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63-625: With westward expansion of the United States , Colorado saw a number of trading posts and small settlements established in the Arkansas and South Platte valleys including Bent's Fort and El Pueblo . Southern Colorado, previously part of New Spain , was ceded in 1848 to the United States following the end of the Mexican–American War (1846–48). The early history of the Arkansas valley ends with

126-409: A few and driving them away. Gantt abandoned his fort that winter. The Bents left their stockade and built Bent's Fort about 70 miles down the Arkansas. The adobe forts were built by Mexican laborers hired for construction and other work. Mexican workmen built permanent adobe forts and trading posts as far north and west as Idaho and were a major part of the frontier workforce forming the foundation of

189-814: A gas station on the reservation. The tribe issues their own tribal license plates through the Tax Commission. Their oral history states that the Plains Apache broke away from the Tsuutʼina , an Athabascan people who moved onto the Great Plains in Alberta, Canada . They migrated south, where the Lakota gave them territory south of the Black Hills in what became South Dakota and Wyoming . The Apache are associated with

252-594: A head in 1860 and 1861, when the governments of the southern states proclaimed their secession from the country and formed the Confederate States of America . The American Civil War led to the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865 and the eventual readmission of the states to the United States Congress . The cultural endeavor and pursuit of manifest destiny provided a strong impetus for westward expansion in

315-650: A person must be able to prove they have at least 1/8 Native American ancestry to be considered eligible for tribal enrollment. As of 2024, the Tribe Chairman is Durell Cooper, supported by Vice Chairman Matt Tselee, Secretary/Treasurer Ruth Bert and committee members Donald Komardley and Dustin Cozard. In addition to the Apache Business Committee outlined above, the tribe also operates the following tribal departments: The Apache Tribe of Oklahoma owns and operates

378-433: A sizable claim by Virginia. Of the three, only Connecticut seriously pursued its claims, while Virginia is considered to have had the most legitimate claim to the vast northwest, dividing it into counties and maintaining some limited control. The entirety of the new United States was claimed by Great Britain, including Machias Seal Island and North Rock , two small islands off the northeast coast which remain disputed up to

441-538: Is also written Na-i-shan Dine . They were also called Káłt'inde or γát dìndé meaning "cedar people" or Bek'áhe meaning "whetstone people". The Plains Apache are also known as the Kiowa Apache. To their Kiowa allies, who speak an unrelated language, the Plains Apache are known as Semat. At major historical tribal events, the Plains Apache formed part of the Kiowa tribal "hoop" (ring of tipis ). This may explain why

504-852: The Arapaho and Cheyenne people moved southward into the Arkansas River Valley, becoming allies of the Comanche. Author Hämäläinen postulated a Comanche proto-empire in the early 19th century with an important trading emporium in the Big Timbers , a cottonwood forest bordering the Arkansas from La Junta downstream to near the Kansas border. The Spanish settled in New Mexico called the Arkansas River in Colorado

567-522: The Colorado Gold Rush of 1858 when large numbers of Anglo-Americans began to arrive in Colorado. Colorado achieved statehood in 1876. From prehistoric times until the 19th century, bands of the Ute people occupied the upper Arkansas River valley, roughly upstream from present day Pueblo, Colorado . East of Pueblo on the Great Plains and along the Arkansas lived the semi-agricultural Apache peoples of

630-689: The Dismal River Culture . By the 1730s most of the Apache were driven southward by the Comanche who had begun to dominate the Arkansas River valley in Colorado. The Jicarilla Apache , however, survived by moving from the Arkansas River to the Colorado/New Mexico border area and cultivating friendly relations with the Spanish colonists in New Mexico. During the first half of the 19th century, some factions of

693-617: The Dismal River culture (ca. 1650–1750) of the western Plains, generally attributed to the Paloma and Cuartelejo Apaches. Jicarilla Apache pottery has also been found in some of the Dismal River complex sites. Some of the people from the Dismal River culture joined the Plains Apache in the Black Hills. Due to pressure from the Comanche from the west and Pawnee and French from the east,

