservative varieties of the southern highlands, Quechua II-C, which include the old Inca capital of Cusco . The closeness is at least in part because of the influence of Cusco Quechua on the Ecuadorean varieties in the Inca Empire. Because Northern nobles were required to educate their children in Cusco, this

517-532: Is a viewpoint, from which it is possible to see the urban and non-urban areas that comprise the city. The complex was built in just two and a half weeks, and was opened in 1987. It is a three-floor building, located in the north wing of the Plaza Bolognesi. It is a shopping center for handicrafts, where all kinds of clothing are sold (socks, chullos, bootees , shawls, sweaters, rugs, gloves, etc.) woven or manufactured with native materials (llama, alpaca, vicuña ),

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564-455: Is an unknown number of speakers in emigrant communities. There are significant differences among the varieties of Quechua spoken in the central Peruvian highlands and the peripheral varieties of Ecuador, as well as those of southern Peru and Bolivia. They can be labeled Quechua I (or Quechua B, central) and Quechua II (or Quechua A, peripheral). Within the two groups, there are few sharp boundaries, making them dialect continua . However, there

611-596: Is currently under the command of the Franciscan Order . This church is a beautiful work of architecture from the time of the republic. It is located in the west wing of the Plaza Bolognesi in the city center. Carved out of red limestone (due to its characteristic color) and with a structure typical of the modern era (iron frame). Like the main Church of Santa Catalina, it only has a bell tower arranged symmetrically unlike

658-584: Is the largest trade center in the Puno region. Juliaca is near Chachas Lake , the Maravillas river, and near the ruins of Sillustani . The city hosts Juliaca's Carnival each year between February and March. During this very popular event participants, dressed in colorful costumes, gather on the streets to dance in the style of the Collao Plateau. Saint Sebastian's feast is celebrated on 20 January of every year. Juliaca's citizens rely on cars, trains, and bicycles. It

705-465: Is the most diverse branch of Quechua, to the extent that its divisions are commonly considered different languages. Quechua II (Peripheral Quechua, Wamp'una "Traveler") This is a sampling of words in several Quechuan languages: Pukara culture The Pucará culture was an archaeological culture which developed in Qullaw , along the north-western shore of Lake Titicaca . It was characterized by

752-578: The Andes in the inter-Andean valley of Cuzco and Moquegua . They developed, especially in the second phase, a very particular vigorous sculpture and ceramic culture. Pukara ceramics are painted in various colors. The fineware was painted with black and yellow paints on red clay and named the Classic Pukara Style. Incision lines define the shapes of humans, mythical creatures, tools, or shamanistic figures. Pukara pottery and textiles are found widely in

799-587: The Cuzco Valley and as far south as Tiahuanaco . The culture had two phases of development within the Formative Period : the Middle Formative (1400 to 550 BC), and Late Formative (550 BC to 400 AD). The Pukara engaged in agriculture, herding, fishing, and domesticating the alpaca . Complex knowledge of hydraulics , and constructing ridges and furrows was required to ensure productive agriculture in

846-506: The Labor force . In 2008, Juliaca had 15,439 commercial establishments, which amounts to 41% of trade done in the Puno region. It is the commercial hub for the La Rinconada high-altitude city of informal gold mining. The city of Juliaca has become a center of capital investment. As a result, poverty has been reduced, and increased per capita income has come to some of its residents. Juliaca has

893-530: The Peruvian struggle for independence in the 1780s. As a result, various Quechua languages are still widely spoken today, being co-official in many regions and the most spoken language lineage in Peru , after Spanish. The Quechua linguistic homeland may have been Central Peru. It has been speculated that it may have been used in the Chavín and Wari civilizations. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of

940-537: The University of San Marcos , completed and defended the first thesis in the language group in 2019; it concerned the works of poet Andrés Alencastre Gutiérrez and it was also the first non-Spanish native language thesis done at that university. Currently, there are different initiatives that promote Quechua in the Andes and across the world: many universities offer Quechua classes, a community-based organization such as Elva Ambía 's Quechua Collective of New York promote

987-570: The Americas. As a result of Inca expansion into Central Chile , there were bilingual Quechua- Mapudungu Mapuche in Central Chile at the time of the Spanish arrival . It has been argued that Mapuche, Quechua, and Spanish coexisted in Central Chile , with significant bilingualism, during the 17th century. Alongside Mapudungun, Quechua is the indigenous language that has influenced Chilean Spanish

