148-396: Anarchists have traditionally been skeptical of or vehemently opposed to organized religion . Nevertheless, some anarchists have provided religious interpretations and approaches to anarchism, including the idea that the glorification of the state is a form of sinful idolatry . Anarchists "are generally non-religious and are frequently anti-religious , and the standard anarchist slogan
296-516: A carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity. As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory . The compatibility of capitalism , nationalism , and religion with anarchism
444-457: A necessary evil . Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism , seeing it as reformist . They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts , some of whom practiced naturism and nudism . Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in
592-769: A pacifist and anarchist movement. Jesus is said, in this view, to have come to empower individuals and free people from an oppressive religious standard in the Mosaic law ; he taught that the only rightful authority was God, not Man, evolving the law into the Golden Rule (see also liberal Christianity ). As per Christian communism , anarchism is not necessarily opposed by the Catholic Church . Indeed, distributism in Catholic social teaching , such as Pope Leo XIII 's encyclical Rerum novarum and Pope Pius XI 's Quadragesimo anno ,
740-440: A Buddhist speech entitled I am an anarchist for Dhammanet, Sujato states his anarchist ideology , specifically aligning himself with anarcho-pacifism , which he explains as being compatible with The Buddha, Buddhist lay and renunciant life, as well as being in accord with the monastic vinaya . In the speech, Sujato explains his belief that The Buddha was also an anarchist. According to some, Christianity began primarily as
888-477: A bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In What Is Property? (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property." Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin . Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of
1036-469: A book in which I did not quote from him. But it has not seemed to me that those who have received my books kindly take even now sufficient notice of the affiliation. Honesty drives me to emphasize it. Others he influenced include J. R. R. Tolkien and Madeleine L'Engle . MacDonald's non-fantasy novels, such as Alec Forbes , had their influence as well; they were among the first realistic Scottish novels, and as such MacDonald has been credited with founding
1184-662: A central role in anarchist philosophy. Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism , egalitarianism , and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism . Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum. Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian , anti-statist , libertarian , and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as collectivism , communism , individualism , mutualism , and syndicalism , among other libertarian socialist economic theories. As anarchism does not offer
1332-731: A child of the Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution, and assumed that religion would be replaced by science and that the Church as well as the State would be abolished; he was particularly concerned with the development of a secular system of ethics which replaced supernatural theology with natural biology". Errico Malatesta and Carlo Cafiero , "the main founders of the Italian anarchist movement, both came from freethinking families (and Cafiero
1480-405: A degree in chemistry and physics. He spent the next several years struggling with matters of faith and deciding what to do with his life. His son, biographer Greville MacDonald, stated that his father could have pursued a career in the medical field but he speculated that lack of money put an end to this prospect. It was only in 1848 that MacDonald began theological training at Highbury College for
1628-412: A fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview , many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives , a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at
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#17330854775201776-551: A king to be like other nations. God declared that the people had rejected him as their king. He warned that a human king would lead to militarism , conscription , and taxation and that their pleas for mercy from the king's demands would go unanswered. Samuel passed on God's warning to the Israelites but they disregarded him and chose Saul as their king. Much of the subsequent Tanakh chronicles them trying to live with this decision. The first known Jewish Anarchist organisation in
1924-693: A leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by
2072-623: A lot of talk on Darwin´s theories or on the negation of the existence of the soul." Spanish anarchists in the early 20th century were responsible for burning several churches , though many of the church burnings were carried out by members of the Radical Republican Party , while anarchists were blamed. Church leaders' implicit or explicit support for the Nationalist Faction during the Spanish Civil War greatly contributed to
2220-552: A minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence , known as propaganda of the deed . The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon
2368-419: A misunderstanding of anarchist principles. While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus,
2516-485: A noted medical specialist, a pioneer of the Peasant Arts movement, wrote numerous fairy tales for children, and ensured that new editions of his father's works were published. Another son, Ronald, became a novelist. His daughter Mary was engaged to the artist Edward Robert Hughes until her death in 1878. Ronald's son, Philip MacDonald (George MacDonald's grandson), became a Hollywood screenwriter. Tuberculosis caused
2664-621: A place much loved by British expatriates, the Riviera dei Fiori in Liguria , Italy, almost on the French border. In that locality there also was an Anglican church, All Saints, which he attended. Deeply enamoured of the Riviera, he spent 20 years there, writing almost half of his whole literary production, especially the fantasy work. MacDonald founded a literary studio in that Ligurian town, naming it Casa Coraggio (Bravery House). It soon became one of