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756-480: The Kiowa and Comanche was only briefly maintained; however, later, two battles were fought at its ruins, by then known as Adobe Walls . The fur trade collapsed about 1840 due to over-trapping and changing fashions. Former trappers were forced to seek alternative occupations which led to the establishment of trading and agricultural settlements in the Arkansas River valley of Colorado. El Pueblo , also called Fort Pueblo,

819-653: The Northern Mariana Islands became a U.S. territory, the Marshall Islands , Federated States of Micronesia , and Palau emerged from the trust territory as independent nations. The last major international change was the acquisition in 1904, and return to Panama in 1979, of the Panama Canal Zone , an unincorporated US territory which controlled the Panama Canal . The final cession of formal control over

882-604: The Public Land Strip , or sometimes "No Man's Land". Atafu , Birnie Island , Butaritari , Caroline Island , Fanning Island , Flint Island , Gardner Island , Canton Island , Kingman Reef , Manihiki , Marakei , Nukunono , Palmyra Atoll , Penrhyn , Pukapuka , Rakahanga , Swains Island , Sydney Island , Vostok Island , and Washington Island were all claimed under the Guano Islands Act . Many additional islands were listed as bonded on this date, but based on

945-645: The Rio Grande (as by flooding), for the border to be altered to follow the new course. The sudden changes often created bancos (land surrounded by bends in the river that became segregated from either country by a cutoff, often due to rapid accretion or avulsion of the alluvial channel), especially in the Lower Rio Grande Valley. When these bancos are created, the International Boundary and Water Commission investigates if land previously belonging to

1008-611: The Santa Fe Trail . Becknell's pack train followed the Arkansas River from Missouri to near present-day La Junta, Colorado , then turned southwest and followed the Arkansas River tributary, the Purgatoire River , southwest to New Mexico. Wagon trains with trade goods followed this route until 1880. In 1822 Jacob Fowler and a few men of the Glenn-Fowler Expedition spent a month living at the future site of Pueblo becoming

1071-654: The Second Continental Congress two days prior, the colonies resolved that they were free and independent states. The union was formalized in the Articles of Confederation , which came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. Their independence was recognized by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which concluded the American Revolutionary War . This effectively doubled

1134-601: The Southern Plains of North America , in close association with the linguistically unrelated Kiowa Tribe . Today, they are headquartered in Southwestern Oklahoma and are federally recognized as the Apache Tribe of Oklahoma . They mostly live in Comanche and Caddo County, Oklahoma . Their autonym is Ná'ishą , or "takers" based on their skill at stealing horses, or Naishadena , meaning "our people." This

1197-536: The Tennessee River ; it is unknown how official or strong these claims were, and they are not mapped as they are in conflict with the other Spanish claim involving the border of West Florida. The acquisition expanded the United States to the whole of the Mississippi River basin, but the extent of what constituted Louisiana in the south was disputed with Spain : the United States claimed the purchase included

1260-466: The Treaty of Paris of 1898 had excluded these islands; the new treaty simply ceded "any and all islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago". The United States recognized the sovereignty of Tuvalu over Funafuti , Nukufetau , Nukulaelae , and Niulakita . The Banco Convention of 1905 between the United States and Mexico allowed, in the event of sudden changes in the course of

1323-748: The annexation of Hawaii in 1898, after the overthrow of its government five years previously. Alaska , the last major acquisition in North America, was purchased from Russia in 1867. Support for the independence of Cuba from the Spanish Empire , and the sinking of the USS Maine , led to the Spanish–American War in 1898, in which the United States gained Puerto Rico , Guam , and the Philippines , and occupied Cuba for several years. American Samoa

