Johannes Pauli (about 1455 – after 1530 at Thann in Alsace ) was a German Franciscan writer.
67-557: What little is known of his life rests upon unreliable information. Ludwig von Pastor rejected the story that he was of Jewish descent, and had been baptised at an early age, taking the name of Johannes Pauli from his godfather. Pauli became Master of Arts in Strasbourg , entered the Franciscans (the "Barefooted"), and delivered his first sermon in Thann in 1479. Two years later, he was sent to
134-472: A bull that would excommunicate the king of France and put an interdict over all France. Before this was finalized, Italian allies of the King of France broke into the papal residence and beat Pope Boniface VIII. He died shortly thereafter. Nicholas Boccasini was elected as his successor and took the name Pope Benedict XI . He absolved King Philip IV and his subjects of their actions against Pope Boniface VIII, though
201-611: A culture quite independent from Northern France, where most of the advisers to the King of France were based. The Kingdom of Arles was not yet part of France at that time, formally a part of the Holy Roman Empire . The literature produced by the troubadours in the Languedoc is unique and strongly distinct from that of Royal circles in the north. Even in terms of religion, the South produced its own variety of Christianity, Catharism , which
268-454: A lasting place in German literature, is the collection of farces and humorous stories "Schimpf (Scherz) und Ernst". This a genuine "folk book", written in an easy and plain style, filled with humour and pointed satire, intended to instruct while it amused. "He did not desire," as Georg Rollenhagen says in his preface to "Froschmäusler", "to make people laugh without teaching them something; his book
335-524: A major temporal role in addition to its spiritual role. The conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor was fundamentally a dispute over which of them was the leader of Christendom in secular matters. In the early 14th century, the papacy was well past the prime of its secular rule – its importance had peaked in the 12th and 13th centuries. The success of the early Crusades added greatly to
402-495: A meeting of the Estates General , a council of the lords of France, who had supported his position. The King of France issued charges of sodomy , simony , sorcery, and heresy against the pope and summoned him before the council. The pope's response was the strongest affirmation to date of papal sovereignty. In Unam sanctam (18 November 1302), he decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to
469-557: A member of the student corporation Arminia , and in 1877/78 at Vienna . Pastor taught at the University of Innsbruck , first as a lecturer (1881–87), then as professor of modern history (1887). His dissertation was titled "Die kirchlichen Reunionsbestrebungen während der Regierung Karls V" (The Church's Attempts at Reunion During the Reign of Charles V ). Pastor edited his mentor Janssen's eight-volume Geschichte des deutschen Volkes (History of
536-453: A relative of the House of Savoy , pursued a particularly ruthless policy against the league to re-establish control over these cities. He convinced Pope Gregory to hire Breton mercenaries. To quell an uprising of the inhabitants of Cesena he hired John Hawkwood and had the majority of the people massacred (between 2,500 and 3,500 people were reported dead). Following such events opposition against
603-461: A wide influence upon the culture of the whole century. Ludwig von Pastor Ludwig Pastor , ennobled as Ludwig von Pastor, Freiherr von Campersfelden (31 January 1854 – 30 September 1928), was a German historian and diplomat for Austria . He became one of the most important Roman Catholic historians of his time and is most notable for his History of the Popes . He was raised to the nobility by
670-705: The Roman Curia from Rome to Poitiers in France in 1305, and then to Avignon in 1309. Following the impasse during the previous conclave , and to escape from the infighting of the powerful Roman families that had produced earlier Popes, such as the Colonna and Orsini families , the Catholic Church looked for a safer place and found it in Avignon, which was surrounded by the lands of the papal fief of Comtat Venaissin . Formally it
737-464: The Avignon papacy bought the city of Avignon from the Angevins. Pope Innocent VI (1352–1362), born Etienne Aubert, was less partisan than Clement VI. He was keen on establishing peace between France and England, having worked to this end in papal delegations in 1345 and 1348. His gaunt appearance and austere manners commanded higher respect in the eyes of nobles at both sides of the conflict. However, he
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#1733085694170804-586: The Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520), but he claimed it had nothing to do with the Western Schism or papacy in Avignon. The relationship between the papacy and France changed drastically over the course of the 14th century. Starting with open conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France, it turned to cooperation from 1305 to 1342, and finally to a papacy under strong influence by
