Lexicography is the study of lexicons and the art of compiling dictionaries. It is divided into two separate academic disciplines :
98-551: Giovanni Florio (1552 or 1553 – 1625), known as John Florio , was an English linguist, poet, writer, translator, lexicographer , and royal language tutor at the Court of James I . He is recognised as the most important Renaissance humanist in England. Florio contributed 1,149 words to the English language, placing third after Chaucer (with 2,012 words) and Shakespeare (with 1,969 words), in
196-553: A humanist education which included music, needlework, and Latin, French and Italian. After the death of Sidney's youngest sister, Ambrosia, in 1575, the Queen requested that Mary return to court to join the royal entourage. In 1577, Mary Sidney married Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (1538–1601), a close ally of the family. The marriage was arranged by her father in concert with her uncle, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester . After her marriage, Mary became responsible with her husband for
294-550: A playing company , Pembroke's Men , one of the early companies to perform works of Shakespeare. According to one account, Shakespeare's company "The King's Men" performed at Wilton at this time. June and Paul Schlueter published an article in The Times Literary Supplement of 23 July 2010 describing a manuscript of newly discovered works by Mary Sidney Herbert. Her poetic epitaph , ascribed to Ben Jonson but more likely to have been written in an earlier form by
392-579: A book about her life, titled Historia de la vita e de la morte de L'Illlustriss. Signora Giovanna Graia , published later in 1607. In the preface of the book, the anonymous publisher explained that the original book was written "by his own hand by the author" and it was found "after his death, in the home of an honored and great benefactor." It is also explained that Michalangelo "would certainly have had this book published in that he had not been prevented from very cruel persecutions. He in fact deposed it for fifty years in safe hands". He describes Lady Jane Grey as
490-411: A branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language. A person devoted to lexicography is called a lexicographer and is, according to a jest of Samuel Johnson , a "harmless drudge". Generally, lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. Such
588-416: A centre of Reformed preaching. In the first years of John's infancy, Michelangelo worked as pastor and notary, educating his son in an environment rich in religious and theological ferment. In addition, he taught John Italian, as well as Latin, Hebrew and Greek. Michelangelo Florio died in 1566, after this date his name is no longer mentioned and in the synod of 1571 he is mentioned as a deceased person. When he
686-489: A comparison with Shakespeare's dialogues and pointing out some similarities between the two writers. Further textual and linguistic analysis was performed by Rinaldo C. Simonini, who compared Florio's dramatic dialogues of First Fruits and Second Fruits with Shakespeare's plays. With the accession of James I John Florio's life at court begins a new chapter. He became Groom of the Privy Chamber , lived at court, and had
784-546: A contributor of England's colonial enterprise. Between the summer of 1583 and 1585 John Florio moved with his family to the French embassy. It was situated in London, at Beaumont House, Butcher Row. The French ambassador at the time was Michel de Castelnau, Lord of Mauvissière . Castelnau employed Florio for two years as a tutor in languages to his daughter Catherine Marie. Secondly, he also employed him "in other honourable employment", in
882-650: A corpus that is made up mostly of contemporary literary texts, ranging from Sannazaro 's Arcadia and Tasso 's Gerusalemme Liberata to Castiglione 's Cortegiano , Della Casa's Galateo , and Caro's Lettere famigliari , as well as wide range of Dialoghi such as those written by Sperone Speroni and Stefano Guazzo. Fourteen citations alone or one-sixth of the catalogue are sources from Pietro Aretino , highlighting Florio's interest in theatrical texts and his willingness to capitalise on his English readers' salacious interest in Aretino's explicitly erotic and sexual content. Florio
980-400: A dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary (Language for General Purpose). Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g. legal lexicography . Such a dictionary
1078-432: A dictionary), 'dictionary use' (or observing the reference acts and skills of dictionary users), and 'dictionary IT' (or applying computer aids to the process of dictionary compilation). One important consideration is the status of 'bilingual lexicography', or the compilation and use of the bilingual dictionary in all its aspects (see e.g. Nielsen 1994). In spite of a relatively long history of this type of dictionary, it
SECTION 10
#17328849420541176-599: A dictionary. They are responsible for arranging lexical material (usually alphabetically ) to facilitate understanding and navigation. Coined in English 1680, the word "lexicography" derives from the Greek λεξικογράφος ( lexikographos ), "lexicographer", from λεξικόν ( lexicon ), neut. of λεξικός lexikos , "of or for words", from λέξις ( lexis ), "speech", "word" (in turn from λέγω ( lego ), "to say", "to speak" ) and γράφω ( grapho ), "to scratch, to inscribe, to write". Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and
1274-612: A freende of his in Lyons in Fraunce , and signed I.F. Translated from Italian, Florio dedicated it to Henry Stanley, the Earl of Derby . It has been pointed out that no original document titled A letter lately written from Rome exist and that the work was written or at least compiled by Florio himself who borrowed news from Italy, edited them, and created an entirely different piece of work to adapt it to an English audience. Living with Giordano Bruno
