Jepson Art Institute , founded in 1945 by artist Herbert Jepson , was an art school located at 2861 West 7th Street in the Westlake district of central Los Angeles , California .
64-720: It flourished from 1947 to 1953 — becoming an important center for experimental figure drawing , art theory ( aesthetics ) and printmaking . Prior to this, Jepson served as an instructor at L.A.'s esteemed Chouinard Art Institute for a dozen years. The Jepson Art Institute closed in 1954. On the faculty, internationally acclaimed figurative artists Rico Lebrun and Francis de Erdely attracted students who later achieved distinction in their own fields such as sculptor Marisol Escobar ("Marisol"), painters Joseph Glasco , Frederick Hammersley and Delmer J. Yoakum , illustrator David Passalaqua, art director Richard Bousman, and architectural sculptor Malcolm Leland. Show business luminaries of
128-526: A darkened ground. The models' poses tended to be active: standing figures seem about to stir and even seated figures gesticulate dramatically. Close observation of the model's body was secondary to the rendering of his gesture, and many drawings - consistent with academic theory - seem to present a representative figure rather than a specific body or face. In comparison, academies produced in the nineteenth century [...] were typically executed in black chalk or charcoal on white paper and are meticulous depictions of
192-405: A graphite pencil to sketch or outline the drawing, then the final line work with a pen or brush, and permanent ink. The ink may be diluted with water to produce gradations, a technique called ink wash. The pencil marks may be erased after the ink is applied, or left in place with the dark inks overpowering them. Some artists draw directly in ink without the preparation of a pencil sketch, preferring
256-448: A historically significant barrier to women's artistic development. Figure drawing instruction is an element of most fine art and illustration programs. Academies of fine art in Italy have a scuola libera del nudo ("free school of the nude") which forms part of the degree program but is also open to outside students. In a typical figure drawing studio classroom, the students sit around
320-415: A mixture of proteins , polysaccharides , and water. For additional structure or protection, pliant skeletons may be supported by rigid skeletons. Organisms that have pliant skeletons typically live in water, which supports body structure in the absence of a rigid skeleton. Rigid skeletons are not capable of movement when stressed, creating a strong support system most common in terrestrial animals . Such
384-405: A model either in a semicircle or a full circle. No two students have exactly the same view, thus their drawing will reflect the perspective of the artist's unique location relative to the model. The model often poses on a stand, to enable students to more easily find an unobstructed view. Depending on the type of pose, furniture and/or props may be used. These are typically included in the drawing, to
448-402: A single tail fin as in the pinnipeds (seals). In the whale, the cervical vertebrae are typically fused, an adaptation trading flexibility for stability during swimming. The skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and supplemented by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors muscles, and protects organs such as
512-819: A skeleton type used by animals that live in water are more for protection (such as barnacle and snail shells) or for fast-moving animals that require additional support of musculature needed for swimming through water. Rigid skeletons are formed from materials including chitin (in arthropods), calcium compounds such as calcium carbonate (in stony corals and mollusks ) and silicate (for diatoms and radiolarians ). Hydrostatic skeletons are flexible cavities within an animal that provide structure through fluid pressure, occurring in some types of soft-bodied organisms , including jellyfish, flatworms , nematodes , and earthworms. The walls of these cavities are made of muscle and connective tissue. In addition to providing structure for an animal's body, hydrostatic skeletons transmit
576-484: A smaller number of bones than other terrestrial vertebrates. Birds also lack teeth or even a true jaw , instead having evolved a beak , which is far more lightweight. The beaks of many baby birds have a projection called an egg tooth , which facilitates their exit from the amniotic egg. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish is either made of cartilage as in the Chondrichthyes , or bones as in
640-442: A standing model. Poses which introduce foreshortening of various body parts will cause them to differ. The French Salon in the 19th century recommended the use of Conté crayons, which are sticks of wax, oil and pigment, combined with specially formulated paper. Erasure was not permitted; instead, the artist was expected to describe the figure in light strokes before making darker, more visible marks. A popular modern technique
704-424: A still life do not have to be drawn perfectly to look authentic, but even the slightest error in human proportions will be easily detected. Modern and contemporary artists may choose to exaggerate or distort proportions to emphasise the gesture or perceived mood of the models' pose. The outcomes can be regarded as a finished artwork, expressing both the subject, the observational, emotional and mark making response to
