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108-779: Jozef Gašpar Tiso ( Slovak pronunciation: [ˈjɔzef ˈtisɔ] , Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈjoʒɛf ˈtiso] ; 13 October 1887 – 18 April 1947) was a Slovak politician and Catholic priest who served as president of the First Slovak Republic , a client state of Nazi Germany during World War II , from 1939 to 1945. In 1947, after the war, he was executed for treason in Bratislava . Born in 1887 to Slovak parents in Nagybiccse (today Bytča), then part of Hungary , Austria-Hungary , Tiso studied several languages during his school career, including Hebrew and German. He

216-542: A Magyarone ( Magyarized Slovak) while some Slovak nationalists sought for proofs of his early national orientation. Both views are largely simplified. Tiso carefully avoided national self-categorization language, his behaviour might be framed in a " national indifference " approach – a practice largely spread in Central Europe before 1918. His only criticism targeted the Jews. In some of his pre-1918 writings Tiso complained about

324-481: A Professor of Theology. In 1924, Tiso left Nitra to become dean of Bánovce nad Bebravou . He remained the Dean of Bánovce for the rest of his political career, returning there regularly every weekend also as a Czechoslovak minister, and as later as president. In the interwar period, Tiso was a moderate politician and his ability to reach compromises made him a respected mediator of the party. He used more radical rhetoric as

432-503: A chance to study for the priesthood at the prestigious Pázmáneum in Vienna . Tiso, taught by several elite professors, became familiar with various philosophies and the newest papal encyclicals . He also extended his language skills. Along with already known Hungarian , German and Latin , he studied Hebrew , Aramaic dialects and Arabic . The school reports describe him mostly as an "excellent", "exemplary", and "pious" student. Enrolling in

540-481: A decade after 1929 his initiatives were not successful. In 1930, he became the official vice-president of the party and seemed destined to succeed Hlinka. He spent the 1930s competing for Hlinka's mantle with party radicals, most notably the rightist Karol Sidor – Tuka was in prison for much of this period for treason. In 1930, Tiso published The Ideology of the Hlinka's Slovak People's Party explaining his views on

648-523: A few years). The relatively short existence of Great Moravia prevented it from suppressing differences which resulted from its creation from two separate entities, and therefore a common "Slovak-Moravian" ethnic identity failed to develop. The early political integration in the territory of present-day Slovakia was, however, reflected in linguistic integration. While dialects of the early ancestors of Slovaks were divided into West Slavic (western and eastern Slovakia) and non-West Slavic (central Slovakia), between

756-570: A field curate of the 71st infantry regiment of the Austro-Hungarian Army recruited mostly from Slovak soldiers. The regiment suffered heavy losses in Galicia . Tiso got first-hand experience with horrors of war, but also with Germanisation and Russification of the local population. Tiso was inspired by a better organization of the Slovenian national movement . Tiso's military career was ended by

864-592: A fully independent Slovakia, separated from Czechoslovakia. He held direct meetings with the German representative Arthur Seyss-Inquart , in which Tiso initially expressed doubts as to whether an independent Slovakia would be a viable entity. Czech military units subsequently occupied Slovakia and forced Tiso out of office on 9 March. However the Ruthenians , also resentful of the inclusion of their lands in Czechoslovakia, and

972-499: A hitherto controversial matter, it is clear to all that this matter, according to the mind and will of the same Pontiffs, cannot any longer be considered a question of free discussion among theologians. On social issues, Pope Leo XIII promulgated the encyclical Rerum novarum (1891), which was followed by Quadragesimo anno (1931) of Pius XI and Centesimus annus (1991) of John Paul II . Pope Pius XII issued ten encyclicals , mostly after 1945, three of them protesting against

1080-499: A journalist, putting aside much of the anti-Jewish rhetoric of his earlier journalistic activities. He attacked his opponents and did not always control his emotions. However, he usually returned to rational arguments in official political negotiations. Tiso sharply criticized policies of the central government regarding Slovaks and Slovakia. While the party still operated within a democratic framework, Tiso's colleague and political rival Vojtech Tuka formed two internal movements to oppose

1188-582: A patriotic style, he emphasized the need for good military morale and discipline. However, this was nothing unusual, and it reflected a common style of the contemporary press, including a limited set of still printed Slovak newspapers. He also covered religious and educational topics, emphasizing a need for religious literature in Slovak. Tiso did not belong to politicians active in the pre-war national movement and his pre-war national orientation has been frequently questioned. His political opponents tried to draw him as

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1296-832: A saint. Slovaks The Slovaks ( Slovak : Slováci [ˈsɫɔvaːt͡si] , singular: Slovák [ˈslɔvaːk] , feminine: Slovenka [ˈsɫɔvɛŋka] , plural: Slovenky ) are a West Slavic ethnic group and nation native to Slovakia who share a common ancestry , culture , history and speak the Slovak language . In Slovakia, c. 4.4 million are ethnic Slovaks of 5.4 million total population. There are Slovak minorities in many neighboring countries including Austria , Croatia , Czech Republic , Hungary , Poland , Romania , Serbia and Ukraine and sizeable populations of immigrants and their descendants in Australia , Canada , France , Germany , United Kingdom and