1372-462: A likely source of Samuel Daniel 's closet drama Cleopatra (1594) and of Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra (1607). She was also known for translating Petrarch 's "Triumph of Death", for the poetry anthology Triumphs , and above all for a lyrical, metrical translation of the Psalms. Mary Sidney was born on 27 October 1561 at Tickenhill Palace in the parish of Bewdley , Worcestershire . She
1470-533: A martyr and innocent "saint". It is possible that he had witnessed some of the events surrounding her or had told her about the persecutions in Italy. When Mary Tudor ascended to the throne in 1554, she re-established Catholicism in England and Ireland. In February 1554, a royal edict proclaimed that all foreigners had to depart the realm within twenty-four days. Consequently, on 4 March 1554, Michelangelo and his family, which included infant John, left England. In Strasbourg,
1568-518: A military campaign against the Spanish in the Netherlands in 1586. She finished his translation, composing Psalms 44 through to 150 in a dazzling array of verse forms, using the 1560 Geneva Bible and commentaries by John Calvin and Theodore Beza . Hallett Smith has called the psalter a "School of English Versification" Smith (1946) , of 171 poems (Psalm 119 is a gathering of 22 separate ones). A copy of
1666-451: A perfect induction to the Italian, and English tongues, as in the table appeareth. The like heretofore, neuer by any man published (1578). This collection of dramatic dialogues contains translated passages from literature and philosophy. Moreover, it is designed for novices in both the Italian and English language. Florio inscribed the manual to "All Italian gentlemen and merchants who delight in
1764-408: A personal friend, and Jonson hailed Florio as "loving father" and "ayde of his muses". Philosopher Giordano Bruno was also a personal friend; Florio met the Italian philosopher in London, while both of them were residing at the French embassy. Bruno wrote and published in London his six most celebrated moral dialogues, including La cena de le ceneri ( The Ash Wednesday Supper , 1584), in which Florio
1862-480: A play at theatre. For Frances Yates too, this identification meets with some support from the fact that in the dialogue John quotes the proverb " Chi si contenta gode ", which is the motto on Florio's portrait. Moreover, the topics touched on in the Second Fruits, like primero, the theatre, love, and tennis, represent Southampton's tastes. Florio's entrance into this brilliant literary circle closely associated with
1960-418: A prestigious position at the centre of power. From 1604 to Queen Anne 's death in 1619 he had a secure income, and his life was on a steadier course. Florio's duties and his influence over the Queen at court emerge from various official documents. First, he became reader in Italian to Queen Anne and one of the grooms of her privy chamber. In a document dated March 1619 there is a list of Queen Anne's "Grooms of
2058-625: A putative identity of Florio with the author of Shakespeare's works . John Florio was born in London in 1552 or 1553 but he grew up and lived in continental Europe until the age of 19. The only portrait of Florio we have, the frontispiece to the New World of Words of 1611, presents him as "Italus ore, Anglus pector" ("Italian in mouth, English in chest"); Manfred Pfister [ de ] glosses this as, "in his native language an Italian, in his heart an Englishman," and interprets Florio's declaration that "I am an Englishman in Italian" to mean that he
SECTION 20
#17328849420542156-405: A satirical and healthy whip of pedants. Florio will never forget Giordano Bruno, even after the long years of the trial and their tragic outcome at the stake. For instance, in 1603, John Florio, in the preface of Montaigne's Essays , recalled his old "fellow Nolano", who had taught him the cultural value of translations. Moreover, in 1611, he listed Bruno's Italian works among the texts he used for
2254-555: A scholar of the first magnitude. In the Epistle Dedicatorie John Florio celebrates the Italian language; however, his attitude towards English language is now changed. If in First Fruits he found the language "besitted with manu languages" now he has moved a step nearer appreciating what he now defines the "sweete-mother-toonge" of his native land. The cited sources that follow the "Epistle Dedicatorie" of 1598 include
2352-514: A servant of the Earl, being in the said passage boat threatened to cast Grose overboard, and said they would teach him to meddle with their fellows, with many other threatening words." John Florio had a close relationship with Henry Wriothesley at least until 1603, when Henry's family, Florio and other friends of the Southampton, flocked to him when he was released from the Tower. While he was engaged in
2450-533: A usual feature of most Elizabethan language lesson books, but in no manual did they play such an all-important part as in the Second Fruits . The proverbs of the book are, in fact, keyed with those published in a corollary work by Florio, the Giardino di Ricreatione : six thousands Italian proverbs, without their English equivalents. It is one of the most important of the earlier collections of this kind. The title itself
2548-455: Is I, and I am an Englishman in Italiane; I know they haue a knife at command to cut my throate, Un Inglese Italianato é un Diavolo Incarnato." Defining himself an Englishman in Italiane , John Florio writes a two-fold defence of Italian culture in England and of the practise of translation. The Epistle Dedicatorie shows that Florio knew that his Second Fruits was a provocative work, and here for
