Admiral Jerauld Wright (June 4, 1898 – April 27, 1995) was an officer in the United States Navy . He served as the Commander-in-Chief of the United States Atlantic Command (CINCLANT) and the Commander-in-Chief of the United States Atlantic Fleet (CINCLANTFLT), and became the second Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ), from April 1, 1954, to March 1, 1960, serving longer in these three positions than anyone else in history.
190-520: Following World War I , Wright served as a naval aide for Presidents Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover . A recognized authority on naval gunnery , Wright served in the European and Pacific theaters during World War II , developing expertise in amphibious warfare and coalition warfare planning . After the war, Wright was involved in the evolution of the military structure of NATO as well as overseeing
380-618: A Brooklyn -class cruiser light cruiser . A powerful German counter-attack on September 13 threatened to drive a wedge into the Salerno bridgehead, but it was beaten back by a powerful Allied air-land-sea assault, forcing a German retreat. With the Fifth U.S. Army under Lieutenant General Mark Clark driving for Naples, Admiral Hewitt and Wright returned to Malta to give a full report on Operation Avalanche to General Eisenhower. Captain Jerauld Wright
570-548: A Wickes -class destroyer slated for decommissioning at the Mare Island Navy Yard , serving as its executive officer . In June 1922, Wright joined USS John D. Ford , a Clemson -class destroyer , as its executive officer, with additional duties as fire control officer and navigator . John D. Ford set sail from the Philadelphia Navy Yard with its sister ships of Squadron 15, Division 3, for
760-515: A Wickes -class destroyer , as a watch and division officer from December 1918 to July 1920. Dyer showed the flag in port visits to Gibraltar, La Spezia , Venice , Trieste , Spoleto , Corfu , and Constantinople during a nine-month cruise of the Mediterranean following the signing of the Armistice ending World War I . Following Dyer's return August 1919, Wright supervised her overhaul at
950-471: A 2002 referendum . Nevertheless, Gibraltar maintains close economic and cultural links with Spain, with many Gibraltarians speaking Spanish as well as a local dialect known as Llanito . Gibraltar's economy rests on financial services, e-gaming, tourism and the port. With one of the world's lowest unemployment rates, the largest part of the labour force are resident in Spain or non-Gibraltarians, especially in
1140-561: A British citizen (" an entitlement that cannot be refused ") under section 5 of the Act. Under the subsequent British Overseas Territories Act 2002 , all British Overseas Territories citizens became British citizens on 21 May 2002. Gibraltar is not a sovereign state: its formal international relations are the responsibility of the Government of the United Kingdom. Since Brexit, it is not part of
1330-713: A Distinguished Service Medal in recognition for his role in Operation Flagpole . Wright's DSM was personally pinned by Admiral Ernest J. King , the Chief of Naval Operations , during the Casablanca Conference . With the preliminaries concluded during Operation Flagpole, the next task was to free Général Giraud (code-named Kingpin) whom the Vichy government had under house arrest for his anti-Nazi leanings at Toulon in southern France. On October 26, 1942, Captain Jerauld Wright
1520-511: A PBY Catalina flying boat subsequently flew Wright, Giraud, and the others back to Gibraltar, the new Operation Torch headquarters, to confer with generals Eisenhower and Clark. Captain Jerauld Wright was awarded his first Legion of Merit in recognition of his participation in Operation Kingpin . D-Day for Operation Torch , November 8, 1942, saw over 73,000 American and British troops landed at Casablanca , Oran , and Algiers. However,
1710-630: A blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to
1900-583: A grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie . According to historian Zbyněk Zeman , in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June,
2090-536: A guerrilla warfare campaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India , while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of
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#17328851109332280-521: A 1.2 km (0.75 mi) land border with Spain. The town of La Línea de la Concepción , a municipality of the province of Cádiz , lies on the Spanish side of the border. The Spanish hinterland forms the comarca of Campo de Gibraltar (literally "Countryside of Gibraltar"). The shoreline measures 12 km (7.5 mi) in length. There are two coasts ("Sides") of Gibraltar: the East Side, which contains
2470-549: A bid for city status as part of the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours . The bid was refused, but when researchers looked through the National Archives , they found that it had already been recognised as a city by Queen Victoria in 1842. The status came into force on 29 August 2022. Under its current constitution , Gibraltar has almost complete internal self-governance through a parliament elected for
2660-408: A change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began. Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage. Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to
2850-592: A direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as
3040-467: A gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris. The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911,
3230-682: A lay-over at Majuro , Santa Fe participated in air raids against Truk and Saipan as part of Task Force 58 during February 1944. Wright received a Letter of Commendation for his actions as the commanding officer of the Santa Fe during this engagement. From March 15 through May 1, 1944, Santa Fe was part of Task Group 58.2, Rear Admiral Joseph J. Clark commanding, which provided air support for amphibious landings at Emirau Island and Hollandia while also participating in air raids against Japanese garrisons on Palau , Yap , Wakde , Woleai , Satawan , and Ponape , as well as major air strike against
3420-596: A minimum in the meantime. As of March 2023 , talks remain stalled, with Spain insisting that its Policía Nacional control entry into the Schengen area and the UK demanding that the work be done by officers of the European Union agency Frontex . All other entry points to the Schengen area are controlled by national authorities, supplemented by Frontex in some places. Gibraltar's territory covers 6.8 km2 (2.6 sqmi) and shares
3610-524: A place of religious and symbolic importance. The Phoenicians were present for several centuries since around 950 BC, apparently using Gorham's Cave as a shrine to the genius loci , as did the Carthaginians and Romans after them. Gibraltar was known as Mons Calpe , a name perhaps of Phoenician origin. Mons Calpe was considered by the ancient Greeks and Romans as one of the Pillars of Hercules , after
3800-834: A political firestorm within the Allied governments because of Darlan's connection to Vichy. About Giraud and Darlan, Wright observed: Unfortunately, his stubbornness prevented him [Giraud] from being any help on D-day toward negotiating a ceasefire throughout French territory. Because of an extraordinary coincidence [Darlan], his cooperation might not have made a difference anyway. Admiral Harold R. Stark noted in Wright's December 1942 fitness report that: An officer of great ability, whose calm, assured habit of command inspires confidence alike in seniors and subordinates. Excellent personal and military character. Has performed two outstanding dangerous and secret missions. ... Qualified for Flag rank. At
3990-540: A possibility. This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis . German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German Navy , that could compete with the British Royal Navy . This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan , who argued that possession of
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#17328851109334180-476: A potential agreement that would see them sharing sovereignty over Gibraltar. The government of Gibraltar organised a referendum on the plan, and 99% of the population voted to reject it. In 2008, the British government committed to respecting the Gibraltarians' wishes. A new Constitution Order was approved in referendum in 2006. A process of tripartite negotiations started in 2006 between Spain, Gibraltar and