1404-629: A serious kidney illness and he was released from the military service. He did not return to his parish in Bánovce , but he was appointed as the Spiritual Director of the Nitra seminary by Bende's successor, Vilmos Batthyány. Tiso was also active at this time as a school teacher and journalist. He published his experiences from the war ("The Diary from the Northern Frontline"). In other articles written in

1512-659: A shrine, but far-right followers of Tiso soon identified the grave in the St Martin cemetery in Bratislava as his. Decades later, after a DNA test in April 2008 that confirmed it, the body of Tiso was exhumed and buried in St Emmeram's Cathedral in Nitra , in accordance with canon law. Under communism, Tiso was formulaically denounced as a clerical Fascist . With the fall of communism in 1989, and

1620-620: A strong proponent of the Czecho-Slovak state with guaranteed autonomy for Slovakia), endorsed a declaration of independence. On 15 March, Germany occupied the remaining rump of Czechoslovakia after Hitler coerced a sick Czech President Emil Hácha into acquiescing. Slovakia became the Slovak Republic , an independent state (under German protection) which was formally recognised by the Soviet Union and Germany, with de facto recognition by

1728-573: Is Tót (pl: tótok ), an exonym . It was originally used to refer to all Slavs including Slovenes and Croats , but eventually came to refer primarily to Slovaks. Many place names in Hungary such as Tótszentgyörgy , Tótszentmárton , and Tótkomlós still bear the name. Tóth is a common Hungarian surname. The Slovaks have also historically been variously referred to as Slovyenyn , Slowyenyny , Sclavus , Sclavi , Slavus , Slavi , Winde , Wende , or Wenden . The final three terms are variations of

1836-554: Is interesting how this little Catholic priest Tiso is sending us the Jews!". Vatican undersecretary Domenico Tardini complained: "Everyone understands that the Holy See cannot stop Hitler. But who can understand that it does not know how to rein in a priest?" Later in 1942, amid Vatican protests as news of the fate of the deportees filtered back, and the German advance into the Soviet Union

1944-664: Is only the second European captain in history of the NHL that led his team to win the Stanley Cup , winning it with the Boston Bruins in the season 2010–11 . For a list of the most notable Slovak writers and poets, see List of Slovak authors . There are approximately 5.4 million autochthonous Slovaks in Slovakia. Further Slovaks live in the following countries ( the list shows estimates of embassies etc. and of associations of Slovaks abroad in

2052-468: Is the Principality of Nitra , one of the foundations of later common ethnic consciousness. At this stage in history it is not yet possible to assume a common identity of all ancestors of Slovaks in the neighboring eastern territories, even if it was inhabited by closely related Slavs. The Principality of Nitra became a part of Great Moravia , a common state of Moravians (Czech ancestors were joined only for

2160-548: The 1920 Czechoslovak parliamentary election . Although the electoral results from his district were bright spots in what was otherwise a disappointing election for the Ľudáks, the party did not reward him with a legislative seat. Tiso, however, easily claimed one in the 1925 election, which also resulted in a breakthrough victory for the party. Until 1938, he was a fixture in the Czecho-Slovakian parliament in Prague . In 1921 Tiso

2268-592: The First Vienna Award . Prime Minister Tiso, who had never led a delegation in similar international negotiations, found himself in a difficult position. The central government of the Second Czechoslovak Republic (under the pressure of terrorist actions sponsored by the Hungarian government and after serious changes of the international situation) accepted negotiations before being completely ready, and

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2376-534: The Hlinka Guards ), and Franz Karmasin , head of the local Carpathian German minority. As a result of the conference, two state agencies were created to deal with "Jewish affairs". The "Salzburg Summit" resulted in closer collaboration with Germany, and in Tuka and other political leaders increasing their powers at the expense of Tiso's original concept of a Catholic corporate state. The agreement called for dual command by

2484-718: The Kingdom of Hungary , part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire . He was raised in a religious family and studied at the local elementary school. Then, as a good student with a flair for languages, he studied at a lower grammar school in Žilina . The school had clearly Hungarian spirit, since all Slovak grammar schools were closed at the time of his study. Here, he began to use the Hungarian form of his name Tiszó József. In 1902, he began to study at higher Piarist grammar school in Nitra . The Bishop of Nitra , Imre Bende, offered him

2592-570: The Slovak National Uprising broke out against the Tiso government. German troops were sent to quell this and with them came Einsatzgruppe H and security police charged with rounding up or murdering Slovakia's remaining Jews. During the German occupation, another 13,500 Jews were deported, most of them to Auschwitz, and 5,000 imprisoned. Some were murdered in Slovakia itself, in particular at Kremnička and Nemecká . Tiso remained in office during

2700-629: The Slovak People's Party . On 26 October, he became President of the Slovak Republic, and appointed Tuka as Prime Minister. After 1942, President Tiso was also styled Vodca ("Leader"), an imitation of German Führer . At the Salzburg Conference on 28 July 1940, an agreement was reached to establish a National Socialist regime in Slovakia. Tuka attended the conference, as did Hitler, Tiso, Joachim von Ribbentrop , Alexander Mach (head of

2808-708: The Sudetenland , the main German-speaking parts of Czecho-Slovakia . On 6 October 1938, HSĽS took advantage of the weakening of central government and declared autonomy for Slovakia (some other parties in Slovakia supported this). The next day, he became Prime Minister of the Slovak Autonomous Region. One of his first tasks was to lead the Czechoslovak delegation during negotiations with Hungary in Komárno preceding