2646-501: Is a translation of a French play, Marc-Antoine (1578) by Robert Garnier . Mary is known to have translated two other works: A Discourse of Life and Death by Philippe de Mornay , published with Antonius in 1592, and Petrarch 's The Triumph of Death, circulated in manuscript. Her original poems include the pastoral "A Dialogue betweene Two Shepheards, Thenot and Piers, in praise of Astrea," and two dedicatory addresses, one to Elizabeth I and one to her own brother Philip, contained in
2744-406: Is evident in the devotional lyrics of Barnabe Barnes , Nicholas Breton , Henry Constable , Francis Davison, Giles Fletcher , and Abraham Fraunce . Their influence on the later religious poetry of Donne, George Herbert , Henry Vaughan , and John Milton has been critically recognized since Louis Martz placed it at the start of a developing tradition of 17th-century devotional lyricism. Sidney
2842-453: Is interesting: Giardino di ricreatione, nel quel crescono fronde, fiori e frutti, vaghe, leggiadri e soavi; sotto nome di auree sentenze, belli proverbii, et piacevoli riboboli, tutti Italiani, colti, scelti, e scritti, per Giovanni Florio, non solo utili ma dilettevoli per ogni spirito vago della Nobil lingua Italiana. Il numero d'essi é di 3400 . The proverbs in the Italian side of the dialogues are starred to indicate that they are listed among
2940-523: Is mentioned as Bruno's companion. John Florio worked as tutor to Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton ; from 1604 he became Groom of the Privy Chamber to Queen Anne , until her death in 1619. Later in his life, Florio was patronised by William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke , whom he bequeathed his library. Many of the intertextual borrowings by Shakespeare from Florio's works have been long attested, and assumptions have been made to claim secret connections between Florio and Shakespeare, even asserting
3038-657: Is often said to be less developed in a number of respects than its unilingual counterpart, especially in cases where one of the languages involved is not a major language. Not all genres of reference works are available in interlingual versions, e.g. LSP , learners' and encyclopedic types, although sometimes these challenges produce new subtypes, e.g. 'semi-bilingual' or 'bilingualised' dictionaries such as Hornby's (Oxford) Advanced Learner's Dictionary English-Chinese , which have been developed by translating existing monolingual dictionaries (see Marello 1998). Traces of lexicography can be identified as early late 4th millennium BCE, with
John Florio - Misplaced Pages Continue
3136-776: Is particularly rich and significant. Florio in fact appears in The Ash Wednesday Supper as one of the messengers that brings to Bruno the invitation to dinner by Fulke Greville . In another scene Bruno and Florio are on a boat at night. They burst into song chanting stanzas from Ludovico Ariosto 's Orlando Furioso . Bruno would later portray him as "Eliotropo" in De la causa, principio et uno (Concerning Causality, Principle and Unity, London, 1584). In De l'infinito, universo e mondi (On The Infinite Universe and Worlds, London, 1584), fifth dialogue, Bruno adds Florio as "Elpino" and Alberico Gentili as "Albertino". Similarly, Florio returned
3234-556: Is the practice of creating books, computer programs, or databases that reflect lexicographical work and are intended for public use. These include dictionaries and thesauri which are widely accessible resources that present various aspects of lexicology, such as spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. Lexicographers are tasked with defining simple words as well as figuring out how compound or complex words or words with many meanings can be clearly explained. They also make decisions regarding which words should be kept, added, or removed from
3332-464: Is usually called a specialized dictionary or Language for specific purposes dictionary and following Nielsen 1994, specialized dictionaries are either multi-field, single-field or sub-field dictionaries. It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of applied linguistics , as the chief object of study in lexicography is the dictionary (see e.g. Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp 2009). Lexicography
3430-506: The John Florio Society that meets to appreciate its members' own poems. During these years John matured as a lexicographer and made the development of modern English language his primary mission. Firstly, he became tutor in Italian to John Lyly . As the author considered to be the first English prose stylist to leave an enduring impression upon the language, Lyly was a key figure of Euphuism . Another Euphuist and pupil of John Florio
3528-541: The 15th century, lexicography flourished. Dictionaries became increasingly widespread, and their purpose shifted from a way to store lexical knowledge to a mode of disseminating lexical information. Modern lexicographical practices began taking shape during the 18th and 19th centuries, led by notable lexicographers such as Samuel Johnson , Vladimir Dal , the Brothers Grimm , Noah Webster , James Murray , Peter Mark Roget , Joseph Emerson Worcester , and others. During
3626-452: The 20th century, the invention of computers changed lexicography again. With access to large databases, finding lexical evidence became significantly faster and easier. Corpus research also enables lexicographers to discriminate different senses of a word based on said evidence. Additionally, lexicographers were now able to work nonlinearly, rather than being bound to a traditional lexicographical ordering like alphabetical ordering . In
