160-573: Jirón may refer to: Jirón is used as a word for street in Peru . Peru Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America . It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia , in the east by Brazil , in the southeast by Bolivia , in the south by Chile , and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country , with habitats ranging from
320-439: A constitutional monarchy , a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity
480-632: A curfew for fifteen provinces in eight different regions of Peru on 15 December, in regions including Arequipa, La Libertad, Ica, Apurímac, Cusco, Puno, and Huancavelica. During protests in Ayacucho, demonstrators approached the Coronel FAP Alfredo Mendívil Duarte Airport , with the Peruvian Armed Forces closing the airport in response, with clashes occurring shortly after. Human rights groups reported that members of
640-500: A $ 900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and MRTA , which caused great havoc throughout the country. The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted
800-759: A May 2023 judicial ruling that stated they were not protected by the constitution. A state of emergency and curfews was used by the Boluarte government to prevent further unrest. The Boluarte government submitted to Congress a bill to change the Criminal Procedure Code to increase the length of imprisonment for protesters to up to 15 years during a state of emergency and to remove due process towards accused individuals, immediately sending demonstrators to trial. Analysts described Boluarte's proposal as unconstitutional, saying that penalties for protesting were more severe than those charged with rape, that it removes
960-504: A commission and distributed to individuals who were killed during the protests. Heading into the new year, the Peruvian National Police (PNP) called for citizens to participate in a " Great March for Peace " on 3 January 2023 in the town squares of cities throughout Peru. Internal PNP documents revealed that the march was organized for the political purpose to increase support for the Boluarte government, raising concerns about
1120-453: A former National Intelligence Service (SIN) agent who worked under Vladimiro Montesinos who described the protests as a "terrorist insurrection" while on Willax Televisión a day prior to his appointment. The protesters lack leadership and comprise independent groups. Of the many groups that supported protests, MOVADEF encouraged citizens to demonstrate. Rondas campesinas , armed peasant patrols that formerly defended communities from
1280-618: A high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic , and is one of the megadiverse countries. Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic ), over 500 species of mammals , over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwater fishes . The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma , jaguar and spectacled bear . The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano , an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass , flounder , anchovies , tuna , crustaceans , and shellfish , and
1440-524: A large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually in desert areas to more than 8,000 mm (310 in) in tropical rainforest areas. Due to its geography, Peru can be divide into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches. In
1600-653: A march called " Toma de Lima " or "Taking of Lima" was called, originally a meeting in Plaza Bolognesi with the aim of closing the congress and expressing their support for Pedro Castillo . This march was organized by the National Assembly of the Peoples, an organization affiliated with the officials, whose meeting in November of that year was televised. The Agrarian and Rural Front of Peru confirmed their collaboration in
1760-569: A mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture. Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around
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#17328804245781920-532: A period of relative economic and political stability began due to the exploitation of guano that ended with the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). Throughout the 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including the internal conflict between the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation of Plan Verde shifted Peru towards neoliberal economics under
2080-667: A political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom ; it is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Pacific Alliance , the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and
2240-499: A powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas with their capital in Cusco . The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas . Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of
2400-437: A practice known as centralismo , which involved focusing their power on the coastal regions while the rural provinces were governed by existing serfdom practices by hacienda landowners. This practice has continued throughout Peru's history and has resulted with large levels of economic inequality , political alienation and other disparities in rural regions, with Lima acquiring the majority of socioeconomic benefits in
2560-532: A regional strike starting Monday, 12 December. Clashes erupted in the city between protestors and police in the city; two protestors, aged 15 and 18, were killed by police shooting from a helicopter, while four more were injured, one of whom critically. President Boluarte responded to dissent by removing 26 regional prefects nominated by Castillo from their positions. On 13 December, the United States Ambassador to Peru , Lisa D. Kenna , travels to
2720-566: A result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal . The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to
2880-399: A self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities. Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth at the start of the 21st century, though Fujimorism held power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which
3040-524: A statement: "No one owes obedience to a usurping government and Mr. Pedro Castillo has made an ineffective coup d'état. The Armed Forces are empowered to restore the constitutional order." The Armed Forces also issued a statement rejecting Castillo's actions and calling for the maintenance of stability in Peru. Rejecting Castillo's actions to dissolve the legislative body, Congress gathered and voted to remove Castillo from office due to "moral incapacity" with 101 votes in favor, 6 against and 10 abstentions. It
3200-510: Is home to many sharks, sperm whales , and whales. The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru. Peru also has an equally diverse flora . The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti , apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life. The Highlands above