871-561: The Bold of the Duchy of Burgundy and Margaret III, Countess of Flanders , rather than giving dispensation to one of Edward III of England 's sons to marry Margaret. This clearly showed the partisanship of the papacy; correspondingly, the respect for the church dropped. The most influential decision in the reign of Pope Gregory XI (1370–1378) was the return to Rome, beginning on 13 September 1376 and ending with his arrival on 17 January 1377. Although
938-461: The Cathars in southern France); the reorganization of the internal administration of the church; and the preservation of an untainted image of the church as the sole instrument of God's will on earth. The latter was directly challenged by Philip IV when he demanded a posthumous trial of his former adversary, the late Boniface VIII, for alleged heresy . Phillip exerted strong influence on the cardinals of
1005-407: The Church found its way to the lower ranks: when a bishop had to pay up to a year's income for gaining a benefice, he sought ways of raising this money from his new office. This was taken to extremes by the pardoners who sold absolutions for all kinds of sins. While pardoners were hated but popularly regarded as helpful to redeem one's soul, the friars who were commonly regarded as failing to follow
1072-507: The Church's moral commandments by ignoring their vows of chastity and poverty and were despised. This sentiment strengthened movements calling for a return to absolute poverty, relinquishment of all personal and ecclesiastical belongings, and preaching as the Lord and his disciples had. For the Catholic Church , an institution embedded in the secular structure and its focus on property, this
1139-650: The Emperor Franz Joseph I in 1908 and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature six times. Born in Aachen to a Lutheran father and a Catholic mother, Pastor was converted to Catholicism at ten, after his father's death. He attended a Frankfurt gymnasium, where his teacher was Johannes Janssen who introduced him to historical studies. Pastor studied in 1875 at Leuven , in 1875/76 at Bonn , where he became
1206-544: The English side over Guy's strong ties with the French court. In a letter Innocent VI himself wrote to the Duke of Lancaster : "Although we were born in France and although for that and other reasons we hold the realm of France in special affection, yet in working for peace we have put aside our private prejudices and tried to serve the interests of everyone." With Pope Urban V (1362–1370),
1273-532: The French court were much stronger than those of his predecessors. At some point he even financed French war efforts out of his own pockets. He reportedly loved luxurious wardrobe and under his rule the extravagant life style in Avignon reached new heights. Clement VI was also pope during the Black Death , the epidemic that swept through Europe between 1347 and 1350 and is believed to have killed about one-third of Europe's population . Also during his reign, in 1348,
1340-549: The French throne up to 1378. Such partisanship of the papacy was one of the reasons for the dropping esteem for the institution, which in turn was one of the reasons for the schism from 1378 to 1417. In the period of the Schism, the power struggle in the papacy became a battlefield of the major powers, with France supporting the antipopes in Avignon and England supporting the popes in Rome . At
1407-486: The French, he fled to Perpignan in 1403. The schism ended in 1417 at the Council of Constance . Among the popes who resided in Avignon, subsequent Catholic historiography grants legitimacy to these: The two Avignon-based antipopes were: Benedict XIII was succeeded by three antipopes, who had little or no public following, and were not resident at Avignon: The period from 1378 to 1417, when there were rival claimants to
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#17330856941701474-550: The German People) and published it from 1893 to 1926. Janssen had made him aware of Leopold von Ranke 's History of the Popes . This determined the field he would take for his own, becoming in a sense a Catholic anti-Ranke. His approach was that the apparent shortcomings of the Papacy reflected flaws of their times. Pastor consulted archives throughout Catholic Europe and, during his first trip to Italy in 1881, his seriousness ensured
1541-586: The Middle Ages . Pastor began his work in 1886 and wrote throughout the pontificates of Leo XIII , Pius X , Benedict XV and Pius XI , publishing fifteen volumes. The 16th and final volume was published posthumously in 1930. The English translations were published between 1899 and 1953. In 1901, Pastor was appointed director of the Austrian Historical Institute in Rome , which he headed (with an interruption 1914-1919) until his death. He also