4370-684: A raid in 710, a predominantly Berber army under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed from North Africa in April 711 and landed somewhere in the vicinity of Gibraltar (though most likely not in the bay or at the Rock itself). Tariq's expedition led to the Islamic conquest of most of the Iberian peninsula . Mons Calpe was renamed Jabal Ṭāriq ( جبل طارق ), "the Mount of Tariq", subsequently corrupted into Gibraltar . In 1160
4560-502: A report by the World Health Organization showed that Gibraltar had the worst air quality in any British territory. The report concentrated on PM10 and PM2.5 pollutants in the air. Gibraltar's economy is dominated by four main sectors: financial services , online gambling , shipping, and tourism, which includes duty-free retail sales to visitors. The British military traditionally dominated Gibraltar's economy , with
4750-799: A revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity. Leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule , a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu , the Secretary of State for India . In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and
4940-504: A significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League , an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro , and Greece . The League quickly overran most of
5130-582: A staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan , and a base for the B-29 Superfortress bombers of the U.S. Seventh Air Force to attack the Japanese home islands . Amphibious Group Five would transport the 2nd Marine Division , Major General Thomas E. Watson , USMC , commanding, with Wright flying his flag from USS Ancon (AGC-4) . For Operation Iceberg, Wright's force was designated Demonstration Group Charlie (Task Group 51.2), whose mission
5320-500: A term of up to four years. The unicameral parliament presently consists of 17 elected members, and the Speaker who is not elected but appointed by a resolution of the parliament. The government consists of 10 elected members. The head of state is the British monarch King Charles III , who is represented by the Governor of Gibraltar . The governor enacts day-to-day matters on the advice of
5510-883: A unit of the Battle Force based at the San Diego Naval Base , California . The Blue participated in Fleet Problem XX exercises staged in the Caribbean Sea . Wright's final pre-war sea assignment was as the executive officer of USS Mississippi , a New Mexico -class battleship , from March 1941 to May 1942. The Mississippi was based at the Pearl Harbor Naval Base in the Territory of Hawaii until May 1941 as part of Battleship Division 3 (BatDiv 3) with sister ships New Mexico and Idaho . Following
5700-471: A war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon. Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under
5890-605: A watch and division officer on board the presidential yacht Mayflower , and Herbert Hoover during his pre-inaugural goodwill tour of Latin America in November 1928 . Wright also served as aide to Assistant Secretary of the Navy Henry L. Roosevelt from June 1935 to March 1936. Wright subsequently served on board Sequoia during its commissioning and fitting-out period. Wright developed an interest in gunnery and ordnance after he
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6080-402: A weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria . Russia had ambitions in northeastern Anatolia while its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as
6270-451: A whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans. The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot , lice , typhus , trench fever , and the ' Spanish flu '. At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across
6460-655: A word. Wright also served as the staff aide to the Commander Atlantic Squadron during the Midshipman's Practice Cruise in June–August 1940. The USS Mississippi completed its overhaul in three weeks and transited the Panama Canal to re-join the U.S. Pacific Fleet , visiting San Francisco, California to re-assure its citizens in the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor . In March 1942, Captain Jerauld Wright
6650-643: Is bordered to the north by Spain ( Campo de Gibraltar ). The landscape is dominated by the Rock of Gibraltar , at the foot of which is a densely populated town area, home to some 34,003 people, primarily Gibraltarians . Gibraltar was founded as a permanent watchtower by the Almohads in 1160. It switched control between the Nasrids , Castilians and Marinids in the Late Middle Ages , acquiring larger strategic clout upon
6840-639: Is British government policy not to engage in talks about the sovereignty of Gibraltar without the consent of the people of Gibraltar. Gibraltar was part of the European Union , having joined through the European Communities Act 1972 (UK) , which gave effect to the Treaty of Accession 1972 , as a dependent territory of the United Kingdom under what was then article 227(4) of the Treaty Establishing
7030-503: Is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by
7220-716: Is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in its own right and is represented by the United Kingdom but was granted Associate Membership of the Commonwealth Foundation in 2004. Gibraltar has competed in the Commonwealth Games since 1958. As a result of the British Nationality Act 1981 , Gibraltarians were made British Overseas Territories citizens by default, but could apply for registration as
7410-527: Is regarded as having been responsible for setting the old town's style, described by Claire Montado, chief executive of the Gibraltar Heritage Trust, as "military-ordnance-style arched doorways, Italianate stucco relief, Genoese shutters, English Regency ironwork balconies, Spanish stained glass and Georgian sash and casement windows." During the Napoleonic Wars , Gibraltar became a key base for
7600-810: The Bismarck incident and the growing U-boat threat , Battleship Division 3 was secretly shifted to the newly reconstituted U.S. Atlantic Fleet , under the command of Admiral Ernest J. King , entering the Norfolk Naval Base in June 1941. Mississippi was present at the Atlantic Conference at Argentia , participated in the Neutrality Patrol , and joined the Idaho and the British battleship HMS King George V to form an Iceland -based fleet in being to deter
7790-558: The Schutzkorps was established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as
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7980-473: The World War . In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself". In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as " the war to end war " and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life. The first recorded use of
8170-418: The 1967 Gibraltar sovereignty referendum , which led to the passing of the Gibraltar Constitution Order in 1969. In response, Spain completely closed the border with Gibraltar and severed all communication links. The border with Spain was partially reopened in 1982 and fully reopened in 1985 before Spain's accession to the European Community . In the early 2000s, Britain and Spain were in negotiations over
8360-430: The Almohad Sultan Abd al-Mu'min ordered that a permanent settlement, including a castle, be built. It received the name of Medinat al-Fath (City of the Victory). The Tower of Homage of the Moorish Castle remains standing today. From 1274 onwards, the town was fought over and captured by the Nasrids of Granada (in 1237 and 1374), the Marinids of Fez (in 1274 and 1333) and the kings of Castile (in 1309). Upon
8550-400: The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain , then part of German New Guinea . On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang . Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate , as well as German Treaty ports on
8740-529: The Brooklyn Navy Yard . Lt. Wright also briefly commanded the Paul Jones , a Clemson -class destroyer , which escorted the presidential yacht Mayflower , with President Warren G. Harding on board, from Gardiner's Bay, New York, to the Capes . In October 1920, Lt. Wright took command of USS Reid , Clemson -class destroyer anchored in reserve at Naval Station Newport , Rhode Island , for transfer to Charleston, South Carolina . Later, in February 1922, Lt. Wright joined USS Breese ,