3724-499: The English throne. The most significant of these was the Babington Plot , which ultimately led to Mary's trial and execution in 1587. William Vaughan's Golden Fleece was written one year after Florio's death, in 1626 and it contains references to Florio's involvement in the conspiracy of Babington of 1586. Walsingham , also thanks to Florio's help, as suggested by Vaughan, was able to intercept and decode Mary's correspondence. At
3822-413: The English tongue". He dedicated his first work to Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester. In the dedication, John reminded Dudley of his father's faithful service, successfully entering his social circle. In the manual, John Florio refers to himself as " povero artigiano " (poor artisan). His insistence upon the fact that teaching was not his profession indicates that this was the very first time he approached
3920-554: The French embassy, John Florio also embarked in a new, pioneering job as translator of news. In the Elizabethan England this trend had a tremendous demand, and quickly became a class of literature. Newspapers were not yet born. Even so, Florio intuitively began to translate several Italian newsletters that had been dispatched from Rome to France, turning them into novels. The resulting pamphlet was published in 1585 entitled A letter lately written from Rome, by an Italian gentleman to
4018-567: The Italian novelist to the English theatre. With Firste Fruites, John Florio began a new career in London in language instruction while having contacts with the theatre. By the summer of 1578, he was sent by Lord Burleigh, William Cecil , to Magdalen College, Oxford . He entered as a poor scholar and became servant and tutor in Italian to Barnabe and Emmanuel Barnes , sons of the Bishop of Durham. John Florio remained at Oxford at least until 1582. Magdalen College today commemorates his time there with
John Florio - Misplaced Pages Continue
4116-493: The Privy Chamber" with the length of their service and the amounts of their yearly salary. In this Florio is stated to have served her for fifteen years at a salary of one hundred pounds per annum. This makes 1604 the year in which John Florio began his court service. A groom's salary was sixty pounds per annum. The higher rate in Florio's case seems to have been due to his additional functions as reader in Italian and private secretary to
4214-616: The Queen. He also wrote her letters and interviewed people for her. In addition to his attendance on the Queen, John Florio was also tutor in Italian and French to Prince Henry at court. In November 1606 Anne of Denmark gave him a valuable cup as a present at the christening of his grandchild, bought from the goldsmith John Williams . Ottaviano Lotti, a representative of the Grand Duke of Tuscany in London, wrote to Florio in August 1606 for help to buy hunting dogs to present to Anne of Denmark, keeping
4312-477: The Signoria; their relationship was important as it determined the political relationship between Venice and London at the time. Other ambassadors Florio got in contact with are Zorzi Giustinian , ambassador of Venice in London from January 1606 to 1608, Nicolò Molin , Henry Wotton, and many others. This diplomatic partnership between London and Venice, the English and Venetian agents and ambassadors, had John Florio as
4410-577: The Tixall manuscript copy of her verse psalter. An elegy for Philip, "The dolefull lay of Clorinda", was published in Colin Clouts Come Home Againe (1595) and attributed to Spenser and to Mary Herbert, but Pamela Coren attributes it to Spenser, though also saying that Mary's poetic reputation does not suffer from loss of the attribution. By at least 1591, the Pembrokes were providing patronage to
4508-556: The Valtolin (region) to London for religion" reasons and Aubrey says "the information was from Florio's grandson, Mr. Molins". Furthermore, in First Fruits, John Florio asserted that when he arrived in London (at 19 years old), he didn't know the language and asked in Italian or French "where the post dwelt. He later explained that he learnt the language by reading books. Michelangelo Florio then became Italian tutor to Lady Jane Grey and in
4606-565: The company of Helene de Melun, "Countess of Berlaymont", wife of Florent de Berlaymont the governor of Luxembourg . The two women amused themselves with pistol shooting. Sir John Throckmorton heard she went on to Amiens . There is conjecture that she married Lister, but no evidence of this. She died of smallpox on 25 September 1621, aged 59, at her townhouse in Aldersgate Street in London , shortly after King James I had visited her at
4704-466: The compilation of well-crafted dictionaries requires careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects: One important goal of lexicography is to keep the lexicographic information costs incurred by dictionary users as low as possible. Nielsen (2008) suggests relevant aspects for lexicographers to consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users' impression and actual use of specific dictionaries. Theoretical lexicography concerns
4802-410: The completed psalter was prepared for Queen Elizabeth I in 1599, in anticipation of a royal visit to Wilton, but Elizabeth cancelled her planned visit. This work is usually referred to as The Sidney Psalms or The Sidney-Pembroke Psalter and regarded as a major influence on the development of English religious lyric poetry in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. John Donne wrote a poem celebrating
4900-405: The compliment by introducing the figure of Bruno, "Il Nolano" (from Nola near Naples ), in Second Fruits (1591). He portrayed him lounging on a window-seat, leafing through a book and poking fun at his friend John for taking too much time over getting dressed in the morning. The portrait painted by Florio is undoubtedly that of a friend. Bruno surely appears in his pages in a positive light, like