2812-628: A role in the history of anarchism. However, as well as these anarchists of Jewish origin, there have also been specifically Jewish anarchist movements, within the Yiddish -speaking communities of Eastern and Central Europe , and the Western cities to which they migrated, from the late nineteenth century until the Second World War. All the members of the first anarchist group in the Russian Empire , which
2960-600: A ruler", composed of the prefix an- ("without") and the word arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists , although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of
3108-755: A singular anarchism , in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists. Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism , feudalism , slavery , etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam , Roman Catholicism , etc.), patriarchy , heterosexism , white supremacy , and imperialism ." Anarchist schools disagree on
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#17330854775203256-425: A small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation . Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As
3404-423: A subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality . Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation. The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets
3552-431: A syndicate. As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles
3700-400: A tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism . This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta , who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as
3848-504: A way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and
3996-402: Is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production, held by a federal network of voluntary associations , with production and consumption based on the guiding principle " From each according to his ability, to each according to his need ." Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the French Revolution but
4144-401: Is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up
4292-541: Is against all forms of authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy , typically including the state and capitalism . Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies and voluntary free associations . A historically left-wing movement, anarchism is usually described as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement ( libertarian socialism ). Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from
4440-567: Is closely related to anarchism. Zalkind's philosophy was not popular with British Orthodox Jewry and Zalkind was shunned by the community, with Chief Rabbi Hertz denying Zalkind's rabbinic credentials and Zalkind being forced to renounce his rabbinic title. The Yiddish anti-authoritarian and anti-police song In Ale Gasn/Daloy Politsey dates from the time of the Russian Revolutions and continues to be sung by artists who identify with political tendencies like anarchism. Many versions of
4588-399: Is enacted by many contemporary anarchist groups, striving to embody the principles, organization and tactics of the changed social structure they hope to bring about. As part of this the decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of
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4736-469: Is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ. As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles. Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. Sexual violence
4884-432: Is more apparent. In chapter 29 it is stated: In Chapter 53: In chapter 57: In Chapter 66: In Chapter 68: In Chapter 72: There is still debate among contemporary anarchists about whether or not this counts as an anarchist view. It is known, however, that some less influential Taoists, such as Bao Jingyan , explicitly advocated anarchy. Anarchism Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that
5032-565: Is philosophically similar to anarchism. The Bedouin nomads of the Khawarij were Islam's first sect. They challenged the new centralization of power in the Islamic state as an impediment to their tribe's freedom. At least one sect of Khawarij, the Najdat , believed that if no suitable imam was present in the community, the position could be dispensed with. A strand of Muʿtazili thought paralleled that of
5180-405: Is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression using sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included. Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting
5328-502: Is significant overlap between the two. Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches . During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of
5476-501: Is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state. Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, and praxis . The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia (ἀναρχία), meaning "without
5624-520: Is the phrase coined by a non-anarchist, the socialist Auguste Blanqui in 1880: ‘Ni Dieu ni maître!’ (Neither God nor master!). The argument for a negative connection is that religion supports politics, the Church supports the State, opponents of political authority also oppose religious authority". William Godwin , "the author of the Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793), the first systematic text of libertarian politics,
5772-459: Is to possess social thought, it will have to take the form of B-A-C, Buddhism-Anarchism-Communism." Later in his career, he returned to this position, reframing it as "Śūnya-anarchism-communism" (空 - 無政府 - 共同体論), where Śūnya means "the vertical foundation of both the subjectivity that engages in social revolution and, in terms of that subjectivity 's basic choices, the humble and open spirit that has been purified from dogmatism , self-absolutism and
5920-517: Is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, collectivism , Marxism, and trade unionism . Anarchists may be motivated by humanism , divine authority , enlightened self-interest , veganism , or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation , technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. Objection to