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#1733085849931768-535: A vertebral column, and their skeletons vary, including hard-shelled exoskeleton ( arthropods and most molluscs ), plated internal shells (e.g. cuttlebones in some cephalopods ) or rods (e.g. ossicles in echinoderms ), hydrostatically supported body cavities (most), and spicules ( sponges ). Cartilage is a rigid connective tissue that is found in the skeletal systems of vertebrates and invertebrates. The term skeleton comes from Ancient Greek σκελετός ( skeletós ) 'dried up'. Sceleton
832-529: A well-known California designer. 34°3′34.45″N 118°17′9.59″W / 34.0595694°N 118.2859972°W / 34.0595694; -118.2859972 Figure drawing A figure drawing is a drawing of the human form in any of its various shapes and postures , using any of the drawing media . The term can also refer to the act of producing such a drawing . The degree of representation may range from highly detailed, anatomically correct renderings to loose and expressive sketches. A life drawing
896-518: Is a drawing of the human figure, traditionally nude , from observation of a live model . Creating life drawings, or life studies , in a life class , has been a large element in the traditional training of artists in the Western world since the Renaissance. A figure drawing may be a composed work of art or a figure study done in preparation for a more finished work, such as a painting. Figure drawing
960-491: Is a type of dense connective tissue , a type of mineralized tissue that gives rigidity and a honeycomb-like three-dimensional internal structure. Bones also produce red and white blood cells and serve as calcium and phosphate storage at the cellular level. Other types of tissue found in bones include bone marrow , endosteum and periosteum , nerves , blood vessels and cartilage. During embryonic development , bones are developed individually from skeletogenic cells in
1024-413: Is a warm-up exercise for many artists, although some artists sketch out the gesture as the first step in every figure drawing. These broad strokes are not just done by the flick of a wrist, but by using the whole arm to capture the motion of the model. It also helps to keep the artist focused on the model instead of the paper. When it comes to the human body, artists are painfully critical; the proportions of
1088-584: Is an archaic form of the word. Skeletons can be defined by several attributes. Solid skeletons consist of hard substances, such as bone , cartilage , or cuticle . These can be further divided by location; internal skeletons are endoskeletons, and external skeletons are exoskeletons. Skeletons may also be defined by rigidity, where pliant skeletons are more elastic than rigid skeletons. Fluid or hydrostatic skeletons do not have hard structures like solid skeletons, instead functioning via pressurized fluids. Hydrostatic skeletons are always internal. An exoskeleton
1152-463: Is an external skeleton that covers the body of an animal, serving as armor to protect an animal from predators. Arthropods have exoskeletons that encase their bodies, and have to undergo periodic moulting or ecdysis as the animals grow. The shells of molluscs are another form of exoskeleton. Exoskeletons provide surfaces for the attachment of muscles, and specialized appendanges of the exoskeleton can assist with movement and defense. In arthropods,
1216-526: Is arguably the most difficult subject an artist commonly encounters, and entire courses are dedicated to the subject. The human figure is one of the most enduring themes in the visual arts, and the human figure can be the basis of portraiture , illustration , sculpture , medical illustration , and other fields. Artists take a variety of approaches to drawing the human figure. They may draw from live models or from photographs, from mannequin puppets, or from memory and imagination. Most instruction focuses on
1280-414: Is cartilage which in mammals is found mainly in the joint areas. In other animals, such as the cartilaginous fishes , which include the sharks , the skeleton is composed entirely of cartilage . The segmental pattern of the skeleton is present in all vertebrates, with basic units being repeated, such as in the vertebral column and the ribcage. Bones are rigid organs providing structural support for
1344-399: Is the use of a charcoal stick, prepared from special vines, and a rougher form of paper. The charcoal adheres loosely to the paper, allowing very easy erasure, but the final drawing can be preserved using a spray-on "fixative" to keep the charcoal from rubbing off. Harder compressed charcoal can produce a more deliberate and precise effect, and graduated tones can be produced by smudging with
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#17330858499311408-416: Is used in some invertebrates, for instance in the hinge of bivalve shells or the mesoglea of cnidarians such as jellyfish . Pliant skeletons are beneficial because only muscle contractions are needed to bend the skeleton; upon muscle relaxation, the skeleton will return to its original shape. Cartilage is one material that a pliant skeleton may be composed of, but most pliant skeletons are formed from