4998-492: The composition of the dictionary. Bruno's scholars Gentile and Vincenzo Spampanato have both proved Florio's indebtedness to the philosopher's writings. Many of Bruno's thoughts are undeniably shaped in Florio's work Second Fruits. Also, in his two dictionaries Florio added many terms as well as Neapolitan dialect words taken from Bruno's works. Second Fruits is John Florio's second work. Entitled Second Frutes to be gathered of twelve trees, of diverse but delightful tastes to
SECTION 50
#17328849420545096-461: The coronation to avoid the plague. She was regarded as a muse by Daniel in his sonnet cycle "Delia", an anagram for ideal. Her brother, Philip Sidney , wrote much of his Arcadia in her presence, at Wilton House. He also probably began preparing his English lyric version of the Book of Psalms at Wilton as well. Philip Sidney had completed translating 43 of the 150 Psalms at the time of his death on
5194-662: The crucial link between the two worlds. Another of Florio's tasks at court was to interview and select musicians, often Italian ones, who were seeking an introduction at court. Ottaviano Lotti, for example, in 1606 asked Florio to assist with his influence a musician, who wishes to obtain employment at court. They arranged a supper-party with the idea of inducing Florio to introduce the musician and his lyre at court. This shows not only another accomplishment Florio added in his career, but also another talent: his musical competence. The importance and influence which Florio's established reputation and his court position gave him are illustrated by
5292-432: The discharge of which duties he "bore himself prudently, honestly and faithfully". As a result, Florio earned the warm commendation of his master and all the household. His duties, beside that of tutor, translator and interpreter, were of personal secretary and legal representative of the ambassador when the latter departed from London. During the captivity of Mary, Queen of Scots , several attempts were made to place her on
5390-499: The discipline begins to develop more steadily. Lengthier glosses started to emerge in the literary cultures of antiquity, including Greece, Rome , China, India, Sasanian Persia , and the Middle East. In 636, Isidore of Seville published the first formal etymological compendium. The word dictionarium was first applied to this type of text by the late 14th century. With the invention and spread of Gutenberg's printing press in
5488-459: The drama, marks a very important stage in his career. When he published his first dictionary, A World of Words , in 1598, Florio dedicated his laborious work to Henry: "In truth I acknowledge an entyre debt, not onely of my best knowledge, but of all, yea of more then I know or can, to your bounteous Lordship most noble, most vertuous, and most Honorable Earle of Southampton, in whose paie and patronage I have lived some yeeres; to whom I owe and vowe
5586-476: The dramatist uses in addressing his friend, suggests not only the disparity in their ages. It most importantly implies some suggestion of discipleship, with a more striking tribute by speaking of him as "The ayde of his Muses". Thomas Thorpe, in 1610, published a translation from Epictetus his Manuall. He dedicated this work to Florio, reminding him that he had procured a patron for an earlier work of John Healey's His apprentises essay , and hoping that he would do
5684-868: The early 1570s, in possession of a formidable Christian Reformed and humanist education. At about 19 years old, after his formative years in Soglio and in Tübingen, John Florio came back to London. Ascribed to the Italian church, John worked for some years as silk dyer and servant of Michel Baynard. In addition, he worked for the Venetian merchant Gaspare Gatti, living in the wool-dyers' district of London. At 21 years old he married an Italian woman, Anna Soresollo; they had five children: Annebelle, Joane, Edward, Aurelia and Elizabeth. It has been wrongly suggested by Anthony Wood that John married Samuel Daniel 's sister. No record of their marriage has so far been discovered, and Wood's suggestion
5782-494: The early 21st century, the increasing ubiquity of artificial intelligence began to impact the field, which had traditionally been a time-consuming, detail-oriented task. The advent of AI has been hailed by some as the "end of lexicography". Others are skeptical that human lexicographers will be outmoded in a field studying the particularly human substance of language. Mary Sidney Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke ( née Sidney , 27 October 1561 – 25 September 1621)
5880-670: The fact that books were now dedicated to him. These dedications reveal that he had some association during these years with Nicholas Breton, Ben Jonson , and Thomas Thorpe . John Florio's friendship with Ben Jonson is of great interest and importance. It is well-attested by an inscription written in Ben's own hand upon the fly-leaf of a copy of Volpone which is now in the British Museum : "To his louing Father, & worthy Freind, Mr John Florio: The ayde of his Muses. Ben: Jonson seales this testemony of Freindship, & Loue." The word "Father" which
5978-630: The family of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke , father of Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke who would become the husband of Mary Sidney , sister of Philip Sidney . He dedicated a book to Henry Herbert and Jane Grey, his highest-ranking pupils: Regole de la lingua thoscana ( Rules of the Tuscan language ). Lady Jane Grey's youth, faith, and death affected him deeply and later, in seclusion, in Soglio , in Italian-speaking Switzerland, he wrote
SECTION 60