2916-864: The United Kingdom and France (but not by the United States who were largely responsible, in 1919, for the new artificial state of Czechoslovakia). Czech émigrés and the United States considered Slovakia a puppet state of Germany. After the later recognition of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile by Great Britain, the British Foreign Office notified the Czech Foreign Ministry that Britain did not recognise any territorial claims of Czechoslovakia, nor could they commit to any fixed boundaries for

3024-449: The United States among others, which are collectively referred to as the Slovak diaspora . The name Slovak is derived from *Slověninъ , plural *Slověně , the old name of the Slavs ( Proglas , around 863). The original stem has been preserved in all Slovak words except the masculine noun; the feminine noun is Slovenka , the adjective is slovenský , the language is slovenčina and

3132-468: The University of Trnava , published a theory that nobility and burghers of Trenčín should not have same privileges as Hungarians, because they are descendants of Svatopluk 's people (inferior to Magyars). Neither Bencsik nor his Slovak opponent Ján Baltazár Magin put the continuity of settlement into serious question. Also, the first history of Slovaks written by Georgius Papanek (or Juraj Papánek), traced

3240-480: The University of Vienna in 1906, he was ordained a priest in 1910 and graduated as a Doctor of Theology in 1911. His early ministry was spent as an assistant priest in three parishes in today's Slovakia. Tiso was interested in public affairs and performed extensive educational and social work. During his fight against poverty and alcoholism , he may also have adopted some stereotypical and simplified views on Slovak-Jewish relations. Such views were not unusual in

3348-555: The "German Party" and the "Unified Hungarian Party". HSĽS then organized rigged parliamentary elections . Even before the official announcement of the elections, Tiso told the German newspaper Völkischer Beobachter that there would be only one united ballot and Jews could not be elected. The deportations and some other actions of Tiso's autonomous government were against the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920 . In February 1939, Tiso entered into negotiations with Germany for

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3456-406: The 17th century. His theory about the lack of population in the greater part of Slovakia covered by forests had already been scientifically refuted by Daniel Rapant (e.g. in O starý Liptov , 1934), and was proven wrong by numerous archaeological finds and rejected by Czechoslovak historiography. On the other hand, inter-war Slovak autonomists, opposing ethnic Czechoslovakism, dated the existence of

3564-409: The 21st century Roman Ondak, Blažej Baláž . The most important Slovak composers have been Eugen Suchoň , Ján Cikker , and Alexander Moyzes , in the 21st century Vladimir Godar and Peter Machajdík . The most famous Slovak names can indubitably be attributed to invention and technology. Such people include Jozef Murgaš , the inventor of wireless telegraphy; Ján Bahýľ , Štefan Banič , inventor of

3672-547: The 8th and 9th centuries both dialects merged, thus laying the foundations of a later Slovak language. The 10th century is a milestone in the Slovak ethnogenesis . The fall of Great Moravia and further political changes supported their formation into a separate nation. At the same time, with the extinction of the Proto-Slavic language, between the 10th and 13th centuries Slovak evolved into an independent language (simultaneously with other Slavic languages). The early existence of

3780-711: The Church the world over". By the end of the Holocaust, more than two-thirds of the Jews living in Slovakia had been murdered. Tiso lost all remnants of power when the Soviet Red Army conquered the last parts of western Slovakia in April 1945. He fled first to Austria, then to a Capuchin monastery in Altötting , Bavaria. In June 1945, he was arrested by the Americans and extradited to

3888-536: The Czech-Slovak relationship. Notably, he claimed sovereignty of the Slovak nation over the territory of Slovakia and indirectly suggested the right of Slovaks also to adopt different solutions for things from the Czechoslovak government in Prague. He repeated the same idea in his parliamentary speeches. By the middle 1930s, Tiso's views shifted toward authoritarian and totalitarian ideas. He repeatedly declared that HSĽS

3996-552: The Czechoslovak Republic; and found Tiso guilty of: Tiso was sentenced to death, to deprivation of his civil rights, and to confiscation of all of his property. Tiso appealed to the Czechoslovak president Edvard Beneš and expected a reprieve; his prosecutor had recommended clemency. However, no reprieve was forthcoming. Wearing his clerical outfit, Tiso was hanged in Bratislava on 18 April 1947. The Czechoslovak government buried him secretly to avoid having his grave become

4104-462: The German army's occupation, but his presidency was relegated to a mostly titular role as Slovakia lost whatever de facto independence it had. Burzio begged Tiso directly to at least spare Catholics of Jewish ancestry from deportation and delivered an admonition from the Pope: "the injustice wrought by his government is harmful to the prestige of his country and enemies will exploit it to discredit clergy and

4212-462: The Germanic term Wends , which was historically used to refer to any Slavs living close to Germanic settlements. The early Slavs came to the territory of Slovakia in several waves from the 5th and 6th centuries and were organized on a tribal level. Original tribal names are not known due to the lack of written sources before their integration into higher political units. Weakening of tribal consciousness

4320-654: The Hungarian Youth Organization calling for the cession of Komárno to Hungary. Their participation was then used in propaganda blaming the Jews for the result (Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy obviously did not carry out "the wish of the Jewry" but followed their own interests). On 3 November 1938, Tiso met with Jozef Faláth (the head of the "central office for the Jewish question " who had already contacts to Nazi Party politicians in Vienna ) and Jozef Kirschbaum . Tiso, who