1608-592: The Pope was French born and still under strong influence by the French King, the increasing conflict between factions friendly and hostile to the Pope posed a threat to the papal lands and to the allegiance of Rome itself. When the papacy established an embargo against grain exports during a food scarcity 1374 and 1375, Florence organized several cities into a league against the papacy: Milan , Bologna , Perugia , Pisa , Lucca and Genoa . The papal legate, Robert of Geneva,
1675-399: The Pope was also under the influence of Catherine of Siena , later canonized, who preached for a return to Rome. This resolution was short-lived when, having returned the papal court to Rome, Pope Gregory XI died. A conclave met and elected an Italian pope, Urban VI . Pope Urban alienated the French cardinals, who held a second conclave electing one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took
1742-527: The Roman pontiff." He was preparing a bull that would excommunicate the King of France and put the interdict over France when in September 1303, William Nogaret , the strongest critic of the papacy in the French inner circle, led a delegation to Rome, with intentionally loose orders by the king to bring the pope, if necessary by force, before a council to rule on the charges brought against him. Nogaret coordinated with
1809-565: The archives of public and private libraries and archives in Italy and Europe, demonstrating an extraordinary capacity for work and rare sagacity in discovering interesting documents. Pastor decided to begin his work with the papacy of Pope Clement V (1305–1314) and the onset of the Avignon Papacy , so that he could concentrate his research on surviving documents. His dispassionate and frank papal history concentrated on individual popes rather than on
1876-502: The bull Salvator Mundi , retracting all privileges granted to the French king by previous popes, and a few weeks later Ausculta fili with charges against the king, summoning him before a council to Rome. In a bold assertion of papal sovereignty, Boniface declared that "God has placed us over the Kings and Kingdoms." In response, Philip wrote "Your venerable conceitedness may know, that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters," and called for
1943-521: The cardinals of the Colonna family, long-standing rivals against whom the pope had even preached a crusade earlier in his papacy. In 1303 French and Italian troops attacked the pope in Anagni , his home town, and arrested him. He was freed three days later by the population of Anagni. Boniface VIII, then 68 years of age, was deeply shattered by this attack on his own person and died a few weeks later. In reaction to
2010-549: The collegium, and compliance with his demand could mean a severe blow to the church's authority. Much of Clement's politics was designed to avoid such a blow, which he finally did (persuading Phillip to leave the trial to the Council of Vienne, where it lapsed). However, the price won concessions on various fronts; despite strong personal doubts, Clement supported Phillipe's proceedings against the Templars, and he personally ruled to suppress
2077-409: The control by Charles V of France of the papacy became more direct. Urban V himself is described as the most austere of the Avignon popes after Benedict XII and probably the most spiritual of all. However, he was not a strategist and made substantial concessions to the French crown especially in finances, a crucial issue during the war with England. In 1369 Pope Urban V supported the marriage of Philip
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2144-847: The convent at Oppenheim ; in 1504 the conventual monastery at Bern desired him as a guardian. He held the same office in Strasbourg 1506-10; in 1516 he is mentioned as preacher in Sélestat ; later in Villingen in the Black Forest , and finally in Thann. Prompted by his acquaintance with Geiler of Kaisersberg , he published in 1515 "Das Evangelienbuch"; in 1516 "Die Emeis, Buch von der Omeissen"; in 1517 "Die Brösamlin Geilers"; in 1520 "Das Narrenschiff, aus dem Latein ins Deutsch gebracht". His own work, which assured him
2211-526: The culprits who assaulted Boniface were excommunicated and ordered to appear before a pontifical tribunal. Benedict XI died within eight months of being elected to the papacy. After eleven months, Bertrand de Got, a Frenchman and a personal friend of King Philip IV, was elected as pope and took the name Pope Clement V. Beginning with Clement V , elected 1305, all popes during the Avignon papacy were French. However, this makes French influence seem greater than it was. Southern France ( Occitania ) at that time had
2278-539: The customary election process that traditionally allotted this considerable income. Many other forms of payment brought riches to the Holy See and its cardinals: tithes , a ten-percent tax on church property; annates , the income of the first year after filling a position such as a bishopric ; special taxes for crusades that never took place; and many forms of dispensation, from the entering of benefices without basic qualifications like literacy for newly appointed priests to