6068-636: The Bolshevik government had stabilised, including during the Kronstadt rebellion . Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too. With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism . The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while
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6216-527: The Buddhist tradition, in contrast to most other world faiths, as nontheistic , humanistic , and experientially-based. Most Buddhist schools, they point out, see the Buddha as the embodied proof that transcendence and ultimate happiness is possible for all, without exception. The Indian revolutionary and self-declared atheist Har Dayal , much influenced by Marx and Bakunin , who sought to expel British rule from
6364-583: The Enlightenment . During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation . Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions , most notably in the Paris Commune , the Russian Civil War and
6512-652: The Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process while giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students. The school closed after constant harassment by
6660-651: The Industrial Workers of the World left their organisations and joined the Communist International . In the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39, anarchists and syndicalists ( CNT and FAI ) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936 . In response to
6808-458: The New Left and libertarian Marxists , who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party , and extreme cultural liberals , who are primarily concerned with civil liberties . Additionally, some anarchists use libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism . Anarchism is broadly used to describe
6956-529: The Republican government, ending in another defeat of anarchists at the hands of the communists. By the end of World War II , the anarchist movement had been severely weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War . During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and
7104-438: The Spanish Civil War , whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism . In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist , anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists employ diverse approaches , which may be generally divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies ; there
7252-451: The St. Imier International . Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin , a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism . Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune , advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs . By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It
7400-566: The Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion. George MacDonald George MacDonald (10 December 1824 – 18 September 1905) was a Scottish author, poet and Christian Congregational minister . He became a pioneering figure in the field of modern fantasy literature and the mentor of fellow-writer Lewis Carroll . In addition to his fairy tales , MacDonald wrote several works of Christian theology , including several collections of sermons . George MacDonald
7548-587: The World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum . During the protests , ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include affinity groups , security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as
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#17330854775207696-461: The anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement . Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above. Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two. Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism, and being both liberal and socialist but more so. Many scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as
7844-414: The anti-religious sentiment. In Anarchism: What It Really Stands For , Emma Goldman wrote: Anarchism has declared war on the pernicious influences which have so far prevented the harmonious blending of individual and social instincts, the individual and society. Religion, the dominion of the human mind; Property, the dominion of human needs; and Government, the dominion of human conduct, represent
7992-451: The arms industry to addressing Monsanto seed-saving policies and patents , helping farmers , and resisting the commodification of food and housing. Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans , but non-humans and the environment as well. Honeywell argues that their analysis of capitalism and governments results in anarchists rejecting representative democracy and
8140-458: The commodification of human labor power; economically, this amounts to communism." For Hakugen, Śūnya represents a "vertical, existential freedom, whereas anarchism and communism pertain to horizontal freedom, and the 'origin' is the point where the two dimensions of freedom intersect." Bhante Sujato , one of the leading Theravada representatives in Australia considers himself an anarchist . In
8288-426: The freethinkers' movement, advocating atheism . In Europe, a similar development occurred in French and Spanish individualist anarchist circles. "Anticlericalism, just as in the rest of the libertarian movement, in another of the frequent elements which will gain relevance related to the measure in which the (French) Republic begins to have conflicts with the church...Anti-clerical discourse, frequently called for by
8436-401: The means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society . Anarcho-communism
8584-439: The second wave of feminism , radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the third wave of feminism , sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became
8732-598: The second wave of feminism . Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America. Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against
8880-429: The state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent , as it still has