3360-683: Is sentenced to 18 months of pretrial detention . While imprisoned, Castillo states that the United States is responsible for the violence in Peru, stating "The visit of the US ambassador to the Government Palace was not free, nor was it in favor of the country. It was to give the order to take the troops to the streets and massacre my defenseless people; and, by the way, leave the way free for mining operations, ... The Peruvian press will not only keep quiet about this, but will deny it so easily." A day after
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#17328804245783520-523: Is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region. The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are the endorheic basin of Lake Titicaca , and the Amazon basin, which empties into
3680-509: The Madrid Charter promoted by the Spanish radical right political party Vox . These groups directed threats towards Castillo government officials and journalists, whilst also calling for a coup d'état and insurgency . During Castillo's presidency, Congress was dominated by right-wing parties opposed to him, with legislators attempting to impeach multiple times using political avenues. Due to broadly interpreted impeachment wording in
3840-466: The auto-golpe ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992. He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements. Fujimori's administration
4000-440: The terruqueo fear mongering tactic to label some of the protesters as terrorists ; a practice that dates back to the internal conflict in Peru and has been condemned by United Nations experts. United Nations Special Rapporteur Clément Nyaletsossi Voule said that there was no evidence that terrorist groups were involved in the protests. Terruqueos by government officials provided impunity to authorities and increased
4160-464: The 2006 elections . In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter, Keiko Fujimori , entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism. In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South American Nations . In April 2009, former president Alberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations and sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by
4320-510: The Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades. The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish an authoritarian or civilian-military government . Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in
4480-452: The COVID-19 pandemic , precipitating the period of unrest beginning in 2022 . The sovereign state of Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions . Its main economic activities include mining , manufacturing , agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology . The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas ,
4640-758: The Constitution of Peru (1993), Congress can impeach the president on the vague grounds of "moral incapacity", effectively making the legislature more powerful than the executive branch. In February 2022, it was reported that Fujimorists and politicians close to Fujimori organized a meeting at the Casa Andina hotel in Lima with the assistance of the German liberal organization Friedrich Naumann Foundation , with those present including President of Congress Maricarmen Alva , at which plans to remove Castillo from office were discussed. Alva had already shared her readiness to assume
4800-489: The Government Palace to meet with President Boluarte. The Boluarte government announced a national state of emergency on 14 December, removing some constitutional protections from citizens, including the rights preventing troops from staying within private homes and buildings , the freedom of movement , the freedom of assembly , and "personal freedom and security" for 30 days. The Boluarte government also decreed
4960-467: The Grupo Colina death squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s. During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala , Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra , the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents. On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected president, with his cabinet being successfully censured by
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5120-662: The Grupo Colina death squad during the internal conflict in Peru , was sentenced to prison for human rights abuses. During their majority in congress, Fujimorists "earned a reputation as hardline obstructionists for blocking initiatives popular with Peruvians aimed at curbing the nation’s rampant corruption" according to the Associated Press . According to Walter Albán, head of Transparency International Peru, Congress has been infiltrated by criminal groups that obstruct reforms to maintain their status and parliamentary immunity , while Human Rights Watch said that Congress
5280-523: The Huaca Prieta settlement. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing ; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Caral/Norte Chico civilization , flourished along the coast of
5440-638: The International Petroleum Corporation (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished the latifunda system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land
5600-751: The Peruvian Army were seen shooting at civilians protesting in Ayacucho. Casualties were sent for treatment at the Huamanga Network and in the Ayacucho Regional Hospital, with 90% of injuries resulting from gunshot wounds according to the Ayacucho regional health system. The response by authorities caused the collapse of hospital systems in the city, with protesters suffering from gunshot wounds being treated in makeshift triage units. The Ayacucho Regional Health Directorate reported that 8 were killed and 52 were injured. Former president Castillo
5760-567: The Plan Verde , which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of the media in Peru , and the establishment of a neoliberal economy controlled by a military junta . Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori, Vladimiro Montesinos , and some of
5920-540: The Sapa Inca , to be the " child of the sun ." Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca , became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors (supported by the Chankas , Huancas , Cañaris and Chachapoyas as Indian auxiliaries ) led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured
6080-473: The Southern Hemisphere , its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the equator , covers 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to
6240-453: The War of the Pacific , which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of this war was Chile's ambition to take over
6400-545: The World Trade Organization ; and is considered as a middle power . Peru's population includes Mestizos , Amerindians , Europeans , Africans and Asians . The main spoken language is Spanish , although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechuan languages , Aymara , or other Indigenous languages . This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art , cuisine , literature , and music . The name of