#17328849420546076-572: The first known examples being Sumerian cuneiform texts uncovered in the city of Uruk . Ancient lexicography usually consisted of word lists documenting a language's lexicon . Other early word lists have been discovered in Egyptian , Akkadian , Sanskrit , and Eblaite , and take the shape of mono- and bilingual word lists. They were organized in different ways including by subject and part of speech. The first extensive glosses , or word lists with accompanying definitions, began to appear around 300 BCE, and
6174-480: The first time he signs himself with the adjective that stuck to him through life and after death: Resolute John Florio. Unlike his earlier manual, Florio's Second Fruits is prefaced by a single commendatory sonnet : "Phaeton to his friend Florio". This is one of the earliest Elizabethan sonnets to be printed, and was published in the Second Fruits , an Italian language book which contains a heterogeneous stock of raw materials for contemporary sonneteers. Proverbs were
6272-571: The generous citizens offered themselves to give a first temporary refuge to the exiles for twenty days. Here, Michelangelo had a first meeting with the noble Frederik von Salis, coming from Soglio , who invited him to become pastor of the Reformed Evangelical Church of Graubünden in Soglio. Soglio was remote from the Inquisition and was situated near Chiavenna (north of Lake Como in Italy),
6370-485: The gift a secret from Jane Drummond , an influential gentlewoman in Anne of Denmark's household. From Lotti's dispatches, we know that John Florio had a major and confidential role with the Queen at court. This throws a flood of light upon Florio's position with the Queen, which turns out to have been much more important than has hitherto been guessed. Florio was also in close contact with Giovanni Carlo Scaramelli , Secretary to
6468-530: The history of early Modern English. It is a work that brings together the author's three major roles: Florio as the plurilingual reader and word collector; Florio as teacher of Italian language and culture, as a grammarian and paroemiologist; and Florio as translator and creative writer. Numerous scholars have highlighted the great influence of Florio's translation of Michel de Montaigne 's Essays in Shakespeare's plays. Friedrich Nietzsche wrote that "Shakespeare
6566-470: The languages as a profession. In addition, the commendatory verses that precede Firste Fruites show that John Florio got in contact with the Dudley's theatre company: The Leicester's men . The first pages of the First Fruits, in fact, contain various commendatory verses written by the company actors: Richard Tarlton , Robert Wilson, Thomas Clarke, and John Bentley. They thank him for having contributed to bring
6664-399: The linguistic analysis conducted by Stanford professor John Willinsky . Florio was the first translator of Montaigne into English, possibly the first translator of Boccaccio into English and he wrote the first comprehensive Italian–English dictionary (surpassing the only previous modest Italian–English dictionary by William Thomas published in 1550). Playwright and poet Ben Jonson was
6762-472: The management of a number of estates which he owned including Ramsbury, Ivychurch , Wilton House , and Baynard's Castle in London , where it is known that they entertained Queen Elizabeth to dinner. She had four children by her husband: Mary Sidney was an aunt to the poet Mary Wroth , daughter of her brother Robert. The death of Sidney's husband in 1601 left her with less financial support than she might have expected, though views on its adequacy vary; at
6860-805: The newly completed Houghton House in Bedfordshire . After a grand funeral in St Paul's Cathedral , her body was buried in Salisbury Cathedral , next to that of her late husband in the Herbert family vault, under the steps leading to the choir stalls, where the mural monument still stands. Mary Sidney turned Wilton House into a "paradise for poets", known as the " Wilton Circle ," a salon-type literary group sustained by her hospitality, which included Edmund Spenser , Samuel Daniel , Michael Drayton , Ben Jonson , and Sir John Davies . John Aubrey wrote, "Wilton House
6958-424: The poets William Browne and her son William, summarizes how she was regarded in her own day: Underneath this sable hearse, Lies the subject of all verse, Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother. Death, ere thou hast slain another Fair and learned and good as she, Time shall throw a dart at thee. Her literary talents and aforementioned family connections to Shakespeare has caused her to be nominated as one of
7056-498: The publication. F. O. Matthiessen , in his analysis of Florio's translation of Montaigne's Essays , suggested the similarity between Florio's and Shakespeare's style, concluding that "Shakespeare and Florio were constantly talking with the same people, hearing the same theories, breathing the same air." Florio's biographer Clara Longworth de Chambrun made an extensive analysis of Florio's dramatic dialogues of First Fruits, Second Fruits and passages from Montaigne's Essays , doing
7154-486: The quarrel and tumultuous period that followed the "Ash Wednesday Supper". During that party he discussed his revolutionary theories, and after that, he got into a quarrel with the guests who didn't receive with favour his ideas. Undoubtedly, Florio and Castelnau always defended him. Bruno described the event in a philosophical pamphlet written in Italian the same year: La cena de le ceneri ( The Ash Wednesday Supper , London, 1584). The friendship that linked Bruno and Florio
7252-401: The reading of all venturers, travellers, and discoverers . Florio quickly developed an awareness of the potential of the ‘New World’, he advocates "planting" the "New-found land" four years before Hakluyt and Raleigh, the pioneers of colonisation. He threw himself early into the spirit of these English patriotic ventures. Furthermore, he committed himself to both refine the English language and be