9028-407: The will to power ." Ultimately, Hakugen suggested that this results in, "negating, in the horizontal dimension, state power; politically, this constitutes anarchism...Through the mediation of the reckoning of philosophical conscience (controlling desires) and by means of social-scientific discernment and praxis, one negates the capitalist system of private ownership and eliminates the social basis of
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#17330854775209176-565: The " kailyard school " of Scottish writing. Chesterton cited The Princess and the Goblin as a book that had "made a difference to my whole existence, ... in showing "how near both the best and the worst things are to us from the first ... and making all the ordinary staircases and doors and windows into magical things." In 1877 he was given a civil list (monastic poverty/civil duty) pension. From 1879 he and his family lived in Bordighera , in
9324-447: The "big-A Anarchism" of the classical era, the newly coined term "small-a anarchism" signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience, which they will later theorize. The concept of prefigurative politics
9472-418: The 19th century such as William Godwin (1756–1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist (French: anarchiste ) was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in
9620-685: The Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress . Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International , being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers . In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed
9768-450: The Bible and their perception of nature." MacDonald's oft-mentioned universalism is not the idea that everyone will automatically be saved, but is closer to Gregory of Nyssa in the view that all will ultimately repent and be restored to God. MacDonald appears to have never felt comfortable with some aspects of Calvinist doctrine, feeling that its principles were inherently "unfair"; when
9916-618: The Christian faith. ... I know hardly any other writer who seems to be closer, or more continually close, to the Spirit of Christ Himself. Hence his Christ-like union of tenderness and severity. Nowhere else outside the New Testament have I found terror and comfort so intertwined. ... In making this collection I was discharging a debt of justice. I have never concealed the fact that I regarded him as my master; indeed I fancy I have never written
10064-541: The Congregational ministry. MacDonald was appointed minister of Trinity Congregational Church , Arundel , in 1850, after briefly serving as a locum minister in Ireland. However, his sermons—which preached God's universal love and that everyone was capable of redemption—met with little favour and his stipend was cut in half. In May 1853, MacDonald tendered his resignation from his pastoral duties at Arundel. Later he
10212-507: The Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends . A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there
10360-577: The French individualist André Lorulot , will have its impacts in Estudios (a Spanish individualist anarchist publication). There will be an attack on institutionalized religion for the responsibility that it had in the past on negative developments, for its irrationality which makes it a counterpoint of philosophical and scientific progress. There will be a criticism of proselytism and ideological manipulation which happens on both believers and agnostics.". This tendency continued in French individualist anarchism in
10508-744: The Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference . Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava , a de facto autonomous region in northern Syria . While having revolutionary aspirations, many contemporary forms of anarchism are not confrontational. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization (following
10656-555: The Jewish High Holy Days between 1889 and 1893. The Orthodox Kabbalist rabbi Yehuda Ashlag believed in a religious version of libertarian communism , based on principles of Kabbalah, which he called altruist communism. Ashlag supported the Kibbutz movement and preached to establish a network of self-ruled internationalist communes, who would eventually "annul the brute-force regime completely, for 'every man did that which
10804-549: The Najdat: if rulers inevitably became tyrants, the only acceptable course of action was to depose them. The Nukkari subsect of Ibadi Islam reportedly adopted a similar belief. Jacques Ellul recounts that at the end of the Book of Judges (Judges 21:25) there was no king in Israel and everyone did as they saw fit. Later in the first Book of Samuel (1 Samuel 8) the people of Israel wanted
10952-589: The United States was the Pioneers of Liberty ( Pionire der Frayhayt ). The Haymarket trial of 1886 sparked nationwide interest in anarchist ideas. On the day of the trial's sentencing, about a dozen Jewish workers of New York's Lower East Side founded the Pioneers of Liberty, the first Jewish anarchist organization in the United States. The group ran Varhayt , a short-lived, first Yiddish-language anarchist newspaper in
11100-436: The United States, "freethought was a basically anti-christian , anti-clerical movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to Liberty were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of Freethought and, for a time, The Truth Seeker . E.C. Walker
11248-448: The United States, between February and June 1889. And together with the Jewish anarchist Knights of Liberty group, which sprang from the Pioneers of Liberty, the two organizations together founded the long-running Yiddish-language anarchist newspaper, Fraye Arbeter Shtime , in 1890. The Pioneers of Liberty also published an annual paper, Tfileh Zakeh (Pure Prayer), which circulated during
11396-410: The United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (using a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another. During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with
11544-622: The Wall , which is a direct action group composed of Israeli anarchists and anti-authoritarians who oppose the construction of the Israeli Gaza Strip barrier and Israeli West Bank barrier . Many early Taoists , such as the influential Laozi and Zhuangzi , were critical of authority and advised rulers that the less controlling they were, the more stable and effective their rule would be. However, there are parts of Laozi's Tao Te Ching where an at least stateless, if not anarchistic, viewpoint