6560-748: The cradles of civilization ), the Nazca culture , the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco , and the Inca Empire , the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima . Higher education started in
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6720-523: The human rights violations committed in the last years of violence. His Programa Nacional de Población also resulted with the forced sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women. In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War , but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into
6880-686: The war of independence in North America , and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among the C riollo population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of
7040-799: The " Toma de Lima " in the Plaza San Martín and surroundings. The RPP outlet considered the pro-government meeting as the largest since Castillo came to power. Panic buying was registered by the population fearing an escalation of events. Some of the first demonstrations also occurred in Cuzco, Arequipa and in Puno . The head of the National Directorate of Intelligence (DINI) , General Wilson Barrantes Mendoza, met with President Boluarte upon her request on 8 December 2022. The DINI chief would explain to President Boluarte that protests would worsen due to
7200-642: The 1529 Capitulación de Toledo , which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. In 1561, the rebel Lope de Aguirre declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru , which became the Peruvian Republic from its independence until 1979 , when it adopted its current name of Republic of Peru . The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500 BCE in
7360-474: The 1860s Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla , through increased state revenues from guano exports. In 1864, a Spanish expedition occupied the Chincha Islands (guano producers) and unleashed an international incident with great consequences in Peruvian internal politics, which led to a coup d'état against President Juan Antonio Pezet , Mariano's government. Peru, with
7520-560: The Amazon. The largest lake in Peru , Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America. The largest reservoirs , all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos , Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs. Although Peru is located entirely in the tropics , the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents ( Humboldt and El Niño ) gives Peru
7680-550: The Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos in Lima in 1551. Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following the military campaigns of Bernardo O'Higgins , José de San Martín , and Simón Bolívar , as well as the decisive battle of Ayacucho , it completed its independence in 1824 . In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until
7840-469: The Armed Forces regarding the event. Days later, the state of emergency in Lima was ended on 9 March 2023 as protests waned. A third "Takeover of Lima" protest occurred nationwide on 19 July 2023; 24,000 police were deployed throughout Peru and several thousand protesters demonstrated in Lima. The Supreme Court of Peru would respond by criminalizing all demonstrations, prohibiting peaceful protests in
8000-570: The Army, we alert the National Police of Peru not to upset us because we are in our territory, we will see each other there, there we will surely declare war, because they are already provoking us and creating us discomfort". On 24 December, Prime Minister Otárola stated that the Boluarte government was seeking to make Congress bicameral again while Minister of Justice and Human Rights of Peru, José Tello, announced that reparations would be organized by
8160-526: The Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater. Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins . Those that drain toward
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#17328804245788320-605: The Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo . In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho , developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as
8480-615: The Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations. It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition , making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of
8640-572: The Fujimorist Congress. Beginning with Pedro Pablo Kuczynski , Congress used broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause to place pressure on the president, forcing him to resign in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president Martín Vizcarra then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led
8800-592: The God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of
8960-442: The Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca . After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima , which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout
9120-416: The Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru. Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations. In this endeavor,
9280-400: The National Library ( in favor of knowledge), the approval of the National Anthem, and the abolition of the mita (in favor of the indigenous people). On December 27, 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río; Ministry of War and Navy , to Bernardo de Monteagudo; and Ministry of Finance, to Hipólito Unanue. From the 1840s to
9440-403: The Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the sierra . Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow. Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali , the Marañón , the Putumayo , the Yavarí , the Huallaga , the Urubamba , the Mantaro , and
9600-404: The Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE along what is now Peru's Pacific coast was an example of early pre- Inca culture . The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE
9760-423: The Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán . The third region
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#17328804245789920-406: The Pacific War. The casus belli was the confrontation between Bolivia and Chile over a tax problem in which Peru was compromised by the Treaty of Defensive Alliance signed with Bolivia in 1873. However, Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of This war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru.92 In the first stage of the war,
10080-460: The Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via the Manila Galleons transiting through Acapulco, had Callao at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas. In relation to this, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera , governor of Panama was also responsible for settling Zamboanga City in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists. African slaves were added to