4428-481: The Jewish deportations from Slovakia, it is clear that, in line with German policy and "suggestions" as well as his earlier anti-semitism, he encouraged these actions, despite condemnation of the deportations from some Slovak bishops. In February 1942, Slovakia became the first Nazi ally to agree to deportations. The Nazis had asked for 20,000 young able-bodied Jews for labour duties. Tiso had hoped that compliance would aid in

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4536-628: The Kingdom of Hungary positively influenced the development of common consciousness and companionship among Slavs in the Northern Hungary, not only within boundaries of present-day Slovakia. The clear difference between Slovaks and Hungarians made adoption of a specific name unnecessary and Slovaks preserved their original name (in Latin e.g. Slavus ), which was also used in communication with other Slavic peoples (Polonus, Bohemus, Ruthenus). In political terms,

4644-557: The Middle Ages, when some of the greatest masterpieces of the country's history were created. Significant figures from this period included the many Old Masters , among them the Master Paul of Levoča and Master MS . More contemporary art can be seen in the shadows of Koloman Sokol , Albín Brunovský , Martin Benka , Mikuláš Galanda , Ľudovít Fulla . Julius Koller and Stanislav Filko, in

4752-666: The Slovak People's Party and the Hlinka Guard (HSĽS), and also an acceleration in Slovakia's anti-Jewish policies. The Nazi government appointed Sturmabteilung leader Manfred von Killinger as the German representative in Slovakia. Tiso however accepted these changes in subsequent conversation with Hitler. SS Officer Dieter Wisliceny was dispatched to Slovakia to act as an "adviser" on Jewish issues. The Party under Tiso and Tuka's leadership aligned itself with Nazi policy by implementing anti-semitic legislation in Slovakia. The main act

4860-611: The Slovak ambassador twice to enquire as to what was happening in Slovakia. According to British historian Richard Evans , these interventions "caused Tiso, who after all was still a priest in holy orders, to have second thoughts about the programme". Giuseppe Burzio and others reported to Tiso that the Germans were murdering the deported Jews. Tiso hesitated and then refused to deport Slovakia's 24,000 remaining Jews. According to Mazower, "Church pressure and public anger resulted in perhaps 20,000 Jews being granted exemptions, effectively bringing

4968-412: The Slovak nation to the time of Pribina (trials to document existence of Slovaks in early Slavic era, i.e. in the time of Samo's empire, are marginal and exist outside of modern mainstream Slovak historiography). After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the formation of independent Slovakia motivated interest in a particularly Slovak national identity. One reflection of this was the rejection of

5076-482: The Slovakian episcopate issued a pastoral letter condemning totalitarianism and antisemitism on 8 May 1943. According to Evans, Tuka was "forced to backtrack by public protests, especially from the Church, which by this time had been convinced of the fate that awaited the deportees. Pressure from the Germans, including a direct confrontation between Hitler and Tiso on 22 April 1943, remained without effect." In August 1944,

5184-671: The Slovaks began to transform into a modern nation from the 18th century under the idea of national romanticism . The modern Slovak nation is the result of radical processes of modernization within the Habsburg Empire which culminated in the middle of the 19th century. The transformation process was slowed down by conflict with Hungarian nationalism and the ethnogenesis of the Slovaks become a political question, particularly regarding their deprivation and preservation of their language and national rights. In 1722, Michal Bencsik , professor of law at

5292-469: The action. As a prime minister and minister of the interior of the autonomous government, Tiso had extensive powers. In October–December 1938, his government did not share power with any other Slovak public body, because the autonomous parliament was elected only thereafter. During this period, HSĽS forbade activities of all political parties except those that agreed to join the governing coalition "voluntarily" and two parties representing minority populations,

5400-556: The common Czechoslovak national identity in favour of a purely Slovak one. The first known Slavic states on the territory of present-day Slovakia were the Empire of Samo and the Principality of Nitra , founded sometime in the 8th century. Great Moravia (833 – 902-907) was a Slavic state in the 9th and early 10th centuries, whose creators were the ancestors of the Czechs and Slovaks. Important developments took place at this time, including

5508-473: The contemporary society, including among priests or other people with higher education. He blamed the Jewish tavern owners for the rising alcoholism and he was also a member of self-help association selling food and clothing cheaper than the local Jewish store. Tiso became a member of Nép párt ( Catholic People's Party ) and contributed to its Slovak journal Kresťan (Christian). During the World War I, he served as

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5616-460: The context of the Catholic Church. In 1740, Pope Benedict XIV wrote a letter titled Ubi primum , which is generally regarded as the first encyclical. The term is now used almost exclusively for a kind of letter sent out by the pope. For the modern Catholic Church , a papal encyclical is a specific category of papal document, a kind of pastoral letter concerning Catholic doctrine, sent by

5724-489: The country is Slovensko . The first written mention of adjective slovenský (Slovak) is in 1294 ( ad parvam arborem nystra slowenski breza ubi est meta ). The original name of Slovaks Slověninъ / Slověně was still recorded in Pressburg Latin-Czech Dictionary (the 14th century), but it changed to Slovák under the influence of Czech and Polish (around 1400). The first written mention of new form in