8930-478: The Casablanca Conference in January 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) made the decision to shelve plans for Operation Sledgehammer , and instead progress operations in Sicily ( Operation Husky ) and Italy ( Operation Avalanche ). Finally, Admiral Darlan was assassinated on December 24, 1942, and Charles de Gaulle would ultimately outmaneuver and marginalize Henri Giraud to become
9120-422: The Emirate of Granada . After the conquest, Henry IV of Castile assumed the additional title of King of Gibraltar , establishing it as part of the comarca of the Campo Llano de Gibraltar . Six years later, Gibraltar was restored to the Duke of Medina Sidonia, who sold it in 1474 to a group of 4,350 conversos (Christian converts from Judaism) from Cordova and Seville and in exchange for maintaining
9310-468: The European Parliament as part of the South West England constituency . On 23 June 2016 Gibraltar voted along with the United Kingdom in the EU referendum ; 96% of its population voted to remain, but the overall United Kingdom result gave a 51.9% majority to leaving the EU. Nevertheless, Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez stated on 18 October 2018 that the Gibraltar protocol had been "resolved" and that Spain will hold no objection when Gibraltar leaves
9500-441: The First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War , was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers . Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East , as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific , and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare ; the widespread use of artillery , machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and
9690-471: The Grand Alliance , captured the town of Gibraltar on behalf of the Archduke Charles of Austria in his campaign to become King of Spain. Subsequently, most of the population left the town, with many settling nearby. As the Alliance's campaign faltered, the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht was negotiated, which ceded control of Gibraltar to Britain to secure Britain's withdrawal from the war. Unsuccessful attempts by Spanish monarchs to regain Gibraltar were made, with
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#17328851109339880-407: The Greek legend of the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar by Heracles . There is no known archaeological evidence of permanent settlements from the ancient period. They settled at the head of the bay in what is today known as the Campo (hinterland) of Gibraltar . The town of Carteia , near the location of the modern Spanish town of San Roque , was founded by the Phoenicians around 950 BC on
10070-409: The Neolithic period have been found in Gibraltar's caves, mostly of types typical of the Almerian culture found elsewhere in Andalusia , especially around the town of Almería , from which it takes its name. There is little evidence of habitation in the Bronze Age when people had largely stopped living in caves. During ancient times, Gibraltar was regarded by the peoples of the Mediterranean as
10260-421: The Progressive Democratic Party (PDP). The PDP was a new party, formed in 2006 and fielded candidates in the 2007 election, but none were elected. The head of government is the Chief Minister (as of December 2011 , Fabian Picardo ). All local political parties oppose any transfer of sovereignty to Spain, instead supporting self-determination . The main UK opposition parties also support this policy, and it
10450-432: The Royal Navy and played an important role leading up to the Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805). Designated one of four Imperial fortresses (along with Halifax, Nova Scotia , Bermuda , and Malta ), its strategic location made it a key base during the Crimean War of 1854–1856. In the 18th century, the peacetime military garrison fluctuated in numbers from a minimum of 1,100 to a maximum of 5,000. The first half of
10640-591: The Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution . Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia,
10830-521: The Seraph surfaced and set Clark's mission ashore, where they met with Mast and Murphy. Wright met with Capitaine de vaisseau Jean Barjot and learned that the French Navy was opposed to U.S. entry into North Africa, although the army and air force supported it. On October 24, Clark's mission returned to the Seraph and later met a seaplane that flew them back to Gibraltar, arriving back in London on October 25 where Wright briefed Admiral Stark. Both Eisenhower and Clark recommended Jerauld Wright for
11020-450: The U.S. Asiatic Fleet . The John D. Ford operated throughout the Far East , including the South China Sea , the Sea of Japan , and the Philippines , showing the flag and training with other destroyers in the fleet. In July 1926, Lt. Wright joined the USS Maryland , a Colorado -class battleship , as the principal assistant of the ship's Gunnery Division. In November 1928, the Maryland took President-elect Herbert Hoover on
11210-449: The U.S. Tenth Army (Task Force 56), commanded by Lieutenant General Simon B. Buckner , USA , before returning to Saipan. Wright was ordered to Pearl Harbor to begin planning the invasion of the Japanese home islands, which would begin with Operation Olympic, the invasion of the southern island of Kyūshū . Wright's Amphibious Group Five would be part of the 5th Amphibious Force, commanded by Vice Admiral Harry W. Hill, which would land
11400-417: The United States Army , and the former Marjorie R. Jerauld (1867–1954), who also had another son, William Mason Wright, Jr. (1893–1977), and a daughter, Marjorie Wright (1900–1985). Life for young Jerry Wright was a succession of United States Army posts, such as Fort Porter , Fort Omaha , the Presidio , and the Jefferson Barracks , as well as overseas tours of duty in Cuba and the Philippines . Keeping
11590-527: The United States Naval Academy as the Battalion Commander for the First Battalion, from June 1934 to June 1935, and the Battalion Commander for the Second Battalion, from June 1939 to March 1941. Wright earned two nicknames at the Naval Academy. The first, Old Iron Heels because he wore steel wedges on his shoes to alert midshipmen of his approach. His second nickname, Old Stoneface originated because of his ability to elicit confessions from offending midshipmen regarding disciplinary infractions without uttering
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#173288511093311780-416: The United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland , Wright attended the Franciscan Coligio de La Salle in Malate, California, and Shadman's School at Scott's Circle in Washington, DC. Wright received an appointment to the United States Naval Academy from Congressman Edward W. Townsend of the Tenth Congressional District from the State of New Jersey . Wright entered the academy on July 31, 1914,
11970-403: The United States entered the war on the Allied side following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution , and Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched an offensive in
12160-423: The V Amphibious Corps (VAC) on the west coast in the Kaminokawa – Kushikino area. Amphibious Group Five would consist of four old battleships, ten cruisers, fourteen destroyers, and seventy-four support craft. However, Operation Olympic and the follow-up invasion of Honshū (Operation Coronet) were cancelled following the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Rear Admiral Jerauld Wright
12350-459: The Yellow Sea and Gulf of Bohai region as a unit of the U.S. Seventh Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid . Wright's force showed the flag, making port visits at Tianjin , Qingdao , Port Arthur , and Qinhuangdao . At the final port call at Jinsen , Wright acted as the senior-ranking member of the committee that accepted the surrender of Japanese naval forces throughout Korea. World War I World War I or
12540-423: The hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at
12730-403: The narrow entrance and exit to the Mediterranean Sea , the Strait of Gibraltar , with half the world's seaborne trade passing through it. The sovereignty of Gibraltar is a point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory . Gibraltarians overwhelmingly rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum , and for shared sovereignty in
12920-408: The naval dockyard providing the bulk of economic activity. This, however, has diminished over the last 20 years and is estimated to account for only 7 per cent of the local economy, compared to over 60 per cent in 1984. The territory also has a small manufacturing sector, representing a bit less than 2 per cent of the economy. Gibraltar's labour market employs around thirty thousand workers, 80% in