10240-529: The Puno Traffic Safety Police was found with stolen televisions and other goods from a looted store. A total of 40 people were arrested for looting on 10 January. Into the next morning, two officers were detained by unknown individuals; one of the officers reported that about 350 people had captured them and that his partner had disappeared. It was later discovered that his partner was burned alive in his patrol car and had died. Attorney General of Peru Patricia Benavides announced investigations on 10 January for
10400-422: The Spanish government over its colonies. After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, José de San Martín created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú in 1818. On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in
10560-420: The Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. The War of the Pacific was the bloodiest war Peru has fought in. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. Internal struggles after
10720-417: The Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest and colony brought
10880-459: The airport at 5:20 pm, authorities responded to the demonstration with deadly force. In total, 17 civilians were killed and over 100 others were injured, with all deaths attributed to gunshot wounds. Journalists covering the massacre were sought to be identified by police intelligence units. After the killing of protesters by the police, looting in Juliaca began into the night, with some authorities seen participating in thefts. The head of
11040-707: The alleged crimes of genocide , aggravated homicide and serious injuries against President Dina Boluarte, Prime Minister Alberto Otárola, Minister of the Interior Víctor Rojas and Minister of Defense Jorge Chávez. Protesters from various regions began to congregate in the capital city of Lima on 12 January, with thousands beginning to demonstrate throughout the area in preparation for the Toma de Lima or "Takeover of Lima" protests. Caravans of protesters traveled to Lima and local individuals and shops provided supplies for their journey. The Sole National Central of Peasant Rounds of Peru said that 2,000 ronderos would travel to Lima to participate in demonstrations. On 13 January,
11200-461: The anti-corruption constitutional referendum movement. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration and triggering an economic crisis that led to Vizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress . Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated President Manuel Merino , faced protests across
11360-408: The arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country, to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River . Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima . At 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in
11520-522: The armed forces. A large far-right bloc in Congress was also elected, comprising one-third of the legislature's seats. In contrast, Castillo was supported by working class and indigenous Peruvians who were affected by centralismo , with Castillo receiving support in areas outside of Lima and other large cities. In May 2021, Americas Quarterly wrote: " Life expectancy in Huancavelica, for example,
11680-432: The authoritarian rule of Alberto Fujimori and Vladimiro Montesinos in the 1990s, with the former's political ideology of Fujimorism leaving a lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues to present day. The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existing sociopolitical vulnerabilities , exacerbated by a political crisis instigated by Congress and
11840-608: The authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. The United States responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after
12000-502: The bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents. Using the terruqueo , a fearmongering tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a cult of personality by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru. Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize
12160-496: The boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General Manuel A. Odría became president. Odría's presidency was known as the Ochenio . He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At
12320-599: The broad range of requests, including Bolaurte's resignation, the dissolution of Congress, a constituent assembly and immediate general elections. General Barrantes then explained that there was no organized leadership, presenting information from the National Intelligence Council (COIN) and the National Intelligence System (SINA) that there were 16 independent regional groups promoting protests, that political parties and leaders were not organizing
12480-697: The church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers. By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms , a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty . The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As
12640-448: The command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful. The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pazuela named José de la Serna commander-in-chief of
12800-407: The contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega , son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name Birú was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias Dávila and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language. The Spanish crown gave the name legal status with
12960-448: The country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at Potosí (present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica , the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and
13120-495: The country may be derived from Birú , the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel , Panama City, in the early 16th century. Spanish conquistadors , who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of the New World . When Francisco Pizarro invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú . An alternative history is provided by
13280-528: The country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency. Merino was replaced by President Francisco Sagasti , who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies. Elections were held on 11 April 2021, and Pedro Castillo of the Free Peru party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress. On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo
13440-456: The country. After the country experienced chronic inflation , the Peruvian sol was replaced by the inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $ 720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running
13600-773: The coup d'état of the general Pinochet . General Edgardo Mercado Jarrin (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 General Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in Operation Condor in collaboration with other American military dictatorships. President Alan García 's economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in