5832-477: The coup, gradually strengthened his position in the party hierarchy. His elite education, high intelligence, energy, large working experiences with common people and his ability to speak in common terms made him a popular speaker and journalist of the party. In 1919, he founded a subsidiary of the party in Nitra and he organized a gymnastic organization, Orol (Eagle), the counterweight of a similar Czech/Czechoslovak organization Sokol . Tiso first ran for parliament in

5940-427: The creation of the united Czechoslovak nation , gained political support in inter-war Czechoslovakia. Like Karácsonyi, Czech historian Václav Chaloupecký assumed that northern and central parts of Slovakia remained uninhabited until the 13th century and that the south-western part was inhabited by Czechs. Yet, in 1946 Chaloupecký assumed that the Slovak nation emerged from neighboring Slavs and had been formed only in

6048-404: The decision to participate in the government. As a minister, Tiso successfully realized several important health service projects in Slovakia. Surprisingly, he refused the government ministry flat, staying in one of Prague monasteries. In October 1929, HSĽS left the government after the Tuka affair. Tiso was more inclined than Hlinka to find compromises with other parties to form alliances, but for

6156-411: The deportations there to an end". When in 1943 rumours of further deportations emerged, the Papal Nuncio in Istanbul , Msgr. Angelo Roncalli (later Pope John XXIII) and Burzio helped galvanize the Holy See into intervening in vigorous terms. On 7 April 1943, Burzio challenged Tuka over the rumours of extermination of Slovak Jews. The Vatican then condemned the renewal of the deportations on 5 May and

6264-440: The entire northern half of present-day Hungary. The territory of present-day Slovakia was split in two parts between the Kingdom of Hungary (under Hungarian rule gradually from 907 to the early 14th century) to Upper Hungary and Royal Hungary (under the Habsburgs from 1527 – 1848 (see also Hungarian Revolution of 1848 )) until the formation of Czechoslovakia in 1918. However, according to other historians, from 895 to 902,

6372-480: The first place, and official data of the countries as of 2000/2001 in the second place ). The list stems from Claude Baláž, a Canadian Slovak, the current plenipotentiary of the Government of the Slovak Republic for Slovaks abroad (see e.g.: ): The number of Slovaks living outside Slovakia in line with the above data was estimated at max. 2,016,000 in 2001 (2,660,000 in 1991), implying that, in sum, there were max. some 6,630,854 Slovaks in 2001 (7,180,000 in 1991) in

6480-462: The former Habsburg monarchy (the Kingdom of Hungary was in personal union with the Habsburg monarchy from 1867 to 1918). People of Slovakia spent most part of the 20th century within the framework of Czechoslovakia , a new state formed after World War I. Significant reforms and post-World War II industrialization took place during this time. Slovak was strongly influenced by Czech during this period. The art of Slovakia can be traced back to

6588-460: The future of Slovakia. In May 1938, Tiso held secret negotiations with the Hungarian Foreign Minister Affairs Kálmán Kánya during a eucharistic congress in Budapest . He declared that Slovakia might be prepared to rejoin Hungary as an autonomous federal state should Czechoslovakia cease to exist. However, the meeting did not go well. Tiso was disappointed by Kánya's attitude and alleged Hungarian historical claims on Slovakia and felt Kánya's behaviour

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6696-401: The government also found itself overloaded while trying to stabilize the situation with Germany. Tiso opposed the proposals of the Hungarian delegation but acted as a flexible and patient negotiator. When the Hungarian delegation refused further discussion, Tiso sought the help of Germany. This had already been promised by German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop , if necessary. Later, Tiso

6804-467: The legacy of collaboration." Members of the far-right in admiration of Tiso created a memorial grave in Martin cemetery in October of 2008 to commemorate Tiso. It has since been used as an occasional gathering place for many far-right groups, including the People's Party Our Slovakia . Ultranationalist propaganda proclaims Tiso as a " martyr " who "sacrificed his life for his belief and nation", and so tries to paint him as an innocent victim of communism and

6912-424: The medieval Slovaks were a part of the multi-ethnic political nation Natio Hungarica , together with Hungarians (or, more exactly, Magyars), Slavonians, Germans, Romanians and other ethnic groups in the Kingdom of Hungary. Since a medieval political nation did not consist of ordinary people but nobility, membership of the privileged class was necessary for all these peoples ( nobiles Hungary ). Like other nations,

7020-492: The mission of Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius , the development of the Glagolitic alphabet (an early form of the Cyrillic script ), and the use of Old Church Slavonic as the official and literary language. Its formation and rich cultural heritage have attracted somewhat more interest since the 19th century. The original territory inhabited by the Slavic tribes included not only present-day Slovakia, but also parts of present-day Poland, southeastern Moravia and approximately

7128-536: The modern parachute; Aurel Stodola , inventor of the bionic arm and pioneer in thermodynamics; and, more recently, John Dopyera , father of modern acoustic string instruments. Hungarian inventors Joseph Petzval and Ányos Jedlik were born of Slovak fathers. Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors , of whom include Pavol Jozef Šafárik , Matej Bel , Ján Kollár , and its political revolutionaries, such Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Alexander Dubček . There were two leading persons who codified Slovak. The first one