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1386-513: The 19th century. The United States began expanding beyond North America in 1856 with the passage of the Guano Islands Act , causing many small and uninhabited, but economically important, islands in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean to be claimed. Most of these claims were eventually abandoned, largely because of competing claims from other countries. The Pacific expansion culminated in

1449-768: The Apache Golden Eagle Casino in Apache, Oklahoma . The Golden Eagle Casino was previously closed in 2013 due to a tribal dispute, along with the Silver Buffalo Casino in Anadarko, Oklahoma. Only the Golden Eagle Casino reopened once the dispute was settled. The casino is under the jurisdiction of the Apache Gaming Commission, headed by Gaming Commissioner Ryan Adudell. There is also a smokeshop and

1512-457: The Arkansas River in Colorado. In 1779, New Mexico Governor Juan Bautista de Anza led an expedition of more than 600 Spaniards and Indians north into Colorado to punish the Comanche who were raiding the Spanish colonies. De Anza defeated the Comanches south of the Arkansas River near Greenhorn Mountain . in 1787, the Spanish established a settlement called San Carlos de los Jupes at the junction of

1575-408: The Arkansas River upstream to explore for the United States the newly acquired Louisiana territory. Pike and his men strayed into Spanish territory and were arrested and imprisoned. In 1811 Ezekial Williams (not to be confused with Old Bill Williams ) trapped in the upper Arkansas valley. William Becknell opened trade between the United States and newly-independent Mexico in 1821 when he established

1638-473: The Arkansas and the St. Charles River about 8 miles (13 km) east of present day Pueblo. The Jupes were a Comanche sub-tribe and the purpose of the settlement was to encourage the Comanches to become sedentary Christians. San Carlos failed within a year. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 gave the U.S. ownership of a large, but undefined, portion of the Arkansas River Valley. The Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 established

1701-440: The Arkansas. However, in 1848, the U.S. and Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo by which New Mexico and southern Colorado became part of the United States. Kentuckian James Purcell (Pursley) is the first American known to visit the Arkansas River in Colorado. In 1805, he traversed the upper Arkansas with a large band of Paducah (perhaps Plains Apache ) and Kiowa Indians. The Zebulon Pike expedition of 1806 followed

1764-743: The Indian Wars. It would be the last battle in which the Natives repelled the U.S. Army in the Southern Plains. The Kiowa-Comanche-Apache (KCA) Reservation was broken up into individual allotments under the 1889 Springer Amendment to the Indian Appropriations Act . The so-called "surplus" lands of the KCA Reservaton were opened up to white settlement in 1901. The U.S. federal government took more KCA lands in 1906. Despite tribal opposition to

1827-538: The Kiowa and remaining people of Dismal River culture migrated south where they later joined the Lipan Apache and Jicarilla Apache nations. In the early 18th century, the Plains Apache lived around the upper Missouri River and maintained close connections to the Kiowa. They were ethnically different and spoke different languages. They communicated with their allies using the sophisticated Plains Indian Sign Language . The Plains Apache continued migrating south along

1890-584: The Kiowa named the Plains Apache Taugui meaning "sitting outside". Today the tribe is headquartered in Anadarko, Oklahoma . Their tribal jurisdictional area covers parts of Caddo , Comanche , Cotton , Greer , Jackson , Kiowa , Tillman and Harmon Counties in Oklahoma. In 2011, the tribe had 2,263 total members, of whom 1,814 lived in-state. Tribal membership is based on 1/8 blood quantum , meaning

1953-585: The Rio Napestle. In 1644, Juan de Archuleta led the first known Spanish expedition to the Arkansas River valley in Colorado. Archuleta's objective was to find and force Pueblo Indians from Taos who had fled Spanish rule to El Quartelejo , a vaguely defined region from the Arkansas River northward. He found the runaway Pueblos near present day Las Animas. (Some sources state that this expedition took place in 1664.) In 1706, Juan de Ulibarri led another expedition to El Quartelejo, to recapture runaway Pueblos, crossing