13110-432: The siege of 1727 , and again with the Great Siege of Gibraltar (1779 to 1783), during the American War of Independence . After the destructive Great Siege, the town was almost entirely rebuilt. Giovanni Maria Boschetti, who arrived in Gibraltar in 1784 as a 25-year-old from Milan, where he is thought to have been a stonemason or engineer, built the Victualling Yard (completed in 1812) and many other buildings. Boschetti
13300-442: The tank . After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the " Race to the Sea ". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border. Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held
13490-588: The 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime Minister Asquith and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention. On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply. Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross
13680-548: The 1879 Dual Alliance , which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up the Reinsurance Treaty , a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia
13870-441: The 1913 Treaty of London , which had created an independent Albania while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War , when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. The result was that even countries which benefited from
14060-607: The 19th century saw a significant increase of population to more than 17,000 in 1860, as people from Britain and all around the Mediterranean – Italian, Portuguese, Maltese, Jewish and French – took up residence in the town. Its strategic value increased with the opening of the Suez Canal , as it lay on the sea route between the UK and the British Empire east of Suez. In the later 19th century, major investments were made to improve
14250-900: The 8th-century North African military leader Tariq ibn Ziyad , who began the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula via the Strait of Gibraltar in 711). Evidence of Neanderthal habitation in Gibraltar from around 50,000 years ago has been discovered at Gorham's Cave . The caves of Gibraltar continued to be used by Homo sapiens after the final extinction of the Neanderthals. Stone tools, ancient hearths and animal bones dating from around 40,000 years ago to about 5,000 years ago have been found in deposits left in Gorham's Cave. Numerous potsherds dating from
14440-423: The Allied cause. The group flew in two Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers to Gibraltar, and on October 19, they boarded the British submarine HMS Seraph , Lieutenant Norman Limbury Auchinleck "Bill" Jewell , RN , commanding. Seraph then transported Clark's party to the small fishing village of Cherchell , located 82 mils (132 kilometers) west of Algiers. After midnight on the evening of October 21,
14630-579: The Atlantic and Pacific, underwent a major overhaul and participated in the 1934 Naval Review . Wright's first sea command was USS Blue , a Bagley -class destroyer , with Wright serving as its first commanding officer from July 1937 to May 1939. The Blue completed its shakedown cruise , transited the Panama Canal , and joined the Destroyer Division 7 (DesRon 7) as its flagship , becoming
14820-556: The Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara ; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia. Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. In 1915,
15010-642: The Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade . A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia , Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in
15200-547: The Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany. This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the " powder keg of Europe ". On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , visited Sarajevo ,
15390-555: The British and American governments for a variety of political reasons. Clark would be Eisenhower's personal representative, with Lemnitzer as the top invasion planner, Hamblen as the invasion's logistics expert, and Holmes serving as translator. Wright would serve as the liaison with the French Navy , with the specific objective of convincing the French to have their fleet anchored in Toulon join
15580-461: The Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive , which brought stabilisation of
15770-624: The Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao . After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. Some of the first clashes of
15960-569: The EU continued unchanged until the end of 2020 when it was replaced by the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement . On 31 December 2020, the UK and Spain agreed in principle on a basis for the EU and the UK to negotiate an agreement through which Gibraltar would participate in the Schengen Area , to avoid a hard border with Spain. The arrangements have not entered into force. In 2022, Gibraltar launched
16150-478: The EU with Britain. Gibraltar was nominated to be included on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories by the United Kingdom when the list was created in 1946 and has been listed ever since. The government of Gibraltar has actively worked to have Gibraltar removed from the list, and in 2008 the British government declared Gibraltar's continued presence on the list an anachronism. Gibraltar
16340-621: The Eastern Naval Task Force, which would land the British Eighth Army under General Sir Bernard Montgomery near Syracuse . Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham , RN , would command all Allied naval forces for Operation Husky, and General Dwight D. Eisenhower, United States Army , would be in overall command of the Sicily invasion. The Western Naval Task Force consisted of three subordinated forces, Task Force 80 (code name JOSS ) under
16530-554: The European Community covering special member state territories , with exemption from some areas such as the European Union Customs Union , Common Agricultural Policy and the Schengen Area . It is the only British Overseas Territory which was part of the European Union. After a 10-year campaign for the right to vote in European elections , from 2004 to 2019 the people of Gibraltar participated in elections for
16720-409: The European Union, but is a participant in the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement . On 31 December 2020, the UK and Spain agreed in principle on a basis for the EU and the UK to negotiate an agreement through which Gibraltar would participate in the Schengen Area , to avoid a hard border with Spain. The arrangements have not entered into force, but both sides aim to keep delays at the border at
16910-976: The Fifth Fleet which remained close to the beachhead on orders from Spruance. Wright concurred that this controversial decision was the correct one given the importance of protecting the landing force. During the ensuing Battle of the Philippine Sea , Santa Fe's anti-aircraft guns helped to protect the fleet during these enemy air attacks while American naval aviators counter-attacked the Japanese fleet. Later, on June 20, Santa Fe ignored possible Japanese submarine activity when she turned on her lights to help guide returning American aircraft back to their carriers during highly hazardous night landings. After air strikes on Pagan Island , Santa Fe returned to Eniwetok for reprovisioning. In August, Santa Fe joined Task Group 38.3, Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman commanding, for
17100-547: The French military. After a ceasefire was reached in Algiers, General Eisenhower sent a delegation to resolve the situation and broker a ceasefire with all French North African forces. Captain Jerauld Wright accompanied General Clark, who concluded that Darlan could, with certain conditions, deliver the general ceasefire and oversee the post-invasion occupation, and that Giraud lacked the political ability to accomplish these goals. Eisenhower endorsed Clark's recommendation, which caused
17290-613: The German High Seas Fleet was confined to port. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond
17480-623: The German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30. He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan. Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in