13760-699: The election with support of citizens in Lima. Many business groups and politicians refused to recognize Castillo's ascent to the presidency, with those among the more affluent, including former military officers and wealthy families, demanded new elections, promoted calls for a military coup , and used rhetoric to support their allegations of fraud. Far-right groups of former soldiers, including La Resistencia , also allied with political parties like Advance Country , Popular Force , and Popular Renewal in an effort to remove Castillo, with some veteran leaders seen directly with Rafael López Aliaga and Castillo's former presidential challenger Keiko Fujimori , who signed
13920-500: The empire was Quechua , although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas , but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti , the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama . The Incas considered their King,
14080-510: The fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti . Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui , the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as
14240-460: The first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military. With the help of Antonio José de Sucre , they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru
14400-653: The following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima , returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia . In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War , after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize
14560-499: The fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica , in the Atacama region. Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau are both renowned heros of the war. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply
14720-660: The goals of the march and the potential creation of a civilian-military government resulted with Minister of the Interior, Víctor Rojas, cancelling the planned march. In Juliaca, Puno, authorities shot a photojournalist of EFE in the leg, destroyed a motor taxi, and attacked an adolescent and their mother on 7 January. Protesters from multiple districts of Puno joined demonstrations in Juliaca on 9 January. Protesters approached Inca Manco Cápac International Airport around noon and demonstrated nearby, though when some began to enter
14880-558: The government. Pro-Castillo protesters also tried to assault points such as the Colonel FAP Alfredo Mendívil Duarte Airport , which led to clashes between civilians and the military. Fujimorism would ultimately consolidate governmental power into Congress with the assistance of the Constitutional Court of Peru . The majority of Peruvian institutions, including all branches of government and
15040-520: The help of Bolivia , Chile and Ecuador , sent a declaration of war on Spain. After the battle of Callao on May 2, 1866, the Spanish Navy withdrew from Peru. The government of José Balta was lavish in infrastructure works (construction of the Central Railway ) although the first signs of excess government spending were already perceived. By the 1870s the guano resources had been depleted, the country
15200-479: The highlands near Cuzco. In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence , Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar . The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe,
15360-465: The labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism , with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by
15520-426: The larger cities. Many Peruvians living in rural areas could not vote until 1979 when the constitution allowed illiterate individuals to vote. Despite this, between 1919 and 2021, eleven of eighteen democratically elected presidents of Peru were from Lima. Wealth generated between 1990 and 2020 was not equally distributed throughout the country. As a result, there were significant disparities in living standards between
15680-649: The leftist Shining Path guerilla group, also joined the protests. The Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú (CGTP) , the largest union in Peru, also called for the resignations of the executive and Congress. In Arequipa, they received support from labor unions such as the Arequipa Departmental Federation of Workers, the Civil Construction Union, and the National Front of Transporters and Drivers of Peru. They also had support of
15840-410: The loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create
16000-467: The majority of media organizations in Peru collaborating with Fujimori's campaign by appealing to fear when discussing political opponents. Some broadcast television channels openly supported Fujimori's candidacy as well. Reuters wrote that El Comercio , one of the largest media organizations in South America, "has generally backed Fujimori". Fujimori received support from Lima 's elite, evangelical Christians , businesses, media organizations, and
16160-420: The majority of support for Castillo's actions being among rural and lower class Peruvians. For Castillo's supporters, Congress performed a coup against the president. In addition, they considered Dina Boluarte a "traitor", "dictator" and "usurper" after her subsequent assumption as the new president of the republic, based on the promise of the then vice president: "If the president is vacated I will go with
16320-440: The massacre, Congress rejected the proposal of advancing the 2026 elections to an earlier date; 49 were in favor, 33 against and 25 abstained, with 87 required for the proposal to pass. On 16 December, Education Minister Patricia Correa and Culture Minister Jair Perez both resigned over the loss of life caused by the protests. President Boluarte shuffles her first cabinet, placing her former Minister of Defense Alberto Otárola as
16480-421: The media, adopted authoritarian practices during the protests. The politicization of the armed forces also raised concerns about a developing civilian-military government in Peru. Congress, with one-third of its members belonging to a far-right bloc, would reject all attempts of reform, including the advancing of general elections, constitutional proposals and motions to impeach Boluarte. On 9 March 2023,
16640-523: The message to the nation, it was denounced that the Minister of the Interior, Willy Huerta, ordered the doors of the congress to be opened, which were closed, so that the summoned protesters could storm the congress. However, due to the failure of Castillo's actions and the subsequent vacancy by the Congress of the Republic, the demonstrations increased. On 7 December, between one and two hundred people gathered in
16800-526: The military officers involved in Plan Verde to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration. Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde, which led to a precitious drop in infliation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992. When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in