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2016-582: The Union . In 1912, Arizona was the last state established in the contiguous United States , commonly called the "lower 48". In 1959, Hawaii was the 50th and most recent state admitted. The capital was not specifically established; at the time, the Continental Congress met in Philadelphia . Many states had vaguely defined and surveyed borders; these are not noted as contested in the maps unless there

2079-608: The United Kingdom on the other, was clarified by the treaty. In 1816, construction began on an unnamed fort nicknamed " Fort Blunder " on a peninsula in Lake Champlain that, while south of the surveyed border, was discovered to be north of 45° north , which was the border set by the Treaty of Paris and thus in British territory. Consequently, construction on the fort was abandoned. The Webster–Ashburton Treaty specified that section of

2142-462: The United States or Mexico is to be considered on the other side of the border. In all cases of these adjustments along the Rio Grande under the 1905 convention, which occurred on 37 different dates from 1910 to 1976, the transferred land was minuscule (ranging from one to 646 acres) and uninhabited. Plains Apache The Plains Apache are a small Southern Athabaskan tribe who live on

2205-624: The Washita River to the Red River and Western Oklahoma with the Comanche and the Kiowa. The 1890 Census showed 1,598 Comanche at the Fort Sill reservation, which they shared with 1,140 Kiowa and 326 Plains Apache. Some groups of Plains Apache refused to settle on reservations and were involved in Kiowa and Comanche uprisings, most notably the First Battle of Adobe Walls which was the largest battle of

2268-713: The bi-cultural population of Southern Colorado. The trading post operated until some time in 1835. Bent, St. Vrain & Company was a partnership formed in New Mexico by Charles Bent and Ceran St. Vrain , traders on the Santa Fe Trail from St. Louis. In 1832 they entered the Indian trade as licensed traders, completing Bent's Fort in 1835 with Charles' younger brother William as manager. William Bent, as well as younger brothers George and Robert later became partners. Marcellin St. Vrain, Ceran's younger brother, who managed Fort St. Vrain for

2331-428: The border between Spanish Mexico and the United States in Colorado. Spanish territory was south of the Arkansas river and U.S. territory was north of the River. The government of New Mexico attempted to counter growing U.S. influence in its territory by giving large land grants to prominent citizens and encouraging settlement of the land grants. The Vigil and St. Vrain grant of 1843 spanned most of eastern Colorado south of

2394-410: The border was to follow the surveyed line, rather than the exact parallel, thus moving the fort's area into the United States, and a new fort, Fort Montgomery , would be built on the spot in 1844. As the earlier line was surveyed, even though it did not match the definition, it was deemed to be the legitimate border. The treaty was vague on which strait should be the border between Vancouver Island and

2457-483: The continent, thus causing a dispute over ownership of the San Juan Islands . It specified "through the middle of the said channel and of Fuca Straits, to the Pacific Ocean". A small strip between the Texas Panhandle and Kansas Territory was unclaimed because it fell south of Kansas Territory's border but north of 36°30′ north , which had been established in the Missouri Compromise as the northern limit of slavery, and thus Texas could not have it. This became known as

2520-462: The coordinates they were either phantoms or duplicates. In addition, Sarah Ann Island was claimed, which may have existed and would be sighted as late as 1917, but has since disappeared. Dakota Territory was organized from Nebraska Territory and the unorganized territory north of it. Nebraska Territory's western border was moved to 33° west from Washington, gaining small portions of Utah Territory and Washington Territory . Nevada Territory

2583-433: The country's territory, although the southeastern border with Spanish Florida was the subject of much dispute until it and Spanish claims to the Oregon Country were ceded to the US in 1821. The Oregon Country gave the United States access to the Pacific Ocean , though it was shared for a time with the United Kingdom . The annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845 led directly to the Mexican–American War , after which