1472-693: Is wider and shallower than the male pelvis. Female pelvises also have an enlarged pelvic outlet and a wider and more circular pelvic inlet. The angle between the pubic bones is known to be sharper in males, which results in a more circular, narrower, and near heart-shaped pelvis. Invertebrates are defined by a lack of vertebral column, and they do not have bone skeletons. Arthropods have exoskeletons and echinoderms have endoskeletons. Some soft-bodied organisms, such as jellyfish and earthworms , have hydrostatic skeletons. The skeletons of arthropods , including insects , crustaceans , and arachnids , are cuticle exoskeletons. They are composed of chitin secreted by
1536-496: The Osteichthyes . The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. They are supported only by the muscles. The main external features of the fish, the fins , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays which, with the exception of the caudal fin (tail fin), have no direct connection with
1600-498: The Pacific Ocean , has a shell that is massive in both size and weight. Syrinx aruanus is a species of sea snail with a very large shell. Endoskeletons are the internal support structure of an animal, composed of mineralized tissues , such as the bone skeletons found in most vertebrates. Endoskeletons are highly specialized and vary significantly between animals. They vary in complexity from functioning purely for support (as in
1664-405: The epidermis . The cuticle covers the animal's body and lines several internal organs, including parts of the digestive system. Arthropods molt as they grow through a process of ecdysis , developing a new exoskeleton, digesting part of the previous skeleton, and leaving the remainder behind. An arthropod's skeleton serves many functions, working as an integument to provide a barrier and support
1728-499: The exoskeleton , which is a rigid outer shell that holds up an organism's shape; the endoskeleton , a rigid internal frame to which the organs and soft tissues attach; and the hydroskeleton , a flexible internal structure supported by the hydrostatic pressure of body fluids . Vertebrates are animals with an endoskeleton centered around an axial vertebral column , and their skeletons are typically composed of bones and cartilages . Invertebrates are other animals that lack
1792-474: The ossicles that articulate only with each other. The hyoid bone , which is located in the neck and serves as the point of attachment for the tongue , does not articulate with any other bones in the body, being supported by muscles and ligaments. There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, although this number depends on whether the pelvic bones (the hip bones on each side) are counted as one or three bones on each side (ilium, ischium, and pubis), whether
1856-453: The 65 that is typical in lizards. The skeletons of birds are adapted for flight . The bones in bird skeletons are hollow and lightweight to reduce the metabolic cost of flight. Several attributes of the shape and structure of the bones are optimized to endure the physical stress associated with flight, including a round and thin humeral shaft and the fusion of skeletal elements into single ossifications . Because of this, birds usually have
1920-542: The animal ages. Sea urchins have as many as ten variants of stereome structure. Among extant animals, such skeletons are unique to echinoderms, though similar skeletons were used by some Paleozoic animals. The skeletons of echinoderms are mesodermal , as they are mostly encased by soft tissue. Plates of the skeleton may be interlocked or connected through muscles and ligaments. Skeletal elements in echinoderms are highly specialized and take many forms, though they usually retain some form of symmetry. The spines of sea urchins are
1984-415: The animal's body. The skeletons of sea cucumbers are an exception, having a reduced size to assist in feeding and movement. Echinoderm skeletons are composed of stereom , made up of calcite with a monocrystal structure. They also have a significant magnesium content, forming up to 15% of the skeleton's composition. The stereome structure is porous, and the pores fill with connective stromal tissue as
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2048-419: The artists figure drawing experience. Anatomy is only the first level of concern in life classes. Figure-ground relationships and other aspects of composition are also considered. Balance of a composition becomes more crucial and therefore more understood through life drawing. The artist's kinesthetic response to the pose and how this is conveyed through a choice of art media is a more advanced concern. Since
2112-464: The body, assistance in movement by opposing muscle contraction , and the forming of a protective wall around internal organs. Bones are primarily made of inorganic minerals, such as hydroxyapatite , while the remainder is made of an organic matrix and water. The hollow tubular structure of bones provide considerable resistance against compression while staying lightweight. Most cells in bones are osteoblasts , osteoclasts , or osteocytes . Bone tissue