17670-562: The German battleship Tirpitz from deploying into the north Atlantic to threaten Allied convoys . After months of operations in the North Atlantic, Mississippi was en route to Norfolk for long overdue repairs two days after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Wright served as a naval aide for two Presidents of the United States, including Calvin Coolidge from September 1924 to June 1926, with additional duties as
17860-723: The German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium , then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator, Alfred von Schlieffen , head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke
18050-530: The Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army , which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As
18240-583: The Gibraltar Parliament but is responsible to the British government in respect of defence, foreign policy, internal security and general good governance. Judicial and other appointments are made on behalf of the monarch in consultation with the head of the elected government . The 2011 election was contested by the Gibraltar Social Democrats (GSD), Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party (GSLP)- Liberal Party of Gibraltar (LPG) Alliance and
18430-420: The Iberian peninsula because of its position on the Strait of Gibraltar. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry. Its average annual temperature is 21.7 °C (71.1 °F) as a daily high and 15.8 °C (60.4 °F) as the overnight low. In the coldest month, January, the high temperature averages 16.3 °C (61.3 °F) and the overnight low averages 11.2 °C (52.2 °F) and
18620-468: The Japanese naval base at Truk. Santa Fe also participated in the shore bombardment of Wakde Airfield and Sawar Airfield . On June 15, 1944, Santa Fe participated in landings on Saipan, Guam, and Tinian ( Operation Forager ) as a part of the United States Fifth Fleet under the overall command of Vice Admiral Raymond A. Spruance . On June 19, Japanese carrier aircraft began attacking
18810-514: The Mediterranean landings in Algiers . One growing concern for Eisenhower and his planners was the likely reaction of local French political and military leaders toward an Allied invasion of North Africa. Strong French resistance could cause more casualties for the landing force. One issue coloring French attitudes was their deep-seated resentment toward the British for the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir in which
19000-675: The Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi . Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed
19190-724: The NAVNAW staff embarked on the USS Ancon , Hewitt's flagship for Operation Avalanche. While en route, Wright heard the announcement about the Armistice with Italy by General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the supreme allied commander, on September 9. While this removed the Italian military from the battlefield, German Army forces in Italy under Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring were not bound by this agreement. The immediate objective for Operation Avalanche
19380-573: The Nasrid destruction and abandonment of Algeciras c. 1375 and Nasrids' procurement of Gibraltar away from Marinids in 1375, the Nasrids favoured Gibraltar (a worse natural harbor than Algeciras but featuring better defence capabilities) as a military and urban outpost in the Strait, although Gibraltar did not ever reach a large population during this period. In 1462, Gibraltar was captured by Juan Alonso de Guzmán, 1st Duke of Medina Sidonia , from
19570-523: The Northern Attack Force (Task Force 53), Rear Admiral Richard L. Conolly commanding, which was tasked to capture Roi-Namur and the northern half of the Kwajalein atoll . Santa Fe joined the bombardment force (Task Group 53.5), Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf commanding, that provided naval gunfire support for U.S. Marine landing forces at Kwajalein which was secured on February 4. Following
19760-859: The Ottoman Empire , which disturbed the long-standing balance of power in Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered by industrialisation and imperialism . Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia and France , who had an alliance . The United Kingdom entered after Germany invaded Belgium , whose neutrality it guaranteed, and
19950-761: The Ottomans joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east, but its advance was halted in September , and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. Italy , Bulgaria , Romania , Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917,
20140-598: The Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War , much to the surprise of outside observers. The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia . The Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through
20330-541: The Philippines. During this tour, he was deeply impressed by the naval squadron visiting Manila. His growing interest in a naval career was further encouraged by his father, giving his son a very practical perspective: Take a good look at the Navy. Soldiers have to tramp miles, sleep in the mud, eat cold rations, and live for days in wet clothes. Sailors have warm bunks, eat hot meals, and wear dry socks every day. Prior to going to
20520-580: The Rock before British control, having possibly been introduced during the Islamic period. A superstition analogous to that of the ravens at the Tower of London states that if the apes ever leave, so will the British. In 1944, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was so concerned about the dwindling population of apes that he sent a message to the Colonial Secretary requesting that something be done about
20710-537: The Rock. Gibraltar is the only place in Europe where the Gibraltar candytuft ( Iberis gibraltarica ) is found growing in the wild; the plant is otherwise native to North Africa. It is the symbol of the Upper Rock nature reserve . Olive and pine trees are among the most common of those growing around the Rock. Most of the Rock's upper area is covered by a nature reserve which is home to around 230 Barbary macaques ,
20900-620: The Royal Navy shelled the anchored French fleet in June 1940. Another issue was working with officials connected to the Vichy government which could cause serious political and security complications. Diplomat Robert D. Murphy , the U.S. consul general in Algiers, spearheaded efforts to gather pre-invasion intelligence and cultivate diplomatic contacts in French North Africa, and Wright would find himself intimately involved in his pre-invasion activities. On October 16, 1942, Captain Jerauld Wright
21090-606: The Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany
21280-577: The Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece. After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against
21470-561: The UK, ending some restrictions and dealing with disputes in some specific areas such as air movements, customs procedures, telecommunications, pensions and cultural exchange. In the British referendum on membership of the European Union 96% of Gibraltarians voted to remain on an 84% turnout. Spain renewed calls for joint Spanish–British control of the peninsula; these were strongly rebuffed by Gibraltar's Chief Minister. On 18 October 2018, however, Spain seemed to have reached an agreement with
21660-505: The United Kingdom in relation to its objections to Gibraltar leaving the EU with the UK, with Spain's prime minister Pedro Sánchez stating, "Gibraltar will no longer be a problem in arriving at a Brexit deal." On 31 January 2020, the UK left the European Union and consequently so did Gibraltar. Under the terms of the transition phase in the Brexit withdrawal agreement , Gibraltar's relationship with
21850-629: The West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat , and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000. German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, but von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening
22040-480: The Younger . Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine , which was the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII . However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as
22230-446: The aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July. That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours. A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war. The German General Staff had long assumed they faced
22420-466: The attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania . The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo . Montenegro covered