11692-651: The Young . MacDonald's first realistic novel David Elginbrod was published in 1863. MacDonald is often regarded as the founding father of modern fantasy writing. His best-known works are Phantastes (1858), The Princess and the Goblin (1872), At the Back of the North Wind (1868–1871), and Lilith (1895), all fantasy novels, and fairy tales such as " The Light Princess ", " The Golden Key ", and " The Wise Woman ". MacDonald claimed that "I write, not for children, but for
11840-453: The ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society. Specific anarchist attitudes towards
11988-433: The anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance . Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces . During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting
12136-459: The anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms , rather than
12284-505: The army rebellion , an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivised the land. The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight between communists and other leftists in a series of events known as the May Days , as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of
12432-730: The belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece . In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi . Alongside Stoicism , Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism. Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used
12580-656: The child-like, whether they be of five, or fifty, or seventy-five." MacDonald also published some volumes of sermons, the pulpit not having proved an unreservedly successful venue. After his literary success, MacDonald went on to do a lecture tour in the United States in 1872–1873, after being invited to do so by a lecture company, the Boston Lyceum Bureau . On the tour, MacDonald lectured about other poets such as Robert Burns , Shakespeare, and Tom Hood . He performed this lecture to great acclaim, speaking in Boston to crowds in
12728-539: The death of several family members, including Lilia, Mary Josephine, Grace, and Maurice, as well as one granddaughter and a daughter-in-law. MacDonald was said to have been particularly affected by the death of Lilia, his eldest. There is a blue plaque on his home at 20 Albert Street, Camden, London. According to biographer William Raeper, MacDonald's theology "celebrated the rediscovery of God as Father, and sought to encourage an intuitive response to God and Christ through quickening his readers' spirits in their reading of
12876-456: The deed . Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state , some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions. Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists , believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s,
13024-409: The doctrine of penal substitutionary atonement as developed by John Calvin , which argues that Christ has taken the place of sinners and is punished by the wrath of God in their place, believing that in turn it raised serious questions about the character and nature of God. Instead, he taught that Christ had come to save people from their sins, and not from a Divine penalty for their sins: the problem
13172-428: The doctrine of predestination was first explained to him, he burst into tears (although assured that he was one of the elect ). Later novels, such as Robert Falconer and Lilith , show a distaste for the idea that God's electing love is limited to some and denied to others. Chesterton noted that only a man who had "escaped" Calvinism could say that God is easy to please and hard to satisfy. MacDonald rejected
13320-425: The early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and of targeting and cataloging by state institutions. Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial. Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends. Other anarchist groups advocate direct action ,
13468-703: The final days of the Fraye Arbeter Shtime . In January 2019, The YIVO Institute for Jewish Research organized a special conference on Yiddish anarchism in New York City, which drew over 450 people. Jewish anarchist newspapers include Arbeter Fraynd , Burevestnik , Chernoe Znamja ( Black Flag ), Dos Fraye Vort , Fraye Arbeter Shtime , Germinal , and Kagenna Magazine . Many people of Jewish origin, such as Emma Goldman , Alexander Berkman , Paul Goodman , Murray Bookchin , Volin , Gustav Landauer , David Graeber , and Noam Chomsky have played
13616-491: The followers of other religions. They seek protection from temporal rulers, bestowing on them in return a supernatural legitimacy and magical aura. They weave webs of mystery and mystification around naked power; they join the sword with the cross and the crescent. As a result, in nearly all cases organised religions have lost the peaceful and tolerant message of their founding fathers, whether it be Buddha , Jesus or Mohammed . Many Westerners who call themselves Buddhists regard
13764-637: The form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision , an approach known as horizontalism . Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with
13912-433: The foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid . Anarchist writers such as William Godwin ( Political Justice ) and Max Stirner (" The False Principle of Our Education ") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges. In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established
14060-429: The free potential of society through equality and social ownership . In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents ( anarcha-feminism , green anarchism , and post-anarchism ) developed thereafter. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that
14208-809: The golden age of anarchism. Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen's Association , a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation ) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism , advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. After bitter disputes,