7350-446: The same aspects as lexicography, but aims to develop principles that can improve the quality of future dictionaries, for instance in terms of access to data and lexicographic information costs. Several perspectives or branches of such academic dictionary research have been distinguished: 'dictionary criticism' (or evaluating the quality of one or more dictionaries, e.g. by means of reviews (see Nielsen 1999), 'dictionary history' (or tracing
7448-453: The same by this one. In the three existing dedications by Thorpe, other than that to W. H ., the first is addressed to Florio, the two others to the Earl of Pembroke, while the other, some years before, is addressed to the editor, Edward Blount. Lexicographer There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology , as distinct from lexicography. Some use "lexicology" as a synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean
7546-633: The service of Henry Wriothesley, Florio produced a work which remains a landmark in the history of Italian scholarship in England. A Worlde of Wordes, or Dictionarie of the Italian and English tongues (London, 1598) is an Italian–English Dictionary, and, as such, only the second of its kind in England and much fuller than the short work published by William Thomas in the 1550s – with 44,000 words as opposed to Thomas's 6,000. Published by Edward Blount , and dedicated to Roger Manners, 5th Earl of Rutland , Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton , and Lucy Russell, Countess of Bedford , this work marked Florio as
7644-434: The six thousand Italian proverbs collected in the Giardino . It is not certain when John Florio took the role of tutor to Henry Wriothesley, Third Earl of Southampton . Countess Clara Longworth de Chambrun was the first to suggest that Florio had been tutoring the Southampton before 1590. She points out that in Second Fruits (1591), there is a dialogue between John Florio and Henry, they play tennis together and go to see
7742-420: The time the majority of an estate was left to the eldest son. In addition to the arts, Sidney had a range of interests. She had a chemistry laboratory at Wilton House, where she developed medicines and invisible ink. From 1609 to 1615, Mary Sidney probably spent most of her time at Crosby Hall in London . She travelled with her doctor, Matthew Lister , to Spa, Belgium in 1616. Dudley Carleton met her in
7840-499: The tongues of Italian and English (1591), it appeared thirteen years after the publication of the First Fruits , and is a product of perhaps the most interesting period of his life. The dedicatory epistle is a "remarkably comprehensive sketch of current publication in the various fields of journalism, poetry, and the drama." The Epistle to the reader of the Second Fruits shows that Florio had recently been meeting with adverse criticism because of his Italian sympathies: "As for me, for it
7938-402: The traditions of a type of dictionary or of lexicography in a particular country or language), 'dictionary typology' (or classifying the various genres of reference works, such as dictionary versus encyclopedia, monolingual versus bilingual dictionary, general versus technical or pedagogical dictionary), 'dictionary structure' (or formatting the various ways in which the information is presented in
8036-551: The two elder sons of Sir John Danvers of Dauntsey. Both close friends to Henry Wriothesley, they committed a crime in Wiltshire. According to one account, Henry Long was dining in the middle of the day with a party of friends in Cosham, when Henry Danvers, followed by his brother Charles and a number of retainers, burst into the room, and shot Long dead on the spot. According to another account, Henry Long had challenged Charles Danvers, that he
8134-805: The verse psalter and claiming he could "scarce" call the English Church reformed until its psalter had been modelled after the poetic transcriptions of Philip Sidney and Mary Herbert. Although the psalms were not printed in her lifetime, they were extensively distributed in manuscript. There are 17 manuscripts extant today. A later engraving of Herbert shows her holding them. Her literary influence can be seen in literary patronage, in publishing her brother's works and in her own verse forms, dramas, and translations. Contemporary poets who commended Herbert's psalms include Samuel Daniel, Sir John Davies, John Donne, Michael Drayton , Sir John Harington , Ben Jonson , Emilia Lanier and Thomas Moffet . The importance of these
8232-447: The yeeres I have to live. But as to me, and manie more the glorious and gracious sunne-shine of your Honor hath infused light and life: so may my lesser borrowed light, after a principall respect to your benigne aspect, and influence, afforde some lustre to some others." On Friday 4 October 1594, John Florio took part in the famous Danvers case, backing Henry's friends in their efforts to escape. Henry Danvers and Sir Charles Denvers were
8330-468: Was Stephen Gosson . Both Gosson and Lyly adopted the Euphuistic style and were saturated in Italian reading through John Florio's lessons. It is possible that another Euphuist, George Pettie , was the "I.P." who signed the Italian verses that prefaced the First Fruits . In Oxford, beside his job as Italian tutor, John Florio also began a career as translator. He met Richard Hakluyt , an English writer who
8428-611: Was "an Englishman with an Italian inflection or streak". John's father, Michelangelo Florio , born in Tuscany , had been a Franciscan friar before converting to the Protestant faith. He was a fervent Protestant with Jewish ancestors. He got into trouble with the Inquisition in Italy, after preaching in Naples , Padua , and Venice . Seeking refuge in England during the reign of Edward VI , he