22610-463: The average sea temperature is 16 °C (61 °F). In the warmest month, August, the daily high temperature averages 28.4 °C (83.1 °F), the overnight low averages 21.2 °C (70.2 °F), and the average sea temperature is 22 °C (72 °F). Source 3: Meteoclimat (records except February, July and August record lows) Source 4: Time and Date (dew points and humidity) Over 500 different species of flowering plants grow on
22800-477: The best way of achieving this. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement. On 23 July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25 July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in
22990-483: The border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion. Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3 August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which
23180-437: The boreholes is nowadays supplemented by two desalination plants: a reverse osmosis plant, constructed in a tunnel within the rock, and a multi-stage flash distillation plant at North Mole. Gibraltar's terrain consists of the 426 m-high (1,398 ft) Rock of Gibraltar made of Jurassic limestone , and the narrow coastal lowland surrounding it. It contains many tunnelled roads, most of which are still operated by
23370-427: The campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army. Upon mobilisation, in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan , 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier,
23560-525: The capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina . Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , Nedeljko Čabrinović , Trifko Grabež , Vaso Čubrilović ( Bosnian Serbs ) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community), from the movement known as Young Bosnia , took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw
23750-466: The chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne , Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already." On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa (now Samoa ). On 11 September,
23940-421: The command of Rear Admiral Richard L. Conolly was to land the 3rd Infantry Division , Major General Lucian Truscott commanding, on beaches near Licata . Task Force 82 (code name DIME ) under Rear Admiral John L. Hall, Jr. was to land 1st Infantry Division , Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen commanding, on beaches near Gela . Task Force 85 (code name CENT ) under the command of Rear Admiral Alan Kirk
24130-456: The commander of 8th Submarine Flotilla in the Mediterranean, noted: It was, I think, unique in the history of the two nations that a United States Naval officer should be placed in nominal command of a British submarine thereby making her the only warship on active duty to be commanded by two captains. The Seraph got underway on October 27 and arrived off Toulon on October 30. After several delays, Giraud and his party were brought on board, and
24320-414: The cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses,
24510-415: The creation of new independent states, including Poland , Finland , the Baltic states , Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia . The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Before World War II , the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply
24700-449: The creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire , machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery , which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and
24890-818: The crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna". Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo . Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as
25080-434: The destruction of nearby Algeciras c. 1375 . It became again part of the Crown of Castile in 1462. In 1704, Anglo-Dutch forces captured Gibraltar from Spain during the War of the Spanish Succession , and it was ceded to Great Britain in perpetuity under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It became an important base for the Royal Navy , particularly during the Napoleonic Wars and World War II , as it controlled
25270-420: The expansion of the French colonial empire . In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors , which included Austria-Hungary , Russia and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War , the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans , an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed
25460-407: The family together while his father pursued an active military career was his mother, nicknamed "The Field Marshal" by her husband. Jerry remembered his mother fondly: "She was a tiger with her young." Wright's father was a veteran of the Spanish–American War , the Boxer Rebellion , and World War I , during which he commanded the 89th Division in the St. Mihiel offensive and the Third Corps. He
25650-408: The famous "apes" of Gibraltar, which are actually monkeys . These are the only wild apes or monkeys found in Europe. This species, known scientifically as Macaca sylvanus , is listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List and is declining. Three-quarters of the world population live in the Middle Atlas mountains of Morocco . Recent genetic studies and historical documents point to their presence on
25840-400: The first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun , lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but
26030-413: The fortifications and the port. During the Second World War , most of Gibraltar's civilian population was evacuated , mainly to London, but also to parts of Morocco and Madeira and to Gibraltar Camp in Jamaica . The Rock was strengthened as a fortress . On 18 July 1940, the Vichy French air force attacked Gibraltar in retaliation for the British bombing of the Vichy navy. The naval base and
26220-486: The front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive , after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole , and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold
26410-415: The frontier workers are Spanish nationals. More than half (55 Percent) of the private sector employee jobs are held by persons who are not Gibraltarians or Other British nationalities. The public sector, on the other hand, employs mainly Gibraltarians and other British (90 Percent) As a consequence, according to Fabian Picardo , Chief Minister of Gibraltar, during Brexit negotiations, a frontier which lacked
26600-410: The garrison of the town for two years, after which time they were expelled, returning to their home towns or moving on to other parts of Spain. In 1501, Gibraltar passed back to the Spanish Crown, and Isabella I of Castile issued a Royal Warrant granting Gibraltar the coat of arms that it still uses. In 1704, during the War of the Spanish Succession , a combined Anglo - Dutch fleet, representing
26790-408: The globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was the SMS Emden , part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao , which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron
26980-421: The high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans (violating the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for
27170-435: The introductions of tanks and aircraft . World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded , plus some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide . The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic. The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of
27360-502: The invasion of Peleliu and Angaur (Operation Stalemate II) as part of the United States Third Fleet under the overall command of Admiral William F. Halsey , and carrier air attacks to neutralize Japanese air bases on Babelthuap and Koro in preparation for the upcoming Philippines campaign led by General Douglas MacArthur . During air raids on Formosa in October, the heavy cruiser Canberra and light cruiser Houston were seriously damaged by aerial torpedoes . Santa Fe
27550-422: The investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade . Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as
27740-473: The island at a critical time in the face of concentrated air attacks from German and Italian forces. Spanish dictator Francisco Franco 's reluctance to allow the German Army onto Spanish soil frustrated a German plan to capture the Rock, codenamed Operation Felix . In the 1950s, Franco renewed Spain's claim to sovereignty over Gibraltar and restricted movement between Gibraltar and Spain. Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain under British sovereignty in