14356-475: The idea of creating a binational Jewish-Arab federation in Palestine . Many contemporary anarchists support the idea of what has been dubbed the "no-state solution". Noam Chomsky has said that, as an anarchist, he ultimately favors such a no-state solution, but, in the short term, feels a two-state solution is the best way out of the present conflict. Within Israel there is also the organisation Anarchists Against
14504-516: The ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism. During the French Revolution , partisan groups such as the Enragés and the sans-culottes saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England , morally delegitimising
14652-604: The latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War , many workers and activists turned to communist parties , which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the General Confederation of Labour and
14800-465: The major currents of social anarchism ( collectivist , communist and syndicalist ). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society. Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include "abolishing the state", reciprocity , free association , voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by
14948-444: The methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy. Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose
15096-603: The mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism; its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. Some usages of libertarianism refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, and free-market anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism . While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both
15244-495: The most renowned cultural centres of that period, well attended by British and Italian travellers, and by locals, with presentations of classic plays and readings of Dante and Shakespeare often being held. In 1900 he moved into St George's Wood, Haslemere , a house designed for him by his son, Robert, its building overseen by his eldest son, Greville . George MacDonald died on 18 September 1905 in Ashtead , Surrey, England. He
15392-789: The movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US , including the Immigration Act of 1903 , also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period. Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement , especially in the Makhnovshchina ; however, they met harsh suppression after
15540-667: The movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with
15688-460: The myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy . Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience . Cynics dismissed human law ( nomos ) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature ( physis ). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without
15836-454: The neighbourhood of three thousand people. MacDonald served as a mentor to Lewis Carroll ; it was MacDonald's advice, and the enthusiastic reception of Alice by MacDonald's many sons and daughters, that convinced Carroll to submit Alice for publication. Carroll, one of the finest Victorian photographers, also created photographic portraits of several of the MacDonald children. MacDonald
15984-414: The news media. In the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno , a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism , has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member
16132-462: The past decade, there has been a renewed interest in Jewish anarchism due to the growth of organizations like Jewdas and Pink Peacock (UK) and media outlets like the Treyf podcast (Canada). This interest has been aided by the publication of new books on the subject, such as Kenyon Zimmer's Immigrants against the State , and the reissuing of documentaries such as The Free Voice of Labour , which details
16280-454: The police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada , Greece , and Mexico . Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists , taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening. Anarchists commonly employ direct action . This can take
16428-456: The presence of a state. In medieval Europe , there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism . In the Sasanian Empire , Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy , only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I . In Basra , religious sects preached against
16576-554: The rhetorical question, "When we say that God is Love, do we teach men that their fear of Him is groundless?" He replied, "No. As much as they were will come upon them, possibly far more. ... The wrath will consume what they call themselves; so that the selves God made shall appear." However, true repentance, in the sense of freely chosen moral growth, is essential to this process, and, in MacDonald's optimistic view, inevitable for all beings (see universal reconciliation ). MacDonald states his theological views most distinctly in
16724-502: The song have been updated to talk about modern issues such as government corruption, police brutality, and general anarchist themes, along with translating them into languages like English and German. The song is actually a portmanteau of two different Jewish Anarchist songs from the period of the Russian Revolutions, which were combined by Zalmen Mlotek for the film " The Free Voice of Labour: The Jewish Anarchists ", 1980. Over
16872-403: The state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world. Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy , who published the essay Education and Culture , also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free." In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became
17020-411: The state as a whole. Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism , owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve
17168-428: The state lacks moral legitimacy , without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy . Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have
17316-498: The state such as the anti-nuclear , environmental , and peace movements , the counterculture of the 1960s , and the New Left . It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism . Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols . The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during