7236-479: The new capital of the kingdom, the importance of the territory, as well as other parts within the Kingdom fell, and many Slovaks were impoverished. As a result, hundreds of thousands of Slovaks emigrated to North America, especially in the late 19th and early 20th century (between cca. 1880–1910), a total of at least 1.5 million emigrants. Slovakia exhibits a very rich folk culture. A part of Slovak customs and social convention are common with those of other nations of

7344-545: The old Hungarians (Magyars), but Slovaks emerged later from other Slavs who came to the Kingdom of Hungary from neighbouring countries after the 13th century. János Karácsonyi assumed that central and northern Slovakia were uninhabited (1901) and in his next work "Our historical right to the territorial integrity of our country" (1921) he claimed that the remainder of the original Slavs were assimilated by Magyars and modern Slovaks are descendants of immigrants from Upper Moravia and Oder (the population density on these territories

7452-433: The oppressions of the Prague government, now also sought autonomy. Tiso's Catholic-conservative feelings initially inhibited him from what appeared to be revolutionary moves. However, within a few days Hitler invited Tiso to Berlin , and offered assistance for Slovak nationhood. Hitler suggested that Slovakia should declare independence under German protection (i.e.: Protectorate status), and that if not Hungary might annex

7560-467: The party. In his absence, Tiso led complicated negotiations about an entry of HSĽS into the government. He was successful and thus strengthened his position. In January 1927, he became the Czechoslovak Minister of Health and Physical Education. Since HSĽS previously operated as an opposition party and was not able to fulfill all of its promises, the participation in the government led to the loss of credibility. Tiso again proved his speaker skills and supported

7668-455: The pope and usually addressed especially to patriarchs, primates, archbishops and bishops who are in communion with the Holy See . The form of the address can vary widely and may concern bishops in a particular area, or designate a wider audience. Papal encyclicals usually take the form of a papal brief because of their more personal nature as opposed to the formal papal bull . They are usually written in Latin , and like most papal documents

7776-534: The popes do not exercise the supreme power of their magisterium. For these matters are taught by the ordinary magisterium, regarding which the following is pertinent: "He who heareth you, heareth Me." (Luke 10:16); and usually what is set forth and inculcated in Encyclical Letters, already pertains to Catholic doctrine. But if the Supreme Pontiffs in their acts, after due consideration, express an opinion on

7884-525: The reconstituted Czechoslovakia to stand trial in October 1945. On 15 April 1947, the Czechoslovak National Court (Národný súd) found him guilty of many of the allegations against him, and sentenced him to death for "state treason, betrayal of the antifascist partisan insurrection and collaboration with Nazism ". The court concluded that Tiso's government had been responsible for the break-up of

7992-702: The remaining territory of Slovakia. Without making an agreement, Tiso now requested the Czecho-Slovak President to call a meeting of the Slovak Diet for 14 March. During that session Tiso made a speech informing the Diet of his conversation with Hitler, confirming that he reserved any move for an independence decision to come from the Slovak Diet. On the initiative of the President of the assembly, Martin Sokol (himself previously

8100-610: The restored Czechoslovakia , where he was convicted of high treason, betrayal of the national uprising and collaboration with the Nazis, and then executed by hanging in 1947 and buried in Bratislava. In 2008, his remains were buried in the canonical crypt of the Cathedral in Nitra , Slovakia. Tiso was born in Bytča (then Hungarian : Nagybiccse ) to Slovak parents, in Trencsén County , of

8208-467: The restored Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Hungary, Romania , Serbia , and Croatia ) under Maria Theresia , and that is how present-day Slovak enclaves (like Slovaks in Vojvodina , Slovaks in Hungary ) in these countries arose. After Transylvania , Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) was the most advanced part of the Kingdom of Hungary for centuries, but in the 19th century, when Buda / Pest became

8316-506: The return of 120,000 Slovak workers from Germany. In August 1942, after the majority of Slovak Jews had been sent to German-occupied Poland and it became clear that the deportees were being systematically murdered, Tiso gave a speech in Holič in which he called for Slovaks to "cast off your parasite [the Jews]" and justified continuing deportations of Jews from Slovakia. On 30 August, Hitler commented "It

8424-481: The roots of the Slovaks to Great Moravia in Historia gentis Slavae. De regno regibusque Slavorum... (1780) ("History of the Slovak nation: On the kingdom and kings of the Slovaks"). Papánek's work became a basis for argumentation of the Slovak national revival movement. However, the Slovak national revival not only accepted the continuity of population but also emphasized it, thus proving that Slovaks are equal citizens of

8532-461: The state and neither a Hungarian "unique statesmanlike gift" nor Christianization was required for the foundation of the state. In 1876, Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy published a theory about missing continuity between Slovaks and Slavs before the arrival of the Hungarians. Hunfalvy tried to prove that ancestors of Slovaks did not live in the territory of the present-day Slovakia before arrival of

8640-575: The state hierarchy or the ruling Liberal party, but he never denounced the Magyarisation or the Magyar nationalism . At the same time, he was more focused on social and religious activities among the Slovaks without revealing his ethnic or national self-identification. Most importantly, Tiso publicly acted as a loyal subject of the Habsburg dynasty . Interestingly that his writings rather reveals that his identity

8748-453: The state or its regime – the first collaborating with Hungarian irredentism and the second led by pro-fascist Rodobrana . Tiso did not participate in these. In the late 1920s, Tiso became one of the party's leaders. When the president of the party Andrej Hlinka traveled in 1926 to the 28th International Eucharistic Congress in Chicago , he delegated Tiso to represent him in the presidium of