27930-517: The lack of cooperation on close air support from the Allied air forces. Wright did praise Air Vice-Marshal Sir Hugh Pughe Lloyd , RAF, for providing air support from Malta . The loading of ships and landing craft of the Western Naval Task Force was completed on July 8, 1943, with Vice Admiral Hewitt and his staff embarking on the USS Monrovia , the invasion force's flagship. D-Day was July 10, and Patton's troops stormed ashore and began their history-making drive for Messina . Operation Avalanche
28120-423: The landing force, and the news that Major General E. J. House would oversee tactical air support for the ground forces using aircraft from the Northwest African Air Force. However, Wright felt that the Army's decision to forgo pre-invasion naval gun bombardment was ill-considered, even for the sake of maintaining the element of surprise. The invasion force got underway, with Vice Admiral H. Kent Hewitt , Wright, and
28310-487: The leader of a group of pro-Allied officials in French North Africa. The objective of this secret mission, code-named Operation Flagpole , was to reach an agreement through Mast and his colleagues to have Général Henri Giraud , a key pro-Allied French army officer, step forward, take command of French military forces in North Africa, and then arrange a ceasefire with the Allied invasion force. Other alternatives, like Jean Darlan and Charles de Gaulle , had been rejected by
28500-482: The line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. Gibraltar Gibraltar ( / dʒ ɪ ˈ b r ɔː l t ər / jib- RAWL -tər , Spanish: [xiβɾalˈtaɾ] ) is a British Overseas Territory and city located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula , on the Bay of Gibraltar , near the exit of the Mediterranean Sea into the Atlantic Ocean ( Strait of Gibraltar ). It has an area of 6.8 km (2.6 sq mi) and
28690-401: The military and closed to the general public. Gibraltar has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ), with mild, rainy winters and summers that are very warm to hot and humid, but with very little rainfall. As is the case for nearby Algeciras and Tarifa , summers are significantly cooler and annual temperature more constant than other cities on the southern coast of
28880-451: The modernization and readiness of the United States Atlantic Fleet during the Cold War . Upon his retirement from the navy, Wright subsequently served on the Central Intelligence Agency 's National Board of Estimates (NBE) and as the United States Ambassador to the Republic of China (Taiwan) . Jerauld Wright was born on June 4, 1898, in Amherst, Massachusetts , the second son of Major General William M. Wright (1863–1943), an officer in
29070-500: The most significant development was on the diplomatic and political front when U.S. consul general Robert D. Murphy alerted the Allied high command about the unexpected presence of Admiral de la flotte Jean Darlan , the head of the Vichy French military, who was visiting his ill son in Algiers. Darlan's presence complicated the pre-invasion arrangements with Général Henri Giraud . Darlan pointed out to Murphy that he outranked Giraud, whom Darlan maintained had little influence within
29260-403: The necessary fluidity for people to be able to access their places of work would put directly at risk nearly half of the jobs of the Gibraltar workforce. In the early 2000s, many bookmakers and online gaming operators moved to Gibraltar to benefit from operating in a regulated jurisdiction with a favourable corporate tax regime. This corporate tax regime for non-resident controlled companies
29450-409: The ocean, even to neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The Battle of Jutland in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of
29640-502: The outbound leg of his goodwill tour of Latin America. Wright also furthered his hands-on education of gunnery and ordnance while serving as an instructor at the Gunnery School on the battleship Colorado . Commander Wright joined USS Salt Lake City , a Pensacola -class cruiser attached to the Scouting Force , as its first lieutenant in August 1931 and later became the ship's gunnery officer from June 1932 to June 1934. The Salt Lake City participated in naval exercises in
29830-474: The private sector and 20% in the public sector. The unemployment rate is extremely low, at around 1 per cent. More than half (53 Percent) of the labour force are resident in Spain or are non Gibraltarians. According to the Government of Gibraltar's statistics, around 45 Percent of the total employee jobs, and 58% of the private sector jobs, are held by frontier workers (employees who are normally resident in Spain but are employed in Gibraltar). Around 63 Percent of
30020-415: The private sector. Since Brexit , Gibraltar is not a member of the European Union but negotiations are under way to have it participate in the Schengen Agreement to facilitate border movements between Gibraltar and Spain. As of March 2023 , talks seem deadlocked. The name is derived from Arabic : جبل طارق , romanized : Jabal Ṭāriq , lit. 'Mount of Tariq' (named after
30210-681: The protection of the " cruiser rules ", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare , realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys , escorted by destroyers . This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after
30400-451: The settlements of Sandy Bay and Catalan Bay ; and the Westside , where the vast majority of the population lives. Gibraltar has no administrative divisions but is divided into seven Major Residential Areas . Having negligible natural resources and few natural freshwater resources, limited to natural wells in the north, until recently Gibraltar used large concrete or natural rock water catchments to collect rainwater. Fresh water from
30590-417: The ships based there played a key role in the provisioning and supply of the island of Malta during its long siege . As well as frequent short runs, known as "Club Runs", towards Malta to fly off aircraft reinforcements (initially Hurricanes , but later, notably from the USN aircraft carrier Wasp , Spitfires ), the critical Operation Pedestal convoy was run from Gibraltar in August 1942. This resupplied
30780-407: The site of an early settlement of the native Turdetani people. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire , Gibraltar came briefly under the control of the Vandals , who crossed into Africa at the invitation of Boniface , the Count (or commander) of the territory. The area later formed part of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania for almost 300 years, from 414 until 711 AD. Following
30970-509: The situation. Other mammals found in Gibraltar include rabbits, foxes and bats. Dolphins and whales are frequently seen in the Bay of Gibraltar . Migrating birds are very common and Gibraltar is home to the only Barbary partridges found on the European continent. In 1991, Graham Watson, Gibraltar's MEP , highlighted conservationists ' fears that urban development , tourism and invasive plant species were threatening Gibraltar's own plants as well as birds and bat species . In May 2016,
31160-477: The sole leader of the Free French movement . Wright joined the staff of Vice Admiral H. Kent Hewitt , the Commander, U.S. Naval Forces, Northwest Africa Waters (COMNAVNAW), as its assistant chief of staff. Hewitt would command the "Western Naval Task Force", which would land U.S. Seventh Army under Lieutenant General George S. Patton in the Gulf of Gela for Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily. Vice Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay , RN, would command
31350-415: The term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power , known as the Concert of Europe . After 1848, this
31540-584: The threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It
31730-447: The towing of the Canberra and Houston back to Uliti . In November 1944, Rear Admiral Wright took command of Amphibious Group Five, a newly created unit of the Amphibious Forces, U.S. Pacific Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner . Wright's group would be involved in the invasion of the Ryukyu Islands ( Operation Iceberg ), the island of Okinawa being the key objective. Once taken, U.S. forces would use Okinawa as
31920-429: The war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles , by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in
32110-413: The war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of Togoland and Kamerun . On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought
32300-418: The west , which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive from August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home , Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November, and
32490-476: The youngest midshipman to enter the academy since the American Civil War . Wright graduated on June 26, 1917, as part of the Class of 1918, ranked 92nd out of 193, the youngest member in his class. In July 1917, Lieutenant Wright joined the gunboat USS Castine , which set sail for Gibraltar on August 5, 1917, for anti-submarine patrol and convoy duty, operating as a unit of the Patrol Force through December 21, 1918. Wright served on USS Dyer ,
32680-406: Was a recipient of the Army Distinguished Service Medal . Following the war, General Wright commanded the Ninth Corps at the Presidio and the Department of the Philippines . While his father was assigned to the newly created United States Army General Staff before World War I, Wright met William Howard Taft . Later, Wright accompanied his father on inspection tours of U.S. military installations in
32870-449: Was able to secure additional British escorts, landing craft would remain a persistent problem given the competing demands from Operation Overlord and the Pacific Theater of Operations , with Wright noting: " LST's don't grow on trees." On the other hand, two developments were welcomed by Wright and his fellow invasion planners, including U.S. escort aircraft carriers (CVE) which would provide much needed off-shore close air support for
33060-446: Was awarded a Bronze Star , with a combat "V" device , for his leadership as the commander of Task Group 51.2 during Operation Iceberg . Rear Admiral Jerauld Wright took command of Cruiser Division Six (CruDiv 6), with USS San Francisco , a New Orleans -class cruiser, serving as his flagship. In early October 1945, CruDiv 6 was assigned to assist the post-surrender activities and general-purpose peace-keeping duties throughout
33250-400: Was awarded a second Legion of Merit for his contributions on Operation Husky and Operation Avalanche . In October 1943, Captain Jerauld Wright was detached from U.S. Naval Forces, Northwest Africa Waters (NAVNAW) to take command of USS Santa Fe , a Cleveland -class light cruiser nicknamed the "Lucky Lady." Wright relieved Captain Russell S. Berkey on December 15, 1943. Santa Fe
33440-403: Was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation , the decline of the Ottoman Empire , New Imperialism , and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck . Victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire . Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this defeat, but by the early 1890s, this had switched to
33630-517: Was detached from the Mississippi for temporary duty on the staff of Admiral Ernest J. King , the Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Fleet (COMINCH), before being assigned to Admiral Harold R. Stark's staff in London , effective June 3, 1942. Captain Wright was subsequently assigned to the planning staff of Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who would lead the British-American invasion of North Africa ( Operation Torch ). Wright's role would be to coordinate with his British counterparts regarding
33820-427: Was directed to take part in the mission to extract Giraud, code-named Operation Kingpin. Because of intense anti-British sentiment among French officers, the mission would present an American face. However, because there were no American submarines operating in the Mediterranean Sea, a novel solution was conceived with Wright taking command of the British submarine HMS Seraph . As Captain G. B. H. Fawkes, RN ,
34010-409: Was part of a covering force (Task Force 30.3), nicknamed "CripDiv 1," formed to protect the damaged cruisers as they were being towed back for Ulithi for repairs. The final engagements that Wright participated in as the commanding officer of USS Santa Fe were the invasion of Leyte and the Battle of Leyte Gulf . Captain Jerauld Wright received the Silver Star in recognition of his participation in
34200-500: Was phased out by January 2011 and replaced by a still favourable fixed corporate tax rate of 10 per cent. Tourism is also a significant industry. Gibraltar is a popular port for cruise ships and attracts day visitors from resorts in Spain. The Rock is a popular tourist attraction, particularly among British tourists and residents in the southern coast of Spain. It is also a popular shopping destination, and all goods and services are VAT free, but may be subject to Gibraltar taxes. Many of
34390-654: Was refused. Early on the morning of 4 August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London . Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Beginning on 12 August,
34580-600: Was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra , these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany . This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law. Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of
34770-427: Was summoned to Operation Torch's staff headquarters at Norfolk House in London for an important meeting with General Eisenhower, alongside other senior officers. Eisenhower informed the group that the War Department had forwarded an urgent cable from U.S. diplomat Robert D. Murphy requesting the immediate dispatch of a top-secret high-level group to meet with Général Charles E. Mast, the military commander of Algiers and
34960-430: Was the flagship of Cruiser Division 13, Rear Admiral Laurance T. DuBose commanding, which also included USS Birmingham , Mobile , and Reno . During December 1943, Santa Fe underwent amphibious training off San Pedro, California . On January 13, 1944, Santa Fe set sail from California for the Marshall Islands , as part of the invasion force for Operation Flintlock . Santa Fe served as an escort for
35150-440: Was the Allied invasion of the Italian mainland with amphibious landings at Salerno , with additional landing at Calabria ( Operation Baytown ) and Taranto ( Operation Slapstick ). For the Salerno landing, Wright faced two major challenges in his capacity as the assistant chief of staff for U.S. Naval Forces, Northwest Africa Waters (NAVNAW), namely the shortage of U.S. escort vessels and a shortage of landing craft. While Wright
35340-586: Was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire by Wilhelm II . The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor , Leo von Caprivi . This gave France an opening to agree the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention . While not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became
35530-437: Was to land the 45th Infantry Division , Major General Troy Middleton commanding, on beaches near Scoglitti . Wright worked closely with his U.S. Army counterparts, and he considered Patton "a great fellow" who grew to appreciate the effectiveness of naval gun support for his landing force. However, Wright was critical of Lieutenant General Carl A. Spaatz , USAAF , and Air Vice-Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham , RAF , regarding
35720-435: Was to secure the Gulf of Salerno and capture Naples . September 9, 1943 was D-Day for Operation Avalanche as the 36th Infantry Division , under the command of Major General Fred L. Walker USA, stormed ashore at Salerno under heavy fire from German tanks, artillery, and machine guns. During the landings, on the morning of September 11, Wright witnessed a radio-controlled flying bomb severely damage USS Savannah ,
35910-409: Was to serve as a decoy force working in conjunction with the Southern Attack Force (Task Force 55) commanded by Rear Admiral John L. Hall while the Western Islands Group (Task Group 51.1) under Rear Admiral Ingolf N. Kiland and the 77th Infantry Division secured Kerama Retto and other offshore islands before landing at Ie Shima . Task Group 51.2 would subsequently serve as a floating reserve for
36100-498: Was turned down for naval aviation because he had exophoria . His first tour of duty at the Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd) was as a fire control section assistant, specializing in anti-aircraft equipment, from August 1929 to August 1931. Wright's second BuOrd assignment was with its supply and allowance division, involving ammunition distribution to the fleet, from June 1936 to July 1937. Bureau chief Rear Admiral Harold R. Stark rated Wright highly. Commander Wright served two tours at
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