17464-413: The state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A. John Simmons and Leslie Green , who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it
17612-556: The state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action , workers' solidarity and workers' self-management . Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin , Max Stirner , and Henry David Thoreau . Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted
17760-412: The state, Max Stirner 's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon 's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France . By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then-unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered
17908-531: The state. In Europe, various religious sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism in Europe, particularly in France. Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred
18056-600: The stronghold of man's enslavement and all the horrors it entails. Chinese anarchists led the opposition to Christianity in the early 20th century, but the most prominent of them, Li Shizeng , made it clear that he opposed not only Christianity but all religions as such. When he became president of the Anti-Christian Movement of 1922, he told the Beijing Atheists' League: "Religion is intrinsically old and corrupt: history has passed it by" and asked, "Why are we of
18204-684: The subcontinent, was a striking instance of someone who, in the early 20th century, tried to synthesize anarchist and Buddhist ideas. Having moved to the United States in 1912, he went so far as to establish the Bakunin Institute of California in Oakland , which he described as "the first monastery of anarchism". Zen priest and critic Hakugen Ichikawa, in his condemnation of Buddhist support for Japanese imperialism in Asia, once concluded that "if Buddhism
18352-492: The theories of dual power ), based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example of Food Not Bombs group of collectives, to highlight some features of how contemporary anarchist groups work: direct action , working together and in solidarity with those left behind. While doing so, Food Not Bombs provides consciousness raising about the rising rates of world hunger and suggest policies to tackle hunger, ranging from de-funding
18500-462: The time. Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of shared principles such as autonomy, mutual aid , anti-authoritarianism and decentralisation . Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism . They were followed by
18648-645: The twentieth century... even debating this nonsense from primitive ages?" Religious anarchists view organized religion mostly as authoritarian and hierarchical that has strayed from its humble origins, as Peter Marshall explains: The original message of the great religious teachers to live a simple life , to share the wealth of the earth, to treat each other with love and respect, to tolerate others and to live in peace invariably gets lost as worldly institutions take over. Religious leaders, like their political counterparts, accrue power to themselves, draw up dogmas , and wage war on dissenters in their own ranks and
18796-456: The work and activism of Charles-Auguste Bontemps and others. In the Spanish individualist anarchist magazine Ética and Iniciales "there is a strong interest in publishing scientific news, usually linked to a certain atheist and anti-theist obsession, philosophy which will also work for pointing out the incompatibility between science and religion, faith and reason. In this way there will be
18944-453: Was a Calvinist minister who began by rejecting Christianity , and passed through deism to atheism and then what was later called agnosticism ." The pioneering German individualist anarchist Max Stirner , "began as a left-Hegelian , post- Feuerbachian atheist, rejecting the ‘spirit’ (Geist) of religion as well as of politics including the spook of ‘humanity’". Pierre-Joseph Proudhon , "the first person to call himself an anarchist, who
19092-448: Was a Shakespeare scholar, and his paternal cousin another Celtic academic. Both his parents were readers, his father harbouring predilections for Isaac Newton , Robert Burns , William Cowper , Chalmers, Samuel Taylor Coleridge , and Charles Darwin , to quote a few, while his mother had received a classical education which included multiple languages. An account cited how the young George suffered lapses in health in his early years and
19240-482: Was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker , who opposed age of consent laws , believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love . In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory , relationship anarchy , and queer anarchism . Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as
19388-522: Was a notable Celtic scholar, editor of the Gaelic Highland Dictionary and collector of fairy tales and Celtic oral poetry . His paternal grandfather had supported the publication of an edition of James Macpherson 's Ossian , the controversial epic poem based on the Fenian Cycle of Celtic Mythology and which contributed to the starting of European Romanticism . MacDonald's step-uncle
19536-539: Was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement. In China , small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism , where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. During this time,
19684-586: Was also friends with John Ruskin and served as a go-between in Ruskin's long courtship with Rose La Touche . While in America he was befriended by Longfellow and Walt Whitman . MacDonald's use of fantasy as a literary medium for exploring the human condition greatly influenced a generation of notable authors, including C. S. Lewis , who featured him as a character in his The Great Divorce . In his introduction to his MacDonald anthology, Lewis speaks highly of MacDonald's views: This collection, as I have said,
19832-665: Was atypical, with his paternal grandfather a Catholic -born, fiddle-playing, Presbyterian elder; his paternal grandmother an Independent church rebel; his mother was a sister to the Gaelic-speaking radical who became moderator of the Free Church, while his step-mother, to whom he was also very close, was the daughter of a priest of the Scottish Episcopal Church . MacDonald graduated from the King's College, Aberdeen in 1845 with