Early history of the Arkansas Valley in Colorado - Misplaced Pages Continue

2646-484: The eastern Rocky Mountains and hunting bison. They allied with the Pawnee , Arapaho , and Kiowa. Even before contact with Europeans, their numbers were never large, and their 1780 population was estimated at 400. The Plains Apache and Kiowa had migrated into the Southern Plains sometime around 1800. The Treaty of Medicine Lodge in 1867 established an Indian Reservation for the Kiowa, Plains Apache, and Comanche in Western Oklahoma. They were forced to move south of

2709-431: The firm on the South Platte, was never a partner. In addition to Bent's Fort on the Arkansas and Fort St. Vrain on the South Platte the firm maintained a store in Taos managed by Charles Beaubien . The firm's relations with the Cheyenne was cemented by the marriage of William with Owl Woman , daughter of White Thunder, Keeper of the Sacred Arrows of the Cheyenne . A post built on the South Canadian River to trade with

2772-500: The first residents, albeit temporary, of the Arkansas River valley in Colorado. The American interest in the region in the 1820s and 1830s was two-fold: trade with New Mexico via the Santa Fe Trail and trapping for furs, primarily beaver . This was the era of the mountain men , Americans, including men of Anglo , French , American Indian and African-American descent, who roamed the Rocky Mountains to trap beaver whose pelts were used to make fashionable top hats . Taos, New Mexico

2835-430: The fort. The builders of Fort Pueblo included George Simpson, son of a wealthy St. Louis merchant, who at 23 had set out in May 1841 on the Oregon Trail with a mule-drawn wagon. Simpson received a yearly remittance from his father throughout his life. Simpson was side-tracked from his westward journey at Fort Laramie when he was invited by William S. Williams to join a company of fur trappers. However, he never went but

2898-399: The full extent of the British colony. However, the British-American treaty granted the extension of West Florida to the United States, where it enlarged Georgia south to 31° north , indicating that only the original definition of West Florida was to be ceded to Spain. The local Spanish governors also made a move to occupy forts along the Mississippi River , with claims to everything south of

2961-401: The inside of the yard or corral are built some half-dozen little rooms inhabited by as many Indian traders, coureurs des bois , and mountain men." Territorial evolution of the United States The United States of America was formed after thirteen British colonies in North America declared independence from the British Empire on July 4, 1776. In the Lee Resolution , passed by

3024-466: The land sessions, the U.S. courts upheld allotment. Most Plains Apache families chose land north of the Wichita Mountains . In 1966, the tribe organized a business committee and regained federal recognition. In 1972, the Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache legally separated. The Plains Apache social organization is split into numerous extended families ( kustcrae ), who camped together (for hunting and gathering) as local groups ( gonka ). The next level

3087-400: The part of West Florida west of the Perdido River , whereas Spain claimed it ended at the western border of West Florida; and the southwestern border with New Spain was disputed , as the United States claimed the Sabine River as the border, but Spain maintained it was the Calcasieu River and others. [REDACTED] The border between New York and Vermont on the one side, and

3150-423: The present. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Because of ambiguities and poor knowledge of geography, the treaty was unclear in several areas: The Peace of Paris also involved treaties with France and Spain , with Great Britain ceding the Floridas to Spain . During their ownership of West Florida , the British had moved its border north, and the cession to Spain appeared to apply to

3213-604: The region was made to Panama in 1999. States have generally retained their initial borders once established. Only three states ( Kentucky , Maine , and West Virginia ) have been created directly from area belonging to another state (although at the time of admission, Vermont agreed to a monetary payment for New York to relinquish its claim); all of the other states were created from federal territories or from acquisitions. Four states ( Louisiana , Missouri , Nevada , and Pennsylvania ) have expanded substantially by acquiring additional federal territory after their initial admission to

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3276-433: The size of the colonies, now able to stretch west past the Proclamation Line to the Mississippi River . This land was organized into territories and then states, though there remained some conflict with the sea-to-sea grants claimed by some of the original colonies. In time, these grants were ceded to the federal government. The first great expansion of the country came with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which doubled