8526-402: Was Montaigne’s best reader". Scholars like Jonathan Bate and William M. Hamlin have noticed that Florio's translation of Montaigne's Essays had an impact on Shakespeare's plays, before the published translation appeared and they claim Shakespeare knew the translation before publication, but not providing any explanation or proof how it was possible that Shakespeare knew the translated work before
8624-505: Was among the first Englishwomen to gain notice for her poetry and her literary patronage. By the age of 39, she was listed with her brother Philip Sidney and with Edmund Spenser and William Shakespeare among the notable authors of the day in John Bodenham 's verse miscellany Belvidere . Her play Antonius (a translation of Robert Garnier's Marc Antoine ) is widely seen as reviving interest in soliloquy based on classical models and as
8722-496: Was appointed pastor of the Italian Protestant congregation in London in 1550. He was also a member of the household of William Cecil . He was dismissed from both on a charge of immorality, but William Cecil later fully forgave him. Little is known of Florio's mother, she was a servant in the house of Cecil and John Aubrey confirms she was Italian, writing in his Brief Lives that Florio's Italian "father and mother flew from
8820-649: Was instrumental in bringing her brother's An Apology for Poetry or Defence of Poesy into print. She circulated the Sidney–Pembroke Psalter in manuscript at about the same time. This suggests a common purpose in their design. Both argued, in formally different ways, for the ethical recuperation of poetry as an instrument for moral instruction — particularly religious instruction. Sidney also took on editing and publishing her brother's Arcadia , which he claimed to have written in her presence as The Countesse of Pembroke's Arcadia . Sidney's closet drama Antonius
8918-455: Was like a college, there were so many learned and ingenious persons. She was the greatest patroness of wit and learning of any lady in her time." It has been suggested that the premiere of Shakespeare's As You Like It was at Wilton during her life. Sidney received more dedications than any other woman of non-royal status. By some accounts, King James I visited Wilton on his way to his coronation in 1603 and stayed again at Wilton following
9016-435: Was one of the seven children – three sons and four daughters – of Sir Henry Sidney and wife Mary Dudley . Their eldest son was Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586), and their second son Robert Sidney (1563–1626), who later became Earl of Leicester. As a child, she spent much time at court where her mother was a gentlewoman of the Privy Chamber and a close confidante of Queen Elizabeth I . Like her brother Philip, she received
9114-493: Was pressing an unfair advantage and had his arm raised to kill. When Henry Danvers thrust himself between to ward off the blow, was wounded in the act, and striking upwards with his dagger killed Henry Long accidentally. Master Lawrence Grose, Sheriff, was informed on the murder, and on the evening of October 12 the following scene took place at Itchen's Ferry: "The said Grose, passing over Itchen’s Ferry with his wife that Saturday 12th, one Florio an Italian, and one Humphrey Drewell
9212-736: Was probably mainly due to Daniel's dedication lines in the 1613 second edition of Florio's translation of Montaigne's Essays in which he referred to him as his "brother", suggesting a long-time friendship, more than an actually kinship between them. However, it is possible that it was John's sister, Justina, who married Samuel Daniel. Robert Anderson , in The Works of the British Poets (1795), states that Daniel "left no issue by his wife Justina, sister of John Florio." At 25 years old John Florio published Firste Fruites which yeelde familiar speech, merie prouerbes, wittie sentences, and golden sayings. Also
9310-433: Was shrewd enough to realise that if his Italian-English dictionary drew much of its vocabulary from such a popular author as Aretino, it would be well received by all those who wished to study first-hand Aretino's lashing satire, bawdy language, and journalistic style. A World of Words is a work of art in itself; the dictionary is an extraordinary resource not only for the history of Italian in Italy and abroad, but also for
9408-748: Was ten, John Florio was sent to live with and to be schooled in a Paedagogium in Tübingen (Germany) by the Reformed Protestant theologian, Pier Paolo Vergerio , a native of Venetian Capodistria (who had also lived in Swiss Bregaglia). Under these circumstances, John was formed in the humanist cultural circle of Tübingen, in a strong Italianate atmosphere. Unfortunately, he never completed his studies. Vergerio, in fact, died in 1566. Without any financial support, and orphan at 14 years old, he left Tübingen. He came back to Soglio, and later departed for England in
9506-589: Was the most important experience Florio had at the French Embassy. Bruno's influence will have a huge impact upon him. The philosopher, undoubtedly shaped Florio's character changing his vision of life and world permanently. John Florio embraced Bruno's philosophy, and above all, the thesis upon the infinite universe and the possibility of life on other planets, theories which went well beyond the Copernican limited heliocentric world. Bruno received many attacks after
9604-504: Was very passionate about maritime literature. His collaboration with Florio was very fruitful: he commissioned him to translate Jacques Cartier 's voyage to Canada. Later, in 1580, Florio published his translation under the name A Shorte and briefe narration of the two navigations and discoveries to the northweast partes called Newe Fraunce : first translated out of French into Italian by that famous learned man Gio : Bapt : Ramutius, and now turned into English by John Florio; worthy
#53946