19980-505: Was born on 10 December 1824 in Huntly , Aberdeenshire , Scotland, to George MacDonald, manufacturer, and Helen McCay or MacKay. His father, a farmer, was descended from the Clan MacDonald of Glen Coe and a direct descendant of one of the families that suffered in the massacre of 1692 . MacDonald grew up in an unusually literate environment: one of his maternal uncles, Mackintosh MacKay ,
20128-583: Was co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal Lucifer, the Light-Bearer ". "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as Lucifer, the Light-Bearer , Freethought and The Truth Seeker appeared in Liberty ...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself". Late 19th century/early 20th Century anarchists such as Voltairine de Cleyre were often associated with
20276-410: Was convinced that God does not punish except to amend, and that the sole end of His greatest anger is the amelioration of the guilty. As the doctor uses fire and steel in certain deep-seated diseases, so God may use hell-fire if necessary to heal the hardened sinner. MacDonald declared, "I believe that no hell will be lacking which would help the just mercy of God to redeem his children." MacDonald posed
20424-678: Was cremated in Woking , Surrey, and his ashes were buried in Bordighera , in the English cemetery, along with his wife Louisa and daughters Lilia and Grace. MacDonald married Louisa Powell in Hackney in 1851, with whom he raised a family of eleven children: Lilia Scott (1852–1891), Mary Josephine (1853–1878), Caroline Grace (1854–1884), Greville Matheson (1856–1944), Irene (1857–1939), Winifred Louise (1858–1946), Ronald (1860–1933), Robert Falconer (1862–1913), Maurice (1864–1879), Bernard Powell (1865–1928), and George Mackay (1867–1909). His son Greville became
20572-420: Was designed not to revive MacDonald's literary reputation but to spread his religious teaching. Hence most of my extracts are taken from the three volumes of Unspoken Sermons . My own debt to this book is almost as great as one man can owe to another: and nearly all serious inquirers to whom I have introduced it acknowledge that it has given them great help—sometimes indispensable help toward the very acceptance of
20720-554: Was engaged in ministerial work in Manchester , leaving that because of poor health. An account cited the role of Lady Byron in convincing MacDonald to travel to Algiers in 1856 with the hope that the sojourn would help turn his health around. When he got back, he settled in London and taught for some time at the University of London. MacDonald was also for a time editor of Good Words for
20868-465: Was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International . It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin , whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and
21016-756: Was formed in 1903 in Białystok , were Jews. Different anarchist groups had different views on Zionism and the Jewish question . Bernard Lazare was a key figure in both the French anarchist movement and early Zionist movement. The later Territorialist movement, especially the Freeland League , under the leadership of Isaac Nachman Steinberg , was very close to anarchism. Some others, such as Martin Buber and Gershom Scholem , advocated non-nationalist forms of Zionism, and promoted
21164-508: Was in this period that Bakunin wrote: "God exists, therefore man is a slave. Man is free, therefore there is no God. Escape this dilemma who can!" which appeared in his unpublished Catechism of a freemason . Bakunin expounds his philosophy on religion's place in history and its relationship to the modern political state. It was later published in English by Mother Earth Publications in 1916. Anarcho-communism 's main theorist Peter Kropotkin "was
21312-566: Was involved with the National Secular Society when he visited London during the 1870s)". In the French anarchist movement , Elisée Reclus was the son of a Calvinist minister and began by rejecting religion before moving on to anarchism. Sébastien Faure , "the most active speaker and writer in the French movement for half a century" wrote an essay titled Twelve Proofs of God's Inexistence . German insurrectionary anarchist Johann Most wrote an article called "The God Pestilence". In
21460-504: Was not the need to appease a wrathful God, but the disease of cosmic evil itself. MacDonald frequently described the atonement in terms similar to the Christus Victor theory. MacDonald posed the rhetorical question, "Did he not foil and slay evil by letting all the waves and billows of its horrid sea break upon him, go over him, and die without rebound—spend their rage, fall defeated, and cease? Verily, he made atonement!" MacDonald
21608-480: Was right in his own eyes ' ", because "there is nothing more humiliating and degrading for a person than being under the brute-force government". A British rabbi, Yankev-Meyer Zalkind , was an anarcho-communist and very active anti-militarist. Rabbi Zalkind, a close friend of Rudolf Rocker , was a prolific Yiddish writer and a prominent Torah scholar. He argued, that the ethics of the Talmud , if properly understood,
21756-521: Was subject to problems with his lungs such as asthma , bronchitis and even a bout of tuberculosis . This last illness was considered a family disease and two of MacDonald's brothers, his mother, and later three of his own children died from the illness. Even in his adult life, he was constantly traveling in search of purer air for his lungs. MacDonald grew up in the Congregational Church , with an atmosphere of Calvinism . However, his family
21904-654: Was well known for saying, ‘ Property is theft ’, also said, ‘God is evil’ and ‘God is the eternal X’". Published posthumously in French in 1882, Mikhail Bakunin 's God and the State was one of the first anarchist treatises on religion. Bakunin became an atheist while in Italy in the 1860s. He was briefly involved with freemasonry , which influenced him in this. When he established the International Revolutionary Association, he did so with former supporters of Mazzini , who broke with him over his deism . It
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