2345-503: The developments of papal institutions. Pastor's tomes span the pontificates of 56 popes, from Clement V to Pius VI . He combined painstaking scholarship with erudition. The result of his research was his Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters in sixteen volumes. The opus magnum was subsequently translated into English and published as History of the Popes From the Close of
2412-643: The finances of the Church to pay for his war with the English. Pope Boniface VIII protested, leading to a feud. This state of affairs culminated in the unbridled declaration of papal supremacy, Unam sanctam , in November 1302. In that papal bull , Pope Boniface VIII decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff." This was directed primarily to King Philip IV of France who responded by saying, "Let thy foolishness know that in temporal things we are subject to no man." In 1303 AD, Pope Boniface VIII followed up with
2479-675: The historical section of the Görres Society . He received the positions of Commander of the Papal Order of St Sylvester Pope and Martyr , of Knight of the Papal Order of Saint Pius IX , of Commander of the Austrian Order of Franz Joseph and of the Royal Italian Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus . Emperor Francis Joseph I elevated him to the nobility in 1908 and gave him the title Freiherr von Campersfelden in 1916. In 1921 he
2546-661: The influence of the French Crown. In 1376, Gregory XI abandoned Avignon and moved his court to Rome, arriving in January 1377. After Gregory's death in 1378, deteriorating relations between his successor Urban VI and a faction of cardinals gave rise to the Western Schism . This started a second line of Avignon popes, subsequently regarded as illegitimate. The last Avignon antipope , Benedict XIII , lost most of his support in 1398, including that of France . After five years besieged by
2613-480: The intransigence of Popes like Boniface VIII, the French tightened their influence under the papacy, eventually reducing the Popes to puppets and stacking the Papal court with French clerics. The death of Pope Boniface VIII deprived the papacy of its most able politician who could stand against the secular power of the king of France. After the conciliatory papacy of Benedict XI (1303–04), Pope Clement V (1305–1314) became
2680-399: The memory of Pope Boniface VIII still fresh. The temporal role of the Catholic Church increased the pressure upon the papal court to emulate the governmental practices and procedures of secular courts. The Catholic Church successfully reorganised and centralized its administration under Clement V and John XXII . The papacy now directly controlled the appointments of benefices , abandoning
2747-468: The name Clement VII , to succeed Gregory XI, thus beginning a second line of Avignon popes. Clement VII and his successors are not regarded as legitimate, and are referred to as antipopes by the Catholic Church . This situation, known as the Western Schism , persisted from 1378 until the ecumenical Council of Constance (1414–1418) settled the question of papal succession and declared the French conclave of 1378 to be invalid. A new Pope, Pope Martin V ,
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2814-454: The next pontiff . He was born in Gascony , in southern France, but was not directly connected to the French court. He owed his election to the French clerics. He decided against moving to Rome and established his court in Avignon . In this situation of dependency on powerful neighbours in France, three principles characterized the politics of Clement V: the suppression of heretic movements (such as
2881-561: The order. One important issue during the papacy of Pope John XXII (born Jacques Duèze in Cahors , and previously archbishop in Avignon) was his conflict with Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor , who denied the sole authority of the Pope to crown the Emperor. Louis followed the example of Philippe IV, and summoned the nobles of Germany to back his position. Marsilius of Padua justified secular supremacy in
2948-431: The papacy strengthened. Florence came in open conflict with the Pope, a conflict called "the war of the eight saints" in reference to the eight Florentine councilors who were chosen to orchestrate the conflict. The entire city of Florence was excommunicated and as reply the forwarding of clerical taxes was stopped. Trade was seriously hampered and both sides had to find a solution. In his decision about returning to Rome,
3015-639: The patronage of Pope Leo XIII , who opened to him the contents of the Vatican Library , which had previously been held unavailable to scholars. He was granted privileged access to the Secret Vatican Archives , and his history, largely based on hitherto unavailable original documents, superseded all previous histories of the popes in the period he covered, which runs from the Avignon Papacy of 1305 to Napoleon's entrance in Rome, 1799. He also investigated