2176-400: The body, providing appendages for movement and defense, and assisting in sensory perception. Some arthropods, such as crustaceans, absorb biominerals like calcium carbonate from the environment to strengthen the cuticle. The skeletons of echinoderms , such as starfish and sea urchins , are endoskeletons that consist of large, well-developed sclerite plates that adjoin or overlap to cover
2240-434: The brain, lungs , heart and spinal cord . The biggest bone in the body is the femur in the upper leg, and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear . In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 13.1% of the total body weight, and half of this weight is water. Fused bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium . Not all bones are interconnected directly: There are three bones in each middle ear called
2304-442: The careers and development of female artists. The most prestigious forms of painting required in-depth knowledge of anatomy that was systematically denied to women, who were thereby relegated to less-regarded forms of painting such as genre , still life , landscape , and portraiture . In Linda Nochlin ’s essay, "Why have There Been No Great Women Artists" she identifies the restricted access that women had to nude figure drawing as
2368-411: The case of sponges ), to serving as an attachment site for muscles and a mechanism for transmitting muscular forces. A true endoskeleton is derived from mesodermal tissue. Endoskeletons occur in chordates , echinoderms, and sponges. Pliant skeletons are capable of movement; thus, when stress is applied to the skeletal structure, it deforms and then regains its original shape. This skeletal structure
2432-418: The coccyx or tail bone is counted as one or four separate bones, and does not count the variable wormian bones between skull sutures. Similarly, the sacrum is usually counted as a single bone, rather than five fused vertebrae. There is also a variable number of small sesamoid bones, commonly found in tendons. The patella or kneecap on each side is an example of a larger sesamoid bone. The patellae are counted in
2496-642: The copying of engravings, then proceeded to drawing from plaster casts, after which the students were trained in drawing from a live model. In the late 18th century, students in Jacques-Louis David 's studio followed a rigorous program of instruction. Mastery in drawing was considered a prerequisite to painting. For about six hours each day, students drew from a model who remained in the same pose for one week. "Eighteenth-century drawings, like that attributed to Jacques-Louis David, were usually executed on tinted paper in red or black chalk with white highlights and
2560-423: The ectoderm and mesoderm. Most of these cells develop into separate bone, cartilage, and joint cells, and they are then articulated with one another. Specialized skeletal tissues are unique to vertebrates. Cartilage grows more quickly than bone, causing it to be more prominent earlier in an animal's life before it is overtaken by bone. Cartilage is also used in vertebrates to resist stress at points of articulation in
2624-407: The exoskeleton also assists with sensory perception . An external skeleton can be quite heavy in relation to the overall mass of an animal, so on land, organisms that have an exoskeleton are mostly relatively small. Somewhat larger aquatic animals can support an exoskeleton because weight is less of a consideration underwater. The southern giant clam , a species of extremely large saltwater clam in
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2688-504: The extent that they are visible to the artist. However, backgrounds are commonly ignored unless the objective is to learn about placement of figures in an environment. Individual models are most common, but multiple models may be used in more advanced classes. Many studios are equipped to allow a variety of lighting arrangements. When taught at the college level, figure drawing models are often (but not always) nude (aside from small jewelry, props or other inconspicuous items). While posing,
2752-416: The fingers or with a cylindrical paper tool called a stump . A graphite pencil is also commonly used for figure drawing. For this purpose, artists' pencils are sold in various formulations, ranging from 9B (very soft) to 1B (medium soft), and from 1H (medium hard) to 9H (very hard). Like charcoal, it can be erased and manipulated using a stump. Ink is another popular medium. The artist will often start with
2816-440: The forces of muscle contraction, allowing an animal to move by alternating contractions and expansions of muscles along the animal's length. The cytoskeleton ( cyto- meaning 'cell' ) is used to stabilize and preserve the form of the cells. It is a dynamic structure that maintains cell shape, protects the cell, enables cellular motion using structures such as flagella , cilia and lamellipodia , and transport within cells such as
2880-449: The human figure; the experience of the artist with other methods has a large influence on the effectiveness of this approach. In developing the image, some artists focus on the shapes created by the interplay of light and dark values on the surfaces of the body. Others take an anatomical approach, beginning by approximating the internal skeleton of the figure, overlaying the internal organs and musculature , and covering those shapes with