16960-519: The ministers of interior, labor and women resigned from their positions in the Boluarte government. A 30-day state of emergency is declared on 15 January due to the protests. On 17 January, President Boluarte responded to calls for the Toma de Lima protests, stating "I call them to take Lima but in peace and calm. I am waiting for you at the House of Government to talk about your social agendas, because you know that
17120-420: The more outstanding Chimu and Moche . The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru,
17280-418: The more-developed capital city of Lima and similar coastal regions, while rural provinces remained impoverished. By the 2020s, the existing disparities in Peru caused a "globalization fatigue" according to Asensio, resulting in a polarization between rural and urban areas that saw differing priorities with lifestyle, economics and politics. This divide created by centralismo would be a contributing factor to
17440-578: The most bloodshed, Castillo won by a lot." Asensio writes that Castillo, being recognized as a "true Peruvian" by his supporters, was able to establish support by saying he would reverse the favoritism of Lima and defending regional rights. Multiple attempts to prevent Castillo from the entering the office of the presidency or to later remove him occurred, beginning shortly after election results were determined. Following reports of Castillo's apparent victory, Fujimori and her supporters made claims of electoral fraud , leading obstructionist efforts to overturn
17600-451: The mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes. The Peruvian Amazon , covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall. Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has
17760-607: The movement and that organizations linked to the Shining Path or the Movement for Amnesty and Fundamental Rights (MOVADEF) were not involved. The general would later state in an interview with La Republica that "To say that there is a 'terrorist inurgency' is stupid", criticizing the Boluarte government for using such rhetoric and for accusing foreign entities of being involved in the protests. The Boluarte government later replaced General Barrantes with Colonel Juan Carlos Liendo O'Connor,
17920-479: The nation and that protesters would continue to congregate in Lima. During the protests, police fired tear gas directly at the bodies of Aymara women marching with babies on their backs. Minister of Education Óscar Becerra compared the women to animals, stating "Not even animals expose their children", instead suggesting that the women "rent their children so that they can be taken to this" in an effort of media manipulation. The Ministry of Women also avoided condemning
18080-502: The nation. Centralismo also contributed to systemic racism in Peru since the wealth and education centralized in Lima created a perception amongst Limeños that rural indigenous individuals were inferior. As globalization intensified through the twentieth century, the gap between urban and rural areas increased, with larger cities increasing their ability to connect to the economy and increasing their wealth while smaller cities experienced resource and human capital flight towards
18240-418: The naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar, the main ship of the Peruvian navy commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. In 1879 Peru entered
18400-417: The new prime minister, while also replacing the Minister of Interior and Minister of Defense. Boluarte's new Minister of Education, Óscar Becerra , was reported to have a history of being an Fujimorist . Protesters continued activities in the regions of Amazonía, Apurímac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cusco, La Libertad, Lambayeque, Piura and Puno. In Amazonía, indigenous leaders release a statement stating "We alert
18560-401: The night of the 19th, a local historical building next to San Martín Plaza caught fire, collapsing before dawn on the following day. Protesters congregated in Lima would continue to demonstrate in the subsequent weeks, with the first death in the capital city occurring on 28 January 2023 when police shot a man in the head with a tear gas canister. The government denied that police killed
18720-442: The nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru and Bolivia. In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar , the main ship of the Peruvian navy, commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in
18880-466: The opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President Dina Boluarte . She became the country's first female president. Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the Mexican embassy and
19040-487: The ousting of president of Peru , Pedro Castillo on 7 December 2022, a series of political protests against the government of president Dina Boluarte and the Congress of Peru occurred. The demonstrations lack centralized leadership and originated primarily among grassroots movements and social organizations on the left to far-left, as well as indigenous communities , who feel politically disenfranchised. Castillo
19200-534: The police breaching the constitutional separation of authorities and political acts in Articles 34 and 169 of the constitution. In the documents, PNP officials said that officers not participating in the march would face sanctions. When asked about the PNP march by reporters, President Boluarte denied having knowledge of the event, though she had earlier promoted the march during a trip to Cusco days earlier. Concerns regarding
19360-457: The political agenda you propose is unfeasible". CGTP, Peru's largest union, called for a national strike on 19 January. Tens of thousands of citizens would arrive in Lima for the protest. During the response by authorities, there were reports that police played "The dance of the Chinese" on speakers, a campaign song used to support Alberto Fujimori during the 2000 Peruvian general election . On
19520-473: The populist measures dictated by the then president in his message to the Nation on 7 December. Mobilizations of leftist organizations related to Castillo were evidenced in Lima , Ayacucho , Cusco , Ica , Arequipa , Trujillo , Chiclayo , Huancavelica , Huancayo , Tacna , Jaén , Moquegua , Ilo , Puno , and Chota , where Castillo grew up. Lima is one of the cities that were summoned. After
19680-536: The port of Paracas under the command of General José de San Martín and Thomas Cochrane , who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town of Pisco . San Martín settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under