3339-402: The victorious United States obtained the northern half of Mexico 's territory, including what was quickly made the state of California . As the development of the country moved west, however, the question of slavery became more important, with vigorous debate over whether the new territories would allow slavery and events such as the Missouri Compromise and Bleeding Kansas . This came to

3402-405: Was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War . The United States purchased the U.S. Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917. Puerto Rico and Guam remain territories, and the Philippines became independent in 1946, after being a major theater of World War II . Following the war, many islands were entrusted to the U.S. by the United Nations , and while

3465-480: Was an active dispute. The borders of North Carolina were particularly poorly surveyed, its border with South Carolina having been done in several pieces, none of which truly matched the spirit of the charter, and its border with Virginia was only surveyed roughly halfway inland from the sea. Several northeastern states had overlapping claims: Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, and New York all claimed land west of their accepted borders, overlapping with each other and with

3528-403: Was an adobe settlement and trading post built in 1842 by a group of independent traders at the ford of the Arkansas about half a mile west of the Fountain River. The exact location of the site is somewhat uncertain but is near First Street and Santa Fe Avenue in Pueblo, Colorado . The course of the Arkansas has changed by floods and the ford is gone, as is all surface evidence of the buildings at

3591-444: Was erroneously left behind on the western side of Wyoming Territory. The North-Western Territory was transferred by the United Kingdom to Canada , thus transferring its portion of the Alaska boundary dispute . On this same date several islands, Cagayan de Sulu and Sibutu among them, were purchased from Spain and assigned to the Philippines, which was then being governed as a U.S. insular area . The borders specified in

3654-426: Was hired by Robert Fisher a trader for Bent & St. Vrain and journeyed down the Front Range of the Rockies to Bent's Fort where he learned the basics of trading with the Indians. Fisher was his principle associate in establishing Fort Pueblo. In 1847, George Ruxton described Pueblo as "a small square fort of adobe with circular bastions at the corners, no part of the walls being more than eight feet high, and round

3717-417: Was organized from Utah Territory west of 39° west from Washington . North Carolina proclaimed its secession from the Union, withdrawing from Congress. Caroline Island was claimed by the United Kingdom . Wyoming Territory was organized from portions of Dakota , Idaho , and Utah Territories. The territory would remain under the jurisdiction of the Dakota Territory until its own government

3780-409: Was organized on May 19, 1869. The act organizing Wyoming Territory became law on this date, but it is unclear if the territory could be considered "organized" until May 19, 1869, as the act specifies it was not to take effect until a government is organized; however, all sources use this date as the creation, and most use it for the organization, of the territory. A tiny portion of the Dakota Territory

3843-558: Was passed on by word of mouth." Gantt's Picket Post, also known as Fort Gantt, was built near the present-day Las Animas in 1832 by John Gantt (also Gannt) and Jefferson Blackwell. It operated as a trading post until some time in 1834. Fort Cass was then built near the present-day city of Pueblo, Colorado by John Gantt, a former Army officer. It was built in May 1834 on the north side of the Arkansas River, about 6 miles below Fountain Creek . William Bent of St. Vrain & Company attacked Shoshone Indians trading at Gantt's Fort, killing

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3906-465: Was the base for many of the mountain men who trapped and explored the Arkansas Valley. Trappers played an important role in the westward expansion of the United States: "They knew the easiest routes through the high mountains, which rivers could lead a party to safety and which were likely to lead to tragedy. They could tell you what you could expect to find to eat or drink and what weather or wildlife might be encountered. Much of this wealth of knowledge

3969-523: Was the division or band, a grouping of several gonkas (who would come together, for mutual protection, especially in times of war). In pre-reservation times there were at least four local groups or gonkas who frequently joined together for warring neighboring tribes and settlements. Historically, the tribe was led by an elder council, chiefs, medicine men , and warriors. Women controlled and maintained family belongings, including tipis . Skilled artists joined women's societies. The Plains Apache language

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