8856-455: The state, nor recognise the legal continuation of Czechoslovakia. Tiso was initially Prime Minister from 14 March 1939 until 26 October 1939. Tiso not only supported Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland in September 1939 but contributed Slovak troops, which the Germans rewarded by allowing Slovakia to annex 300 square miles of Polish territory. On 1 October 1939, Tiso officially became President of

8964-412: The subsequent independence of Slovakia, heated debate began again on his role. James Mace Ward writes in Tiso's biography Priest, Politician, Collaborator (2013): "At its worst, [the debate] was fuel for an ultranationalist attempt to reconstruct Slovak society, helping to destabilize Czechoslovakia. At its best, the debate inspired a thoughtful reassessment of Tiso and encouraged Slovaks to grapple with

9072-486: The territory of Slovakia, but stated that the Slovaks' origin was in sparse settlement of various Slavic groups strengthened by later colonization. According to Ferenc Makk, the medieval Moravians are not the ancestors of Slovaks and the majority of the Slovak people are descended from later Slavic newcomers. The opposite theory, supporting the supposed former common past of the Czech and Slovak nations , thus also legitimizing

9180-539: The territory of present-day Slovakia is from Bardejov (1444, " Nicoulaus Cossibor hauptman, Nicolaus Czech et Slowak, stipendiarii supremi "). The mentions in Czech sources are older (1375 and 1385). The change is not related to the ethnogenesis of Slovaks, but exclusively to linguistic changes in the West Slavic languages. The word Slovak was used also later as a common name for all Slavs in Czech, Polish, and also Slovak together with other forms. In Hungarian, "Slovak"

9288-492: The title of the encyclical is usually taken from its first few words (its incipit ). In the encyclical Humani generis , Pope Pius XII held that papal encyclicals, even when they are of ordinary magisterium , can nonetheless be sufficiently authoritative to end theological debate on a particular question: It is not to be thought that what is set down in Encyclical letters does not demand assent in itself, because in this

9396-518: The towns, as work-seeking colonists and mining experts from the 13th to the 15th century. Jews and Gypsies also formed significant populations within the territory. During the period, most of present-day Slovakia was part of Habsburg rule, but Ottoman ruled southern and southeasternmost parts of it. After the Ottoman Empire was forced to retreat from present-day Hungary around 1700, thousands of Slovaks were gradually settled in depopulated parts of

9504-419: The whole area of the present-day Slovakia became part of the rising Principality of Hungary, and became (without gradation) part of the Kingdom of Hungary a century later. A separate entity called Nitra Frontier Duchy , existed at this time within the Kingdom of Hungary. This duchy was abolished in 1107. The territory inhabited by the Slovaks in present-day Hungary was gradually reduced. When most of Hungary

9612-463: The world. The estimate according to the right-hand site chart yields an approximate population of Slovaks living outside Slovakia of 1.5 million. Other (much higher) estimates stemming from the Dom zahraničných Slovákov (House of Foreign Slovaks) can be found on SME . Encyclical Although the term "encyclical" originally simply meant a circulating letter, it acquired a more specific meaning within

9720-538: The Ľudák party. Tiso was an official speaker from the party at Hlinka's funeral where he urged national unity and loyalty to the Czechoslovak republic. He, however, continued negotiations with the central government in Prague, explained the goals of potential autonomy and refused a military solution of the Czechoslovak-German crisis. In October 1938, following the Munich Agreement , Germany annexed and occupied

9828-512: Was Anton Bernolák whose concept was based on the dialect of western Slovakia (1787). It was the enactment of the first national standard language for the Slovaks. The second notable man was Ľudovít Štúr . His formation of Slovak had principles in the dialect of central Slovakia (1843). The best known Slovak hero was Juraj Jánošík (the Slovak equivalent of Robin Hood ). The prominent explorer and diplomat Móric Beňovský, Hungarian transcript Benyovszky

9936-489: Was Slovak as well (he comes from Vrbové in present-day Slovakia and is e.g. listed as "nobilis Slavicus – Slovak nobleman" in his secondary school registration). In terms of sports, the Slovaks are probably best known (in North America) for their ice hockey personalities, especially Stan Mikita , Peter Šťastný , Peter Bondra , Žigmund Pálffy , Marián Hossa and Zdeno Chára . For a list see List of Slovaks . Zdeno Chára

10044-511: Was appointed Monsignor by the Vatican, although this appointment lapsed with the later death of Pope Benedict XV . From 1921 to 1923, he served as the secretary to the new Slovak bishop of Nitra, Karol Kmeťko. During the same period, nationalist political agitation earned Tiso two convictions by the Czechoslovak courts for incitement, one of which resulted in a short incarceration. Displeased, Kmeťko dropped him as secretary in 1923, but retained him as

10152-457: Was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1541 (see Ottoman Hungary ), the territory of present-day Slovakia became the new center of the reduced kingdom that remained under Hungarian, and later Habsburg rule, officially called Royal Hungary. Some Croats settled around and in present-day Bratislava for similar reasons. Also, many Germans settled in the Kingdom of Hungary, especially in