19840-509: The presidency if Castillo were to be vacated from the position and a leaked Telegram group chat of the board of directors of Congress that she heads revealed plans coordinated to oust Castillo. By December 2022, Congress had begun motions to attempt the impeachment of Castillo for a third time; he was involved with six different criminal investigations and had already named five separate cabinets to serve under him. [REDACTED] Additional information needed Before 7 December 2022,
20000-597: The presidency upon Vizcarra's removal. Renowned reporter Gustavo Gorriti reported on 12 September 2020 that Merino had contacted the Commanding General of the Peruvian Navy , Fernando Cerdán, notifying him that he would attempt to impeach Vizcarra and assume the presidency. Minister of Defense Jorge Chávez confirmed that Merino had tried to establish support with the military. President Merino would resign after five days due to mass disapproval. Francisco Sagasti
20160-529: The presidency. Martín Vizcarra , Kuczynski's first vice president, then assumed office in March 2018. Amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru , President Vizcarra was impeached in September 2020 and a month later removed from office . Thousands of citizens then protested against Vizcarra's impeachment. President of Congress, Manuel Merino , faced criticism regarding how he hastily pushed for impeachment proceedings against Vizcarra, especially since he would assume
20320-517: The president of the Unified Defense Front against the contamination of the Coata basin and Lake Titicaca. The regional SUTEP, which ignored Boluarte's election and declared a permanent mobilization, also supported. There were violent confrontations between community members and residents of Andahuaylas against police officers on 10 December. With 3,000 people participating, during the afternoon,
20480-418: The president". In this way, supporters of the former president encouraged the prompt release of Castillo and an advance of elections. The demonstrators agreed to the dissolution of the Congress of the Republic , a new constitution through a constituent assembly , the rejection of the then vice president Dina Boluarte and the support for the then president Pedro Castillo , whose objectives were achieved with
20640-407: The protester. On 2 February, the city of Lima declared a state of emergency lasting for four months. Through February and March, the media in Lima would move their coverage away from protests in a disinformation effort to minimize participation. During a second "Takeover of Lima" event beginning on 2 March, protest leaders announced that 13 provinces would participate in mobilizations throughout
20800-406: The protesters took 2 policemen hostage and requested a "prisoner exchange". In light of this, a division of special forces from Abancay of the PNP moved to Andahuaylas and arrived in a small plane. Hours after the kidnappings, the demonstrators released the police officers and numerous social organizations from the department of Apurimac declared themselves in a "popular insurgency" and will begin
20960-435: The protesters, resulting in at least 60 deaths, over 600 injuries, over 380 arrests and two massacres in Ayacucho and Juliaca . The extrajudicial executions , use of torture and violence against detainees has also been reported. The government would deny that authorities acted violently and would instead praise officers and troops for their actions. Some right-wing groups and the Boluarte government would instead use
21120-458: The protests a "threat to democracy" and announcing a national state of emergency on 14 December, suspending some constitutional rights of citizens, including the right preventing troops from staying within private homes and buildings , the right to freedom of movement , the right to freedom of assembly , and the right to "personal freedom and security" for 30 days. The Armed Forces and Police have been documented using severe force against
21280-571: The protests by the media in Peru was also criticized by the majority of Peruvians, who believed that media organizations were biased against the demonstrations. The two massacres that authorities perpetrated against the majority-indigenous populations in southern Peru did not receive coverage by national media. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights would condemn violent acts carried out by some demonstrators against media personnel. Violent far-right protesters, such as La Resistencia , would also attack investigative media outlets critical of
21440-457: The protests. During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala , Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra , the right-wing Congress led by the daughter of the former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori , Keiko Fujimori , obstructed many of the presidents' actions. The political legacy of the Fujimori family was assumed by Keiko after her father Alberto, who instituted Plan Verde and oversaw
21600-406: The region where Castillo received his highest share of the vote in the first round, is seven years shorter than in Lima. In Puno, where Castillo received over 47% of the vote, the infant mortality rate is almost three times that of Lima's." Then-professor of Public Policy Gonzalo Banda stated that although Castillo was accused of being linked to communist terrorism, "in places where terrorism caused
21760-486: The risk of violence. Human rights organizations have criticized the response of the Boluarte government and authorities as well as the government's inclusion of the Armed Forces in responding to the protests due to the history of troops killing protesters with impunity . Multiple ministers resigned from Boluarte's cabinet throughout the series of protests following acts of violence perpetrated by authorities. Since at least December 2022, opposition protesters often chant
21920-492: The same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche . However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via a coup d'état led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy . Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde
22080-466: The scheduled march. On 7 December 2022, Congress was expected to file a motion of censure against Castillo, accusing him of "permanent moral incapacity". Before the legislative body could gather to file its motion, Castillo announced the dissolution of Congress and enacted an immediate curfew . Moments after Castillo's speech, multiple ministers resigned from his government, including Prime Minister Betssy Chávez . The Constitutional Court released
22240-501: The slogan «Dina asesina» (‘Dina the murderer’) and even sing a song of the same name. The Attorney general of Peru, Patricia Benavides , announced investigations on 10 January 2023 for the alleged crimes of genocide , aggravated homicide , and serious injuries against President Dina Boluarte, Prime Minister Alberto Otárola , Minister of the Interior Víctor Rojas, and Minister of Defense Jorge Chávez. Coverage of
22400-423: The split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the Viceroyalty of Peru ; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá , while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of