3082-479: The pope with seventy errors and seven heresies. The proceedings against the Knights Templar in the Council of Vienne are representative of this time, reflecting the various powers and their relationships. In 1314 the collegium at Vienne convened to make a ruling concerning the Templars. The council, overall unconvinced about the guilt of the order as a whole, was unlikely to condemn the entire order based on
3149-559: The prestige of the Popes as secular leaders of Christendom , with monarchs like those of England , France , and even the Holy Roman Emperor merely acting as marshals for the popes and leading "their" armies. One exception was Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor , who was twice excommunicated by the Pope during a Crusade. Frederick II ignored this and was moderately successful in the Holy Land . King Philip IV of France wanted to use
3216-400: The request of a converted Jew to visit his unconverted parents. Popes such as John XXII , Benedict XII , and Clement VI reportedly spent fortunes on expensive wardrobes, and silver and gold plates were used at banquets . Overall the public life of leading church members began to resemble the lives of princes rather than members of the clergy. This splendor and corruption at the head of
3283-550: The same amount of time as the exile of the Jews in Babylon, making the analogy convenient and rhetorically potent. The Avignon papacy has been and is often today depicted as being totally dependent on the French kings, and sometimes as even being treacherous to its spiritual role and its heritage in Rome. Almost a century and a half later, Protestant reformer Martin Luther wrote his treatise On
3350-577: The scarce evidence brought forward. Exerting massive pressure in order to gain part of the substantial funds of the Order, the King managed to get the ruling he wanted, and Pope Clement V ordered by decree the suppression of the order. In the cathedral of Saint Maurice in Vienne, the King of France and his son, the King of Navarre , were sitting next to him when he issued the decree. Under pain of excommunication , no one
3417-480: The souls of the examined, taking a lot of time in the proceedings. His interest in pacifying southern France was also motivation for mediating between the King of France and the King of England, before the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War . Under Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) the French interests started dominating the papacy. Clement VI had been Archbishop of Rouen and adviser to Philippe IV before, so his links to
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#17330856941703484-566: The subsequent death of Pope Benedict XI , Philip forced a deadlocked conclave to elect the French Clement V as pope in 1305. Clement refused to move to Rome, and in 1309 he moved his court to the papal enclave at Avignon, where it remained for the next 67 years. This absence from Rome is sometimes referred to as the " Babylonian captivity " of the Papacy (cf. Italian cattività avignonese , i.e. "Avignonese captivity"). A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon, all French , and all under
3551-634: The territory of the Holy Roman Empire. This conflict with the Emperor, often fought out in expensive wars, drove the papacy even more into the arms of the French king. Pope Benedict XII (1334–1342), born Jacques Fournier in Pamiers, was previously active in the inquisition against the Cathar movement. In contrast to the rather bloody picture of the Inquisition in general, he was reported to be very careful about
3618-425: The title of pope, is referred to as the " Western Schism " or "the great controversy of the antipopes" by some Catholic scholars and "the second great schism" by many secular and Protestant historians. Parties within the Catholic Church were divided in their allegiance among the various claimants to the office of pope. The Council of Constance finally resolved the controversy in 1417 when the election of Pope Martin V
3685-429: The west", referring to the worldly practices of the church hierarchy. The nickname is polemical, in referring to the claim by critics that the prosperity of the church at that time was accompanied by a profound compromise of the papacy's spiritual integrity, especially in the alleged subordination of the powers of the Church to the ambitions of the French kings. As noted, the "captivity" of the popes at Avignon lasted about
3752-623: Was a dangerous development, and beginning in the early 14th century most of these movements were declared heretical . These included the Fraticelli and Waldensian movements in Italy and the Hussites in Bohemia (inspired by John Wycliffe in England). Furthermore, the display of wealth by the upper ranks of the church, which contrasted with the common expectation of poverty and strict adherence to principles,