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1034-595: The Inca Empire expanded and further promoted Quechua as the official language of the Empire. After the Spanish conquest of Peru in the 16th century, Quechua continued to be used widely by the indigenous peoples as the "common language." It was officially recognized by the Spanish administration, and many Spaniards learned it in order to communicate with local peoples. The clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as

1081-467: The Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century, the prestige of Quechua had decreased sharply. Gradually its use declined so that it was spoken mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated and conservative rural areas. Nevertheless, in the 21st century, Quechua language speakers number roughly 7 million people across South America, more than any other indigenous language family in

1128-452: The Plaza de Armas de Juliaca, it presents a style essentially Romanesque Due to its importance during the republican era, today it constitutes one of the main tourist attractions of the city. Located in a southeast of the Plaza de Armas, on the top of the hill Waynaruqi. The White Christ, made entirely in concrete and fiberglass, stands out on the horizon of Juliaca. At the foot of the monument

1175-475: The Quechua word Shulla Qaqa (roquedal dew), due to the fact that in the vicinity of the Huaynarroque and Santa Cruz hills, small quartz particles can be seen, which resembles the morning dew that falls on rocks. The Altiplano was inhabited from around 4,000 BC by sedentary communities dedicated to agriculture and livestock ( llamas and guinea pigs ). The Uros settled in the river towns, taking advantage of

1222-460: The Uros of Coata would be better communicated and related to Juliaca, by the river that linked them, also these riverine settlers developed a sailing technique, on rafts made of totora , fastened with yarned ropes based on the ichus , which would serve as support for fishing, and at times, of transport from Lake Titicaca to the smaller lakes that were between the territories of Juliaca. "As a testimony of

1269-480: The ancient presence of the Uros, in the balsero partiality, and later in the rafts of Juliaca, there have been some names of places: Totoral, Torococha..." Between the years 1000 to 500 BC, Juliaca flourished under the influence of Qaluyo (ancient settlement), in the place of Qomer Moqo ( Taparachi ). Archaeologists discovered a small village dating back to this time, whose settlers were fed with potatoes , quinoa , kañiwa , carachi, guinea pig, among others. They were

1316-470: The area), the lagoon has a fusiform shape and an area of approximately 6.2 km . In this abundant lagoon the local flora and fauna , mainly during the summer (rainy season). Quechua language Although Quechua began expanding many centuries before the Incas , that previous expansion also meant that it was the primary language family within the Inca Empire. The Spanish also tolerated its use until

1363-611: The benefits of the totora and the fish of Lake Titicaca , settled in the surrounding lakes: Chacas , Qoriwata, Cochapampa, and the Juliaca River, today Coata River. "The Indians who are called Uros...live on the banks where they fish, with which they support themselves...they are strong Indians and of good disposition and there are many who are in the lakes without making sementeras or clothes, eating from roots that they call totora." The constitution of these settlers were registered as Uros de Coata and Uros de Desaguadero , from where

1410-608: The central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire . The Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke a form of Quechua, which in the Cuzco region particularly has been heavily influenced by Aymara , hence some of the characteristics that still distinguish the Cuzco form of Quechua today. Diverse Quechua regional dialects and languages had already developed in different areas, influenced by local languages, before

1457-557: The country. The major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua languages is the lack of written materials, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups. Quechua, along with Aymara and minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language . In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural bilingual education (IBE) in Peru , Bolivia , and Ecuador . Even in these areas,

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1504-460: The dialects is the basic criterion that defines Quechua not as a single language, but as a language family. The complex and progressive nature of how speech varies across the dialect continua makes it nearly impossible to differentiate discrete varieties; Ethnologue lists 45 varieties which are then divided into two groups; Central and Peripheral. Due to the non-intelligibility between the two groups, they are all classified as separate languages. As

1551-505: The first builders of waruwarus and developed a special textile industry. In the years 200 BC to 200 AD, the domain of the Pukara culture expanded in this region of the highlands. Between the third and fourth centuries, the Huaynarroque tribe flourished. Subsequently, the hegemony of Tiahuanaco , Colla and Inka arises consecutively. The kollas and Inka were ruthless rivals and only under

1598-857: The governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations. Some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings. Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua. Similarly, Quechua phrases and words are commonly used by Spanish speakers. In southern rural Bolivia, for instance, many Quechua words such as wawa (infant), misi (cat), waska (strap or thrashing), are as commonly used as their Spanish counterparts, even in entirely Spanish-speaking areas. Quechua has also had