22560-590: The state of emergency in Lima was lifted as protests waned, while the Supreme Court of Peru would further rule on 18 May 2023 that protesting in Peru was illegal and that it was not protected by the constitution. Calls for future protests in July 2023 were made amidst the controversial verdict of the Supreme Court. Since the independence of Peru from the Spanish Empire , the economic elite in Lima engaged in
22720-415: The tree-line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus , drought-resistant plants such as ichu , and the largest species of bromeliad – the spectacular Puya raimondii . Peruvian protests (2022%E2%80%932023) Anti-government protestors Supported by: [REDACTED] Government of Peru Supported by: Decentralized leadership (various social leaders) 1 officer Following
22880-763: The two receiving the lowest approval ratings among public offices in the Americas . Among the main demands of the demonstrators are the dissolution of Congress, the resignation of Boluarte, new general elections, the release of Castillo, and the formation of a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution. It has also been reported that some of the protesters have declared an insurgency in Punos's region . Analysts, businesses, and voters said that immediate elections are necessary to prevent future unrest, although many establishment political parties have little public support. The Boluarte government would respond to protests by calling
23040-620: The viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba in 1572. The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized
23200-565: The war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party , which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía . The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for
23360-474: The world , and the third largest in South America . Peruvian territory was home to several cultures during the ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include the Caral–Supe civilization (the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of
23520-587: Was announced that First Vice President Dina Boluarte , who rejected Castillo's actions, would take her oath of office for the presidency at 3:00 pm PET . Castillo's vice president Dina Boluarte entered the Legislative Palace shortly after 3:00 pm PET and appeared before Congress, where she was later sworn in as president of Peru. In an IEP poll following Castillo's attempt to dissolve Congress, of respondents, 44% approved of Castillo's actions, 53% disapproved and 3% had no opinion or comment, with
23680-423: Was charged with the crime of rebellion. The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents. This resentment led to the 2022–2023 Peruvian political protests , which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with
23840-495: Was dogged by insurgent groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and
24000-663: Was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral. Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in the Guayaquil Conference . Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after
24160-543: Was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise. By 1859, some 41,000 Peruvians had died in the constant civil wars that shook the country since 1829. Thanks to the money from the sale of guano, Peru began to modernize with different public works such as railways; the civil and military bureaucracy grew; The indigenous people stopped paying tribute and the slaves achieved their freedom; The migration policy of Germans, Austrians, Irish and Italians began. On April 5, 1879, Chile declared war on Peru, unleashing
24320-468: Was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability. Once independence was proclaimed, San Martín assumed military-political command of the free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to a decree given on August 3, 1821. 74 The works of the Protectorate contributed to the creation of
24480-611: Was made President of Congress on 16 November and thus succeeded Merino as president on 17 November per the presidential line of succession, since both vice presidential positions were vacated by Vizcarra in 2018 and Mercedes Aráoz in May 2020. The election will be flipped, dear friends. — Keiko Fujimori Sagasti served as president until Castillo was elected in the 2021 general election , with Fujimori losing her third consecutive presidential bid. The 2021 election saw many right-wing candidates, with business groups, political parties and
24640-517: Was more focused on personal gain and vote trading instead of issues facing the nation. President Humala would go on to serve a weak presidency due to the obstructionist practices of the Congress. After losing the 2016 presidential election to Kuczynski , Keiko Fujimori led her party Popular Force in the unicameral Congress, with the right-wing legislators obstructing efforts by President Kuczynski. After experiencing obstruction by Congress and various scandals, President Kuczynski resigned from
24800-564: Was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center in Chavín de Huantar . After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas , Nazca , Wari , and
24960-479: Was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process. On 3 October 1968 another coup d'état led by a group of officers led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by the CEPAL theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize
25120-552: Was removed from office and arrested after announcing the illegal dissolution of Congress, the intervention of the state apparatus, and the forced establishment of an " emergency government ", which was characterized as a self-coup attempt by all government institutions, all professional institutions, and mainstream media in Peru (and by the international community in general) while Castillo's supporters said that Congress attempted to overthrow Castillo. Castillo's successor Dina Boluarte, along with Congress, were widely disapproved, with
25280-434: Was sworn in as the new president of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election. That same year, Peru celebrated the bicentenary of independence . Castillo faced multiple impeachment votes during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin a third impeachment effort , Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting to dissolve
25440-480: Was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acres (29.8 hectares). The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated the Quechua language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by
25600-580: Was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation. In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict. A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García became President of Peru after winning
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