3819-402: Was a member of the Emperor Franz-Joseph Academy in Prague , corresponding member of the Società Colombaria in Florence , member of the Papal Academy in Rome , of the Academy of Cracow and the Académie Royale d'Archéologie de Belgique in Antwerp . He achieved an honorary membership of the Academy of St Luke in Rome, an honorary doctorate at the University of Leuven , and membership in
3886-408: Was accepted by all. Avignon and the small enclave to the east ( Comtat Venaissin ) remained part of the Papal States until 1791 when, under pressure from French Revolutionaries , they were absorbed by the short-lived revolutionary Kingdom of France (1791–92) , which, in turn, was abolished in favor of the French First Republic the following year. The papacy in the Late Middle Ages played
3953-479: Was allowed to speak at that occasion except when asked by the Pope. The Templars who appeared in Vienne to defend their order were not allowed to present their case—the cardinals of the collegium originally ruled that they should be allowed to raise a defense, but the arrival of the King of France in Vienne put pressure on the collegium, and that decision was revoked. After the arrest of the Bishop of Pamiers by Philip IV of France in 1301, Pope Boniface VIII issued
4020-412: Was also indecisive and impressionable, already an old man when being elected Pope. In this situation, the King of France managed to influence the papacy, although papal legates played key roles in various attempts to stop the conflict. Most notably in 1353 the Bishop of Porto , Guy de Boulogne, tried to set up a conference. After initial successful talks the effort failed, largely due to the mistrust from
4087-605: Was appointed the Republic of Austria 's ambassador to the Holy See , and died in Innsbruck in 1928. All forty volumes of The History of the Popes are available from the Internet Archive . Volumes I to VI are translated and edited by Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, volumes VII to XXIV by Ralph Francis Kerr, volumes XXV to XXXIV by Ernest Graf and volumes XXXV to LX by E. F. Peeler. The publishers vary and include K. Paul, Trench Trübner, & Co. , Routledge , and K. Paul . Avignon Papacy The Avignon Papacy ( Occitan : Papat d'Avinhon ; French : Papauté d'Avignon )
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#17330856941704154-413: Was elected in 1417; other claimants to succeed to Avignon line (though not resident at Avignon) continued until c. 1437. The period has been called the " Babylonian captivity " of the popes. When and where this term originated is uncertain although it may have sprung from Petrarch , who in a letter to a friend (1340–1353) written during his stay at Avignon, described Avignon of that time as the "Babylon of
4221-464: Was like the old legends and sagas, full of fabulous happenings and incidents, but written so that in them, as in a comedy, there are combined with poetry and imagination the plain, unvarnished, bitter truths of life, worded so as to tell serious things in a jocular manner, with a laugh and a smile." Pauli drew his information from a variety of sources, and his farces became the inspiration of the later German poets, especially for Hans Sachs . He exercised
4288-423: Was part of Arles, but in reality it was under the influence of the French king. During its time in Avignon, the papacy adopted many features of the Royal court: the life-style of its cardinals was more reminiscent of princes than clerics; more and more French cardinals, often relatives of the ruling pope, took key positions; and the proximity of French troops was a constant reminder of where secular power lay, with
4355-443: Was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (at the time within the Kingdom of Arles , part of the Holy Roman Empire , now part of France ) rather than in Rome (now the capital of Italy ). The situation arose from the conflict between the papacy and the French crown , culminating in the death of Pope Boniface VIII after his arrest and maltreatment by Philip IV of France . Following
4422-407: Was ultimately declared heretical. The movement was fueled in no small part by the strong sense of independence in the South even though the region had been severely weakened during the Albigensian Crusade a hundred years before. By the time of the Avignon Papacy, the power of the French King in this region was uncontested, although still not legally binding. A stronger impact was made by the move of
4489-414: Was used by enemies of the papacy to raise charges against the popes; King Philip of France employed this strategy, as did Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor . In his conflict with the latter, Pope John XXII excommunicated two leading philosophers, Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham , who were outspoken critics of the papacy, and who had found refuge with Louis IV in Munich . In response, William charged
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