1645-517: The high-altitude environment. Q'ochas were natural and modified depressions in the earth that functioned as sunken gardens. Located near the Pucará River, the Pukara flooded the land with water before harvesting. Over a period of 3 to 5 years, agriculturalists would rotate between growing potatoes, quinoa, barley, and wheat. These strategies helped the Pukara establish settlements along the western slope of

1692-625: The language of evangelization . The oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás , who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú (Grammar or Art of the General Language of the Indians of the Kingdoms of Peru) in 1560. Given its use by the Catholic missionaries,

1739-439: The language, and governments are training interpreters in Quechua to serve in healthcare, justice, and bureaucratic facilities. In 1975, Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages. Ecuador conferred official status on the language in its 2006 constitution, and in 2009, Bolivia adopted a new constitution that recognized Quechua and several other indigenous languages as official languages of

1786-520: The leaders of this social formation had taken the site of Pukara as a sacred place, and perhaps assumed it as their paqarina or place of origin. They copied Pucará's architectural model and commissioned a vast number of workers and engineers to transfer it to their capital in the Tiwanaku Valley , in the southern basin. It is possible that at that time, the sculptures of Pukará had become objects of great religious and ritual value, their possession being

1833-467: The middle Andean, and the coastal Pacific valleys, reaching into Peru and Chile. Within the ceramic timeline of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Classic Pukara Style is estimated to have peaked around 200 BCE, through 200 CE. The rise of Tiwanaku may have contributed to the weakening of the Pukara around 200 AD. The Pukara settlements were occupied by people from Tiwanaku. It's probable that

1880-478: The military command of Pachacútec and his son Mayta Capac were able to subdue the brave Sapana, Chuchicápac and Huaynarroque tribes after bloody wars of conquest. During a political crisis , 18 protestors were shot dead by the police . Juliaca is a large trade center for goods and services , and is considered the financial capital of the Puno region . Trade is its principal economic activity, comprising 26.5% of

1927-522: The most outstanding are: The Santa Catalina church, Waynaruqi hill, Chacas lagoon and the Kokan community. Located in the Plaza de Armas, it has an indigenous baroque architectural style. The start of its construction dates back to 1649, started by the Jesuits; however it was not completed until 125 years later. Proof of this is its only bell tower, built entirely with ashlar brought from the quarries of Arequipa. It

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1974-548: The most. Quechua-Aymara and mixed Quechua-Aymara- Mapudungu toponymy can be found as far south as Osorno Province in Chile (latitude 41° S). In 2017 the first thesis defense done in Quechua in Europe was done by Peruvian Carmen Escalante Gutiérrez at Pablo de Olavide University ( Sevilla ). The same year Pablo Landeo wrote the first novel in Quechua without a Spanish translation. A Peruvian student, Roxana Quispe Collantes of

2021-430: The previous one, and it also features a clock with four circular faces. Its construction is due to a group of faithful devotees who commissioned the construction from Don Gregorio Layme. It was inaugurated in 1959 and renovated in 1995, where they included indigenous elements. Also called Convent of Santa Bárbara . It is a four-level building built on the hill Hatun Rumi or Santa Bárbara (Spanish name), 40 m from

2068-623: The production of clothes, wool and fabrics are industrial processes. It is also home to Inca Manco Capac Airport , the region's main airport. The historian Ramon Rios argues that Juliaca comes from the Quechua words Xullaskca kaipi (it had drizzled) in allusion that when the Inca troops arrived at this part of the Altiplano chasing the collas , they noticed that in the Huaynarroque hill it had drizzled. However, Justo Ruelas affirms that Juliaca comes from

2115-485: The range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended the administrative and religious use of Quechua. They banned it from public use in Peru after the Túpac Amaru II rebellion of indigenous peoples. The Crown banned "loyal" pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vega's Comentarios Reales . Despite a brief revival of the language immediately after

2162-452: The visitor can also visualize the handwork done by the artisan ladies with their typical clothing (called hosiery), in different types of wool and fiber, highly appreciated in the international market. Located 10 km northwest of the city of Juliaca, in the area corresponding to the towns of Kokan and Chacas. It is a lagoon surrounded by vast hills, like the Iquinito (which is the highest in

2209-585: Was maintained as the prestige dialect in the north. Speakers from different points within any of the three regions can generally understand one another reasonably well. There are nonetheless significant local-level differences across each. ( Wanka Quechua , in particular, has several very distinctive characteristics that make the variety more challenging to understand, even for other Central Quechua speakers.) Speakers from different major regions, particularly Central or Southern Quechua, are not able to communicate effectively. The lack of mutual intelligibility among

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