10260-508: Was halted, Slovakia then became the first of Hitler's puppet states to shut down the deportations. Mazower wrote: "When the Vatican protested, the government responded with defiance: 'There is no foreign intervention which would stop us on the road to the liberation of Slovakia from Jewry', insisted President Tiso". Distressing scenes at railway yards of deportees being beaten by Hlinka guards had brought protests, including from leading churchmen such as Bishop Pavol Jantausch . The Vatican called in

10368-459: Was introduced to priesthood from an early age, and helped combat local poverty and alcoholism in what is now Slovakia. He joined the Slovak People's Party ( Slovenská ľudová strana ) in 1918 and became party leader in 1938 following the death of Andrej Hlinka . On 14 March 1939, the Slovak Assembly in Bratislava unanimously adopted Law 1/1939 transforming the autonomous Slovak Republic (that

10476-490: Was lofty and arrogant. He concluded that Hungary was not seriously interested in a common agreement and was focused more on the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, as was Germany. Therefore, well aware of the weak economic position of Slovakia, the lack of qualified people and an unstable international situation, he felt he was stuck with Czechoslovakia for the time being. When Hlinka died in August 1938, Tiso quickly consolidated control of

10584-480: Was named secretary of new Slovak National Council and embraced politics as a career. In December 1918, Tiso became a member of the restored Slovak People's Party ( Slovenská ľudová strana, so called " Ľudáks "). The party supported the idea of parliamentary democracy, defended interests of its Slovak Catholic voters and sought Slovak autonomy within the Czecho-Slovakia framework. Tiso, largely unknown before

10692-530: Was not straightforward. Also, it was still unclear to which state Nitra would belong after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary . In these conditions, he began to prepare his readers for the new state and political regime. On 8 December 1918, the Hungarian National Council in Nitra delegated him to negotiate with the Czechoslovak Army which was invited to "restore and maintain public order". Tiso

10800-441: Was otherwise a relatively pragmatic politician, adopted an unusually firm solution. On 4 November 1938 he ordered the deportation of Jews "without property", and later those without citizenship, to the territory now annexed by Hungary. His government then deported more than 7,500 people including elderly people, pregnant women, and at least 570 children under age 15 to no man's land in rainy autumn weather. On 7 November, he cancelled

10908-570: Was probably accelerated by Avars , who did not respect tribal differences in the controlled territory and motivated remaining Slavs to join together and to collaborate on their defense. In the 7th century, Slavs founded a larger tribal union: Samo's empire . Regardless of Samo's empire, the integration process continued in other territories with various intensities. The final fall of the Avar Khaganate allowed new political entities to arise. The first such political unit documented by written sources

11016-417: Was shocked by the First Vienna Award , so much so that he initially refused to sign the protocol. In a radio speech to the citizens, Tiso did not mention Ribbentrop's promise, but blamed the Prague government and its "policies of the past twenty years". The Slovak government guarantees all citizens adequate assistance and protection. The day before the award, police arrested several Jews at a demonstration of

11124-501: Was stronger linked to the entire monarchy of Austria-Hungary, than to the Kingdom of Hungary, whose citizen he formally was. In the autumn of 1918, Tiso recognized that the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was unsustainable. He also understood that the historical Kingdom of Hungary could not be preserved anymore. Regardless of the formal Czechoslovak declaration of independence , the way to real control of Czechoslovak bodies over Slovakia

11232-606: Was the Jewish Code, under which Jews in Slovakia could not own any real estate or luxury goods , were excluded from public office and free occupations, could not participate in sport or cultural events, were excluded from secondary schools and universities, and were required to wear the Star of David in public. Tiso himself had anti-semitic views (as his earlier journalism made clear) which were widespread in Slovakia. Although there are dissenting opinions by modern politicians on his role in

11340-462: Was the only party representing the Slovaks and the only party which spoke for the Slovak nation. These claims played a significant role in the later end of the democratic regime. "One nation, one party, one leader", Tiso declared at the party congress held in 1936. The party should cover all aspects of the life. In 1938, with increasing pressure from Nazi Germany and Hungary , the representatives of HSĽS questioned neighboring states on their views for

11448-454: Was too low in that time and large numbers of colonists coming from these areas was not possible ). The theory was then misused by inter-war Hungarian revisionists, who questioned continuity to support Hungarian claims on Slovakia. In 1982, when rich archaeological evidence proving the opposite was already available, a similar theory was published by Hungarian historian György Györffy . Györffy accepted that smaller groups of Slavs could remain in

11556-890: Was until then part of Czechoslovakia ) into an independent country. Two days after Nazi Germany seized the remainder of the Czech Lands , the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was proclaimed. Jozef Tiso, who was already the prime minister of the autonomous Slovakia (under Czechoslovak laws), became the Slovak Republic's prime minister, and, in October 1939, he was elected its president. Tiso collaborated with Germany in deportations of Jews, deporting many Slovak Jews to extermination and concentration camps in Germany and German-occupied Poland, while some Jews in Slovakia were murdered outright. Deportations were executed from 25 March 1942 until 20 October 1942. An anti-fascist partisan insurgency

11664-465: Was waged, culminating in the Slovak National Uprising in summer 1944, which was suppressed by German military authorities, with many of its leaders executed. Consequently, on 30 September 1944, deportations of Jews were renewed, with additional 13,500 deported. When the Soviet Red Army overran the last parts of western Slovakia in April 1945, Tiso fled to Austria and then Germany , where American troops arrested him and then had him extradited back to

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