2944-439: The largest type of echinoderm skeletal structure. Some molluscs, such as conchs, scallops, and snails, have shells that serve as exoskeletons. They are produced by proteins and minerals secreted from the animal's mantle . The skeleton of sponges consists of microscopic calcareous or siliceous spicules . The demosponges include 90% of all species of sponges. Their "skeletons" are made of spicules consisting of fibers of
3008-435: The male and female skeletons. The male skeleton, for example, is generally larger and heavier than the female skeleton. In the female skeleton, the bones of the skull are generally less angular. The female skeleton also has wider and shorter breastbone and slimmer wrists. There exist significant differences between the male and female pelvis which are related to the female's pregnancy and childbirth capabilities. The female pelvis
3072-467: The medieval artist's workshop is implied in the writings of Cennino Cennini , and a manuscript of Villard de Honnecourt confirms that sketching from life was an established practice in the 13th century. The Carracci , who opened their Accademia degli Incamminati in Bologna in the 1580s, set the pattern for later art schools by making life drawing the central discipline. The course of training began with
3136-476: The model is usually requested to remain perfectly still. Because of the difficulty of doing this for an extended period of time, periodic breaks for the model to rest and/or stretch are usually included in longer sessions and for more difficult poses. At the beginning of a figure drawing session, the model is often requested to make a series of brief poses in rapid succession. These are called gesture poses, and are typically one to three minutes each. Gesture drawing
3200-434: The movement of vesicles and organelles , and plays a role in cellular division. The cytoskeleton is not a skeleton in the sense that it provides the structural system for the body of an animal; rather, it serves a similar function at the cellular level. Vertebrate skeletons are endoskeletons, and the main skeletal component is bone. Bones compose a unique skeletal system for each type of animal. Another important component
3264-640: The particularities and idiosyncrasies of the body of the live model. Evidence of the artist's hand is minimized and, although reclining or seated poses are rare, even standing poses are comparatively static..." Before the late 19th century, women were generally not admitted to figure drawing classes. An academy figure is a carefully executed drawing or painting of the nude human body, typically at half life size, completed as an exercise in an art school or academy. Historical accounts reveal that nude models for aspiring female artists were largely unavailable. Women were barred from certain institutions because it
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#17330858499313328-472: The period such as Vincent Price , Zero Mostel and comedian Fannie Brice (artist/instructor William Brice's mother) often came to the Jepson Art Institute to hear the lectures of Lebrun and to sit in on classes with Jepson, who was known as a consummate figure draughtsman. The art of serigraphy was pioneered at the Jepson Art Institute by printmaker Guy Maccoy , who was among the first to develop
3392-658: The protein spongin , the mineral silica , or both. Where spicules of silica are present, they have a different shape from those in the otherwise similar glass sponges . Cartilage is a connective skeletal tissue composed of specialized cells called chondrocytes that in an extracellular matrix . This matrix is typically composed of Type II collagen fibers, proteoglycans , and water. There are many types of cartilage, including elastic cartilage , hyaline cartilage , fibrocartilage , and lipohyaline cartilage. Unlike other connective tissues, cartilage does not contain blood vessels. The chondrocytes are supplied by diffusion, helped by
3456-497: The purpose of figure drawing classes is to learn how to draw humans of all kinds, male and female models of all ages, shapes, and ethnicities are usually sought, rather than selecting only beautiful models or those with "ideal" figures . Some instructors specifically seek to avoid the sort of models preferred by fashion photographers, seeking more "realistic" examples and to avoid any implication of sexual objectification. Instructors may also favor models of particular body types based on
3520-459: The skeleton. Cartilage in vertebrates is usually encased in perichondrium tissue. Ligaments are elastic tissues that connect bones to other bones, and tendons are elastic tissues that connect muscles to bones. The skeletons of turtles have evolved to develop a shell from the ribcage, forming an exoskeleton. The skeletons of snakes and caecilians have significantly more vertebrae than other animals. Snakes often have over 300, compared to
3584-513: The skin, and finally (if applicable) clothing; the study of human internal anatomy is usually involved in this technique. Another approach is to loosely construct the body out of geometric shapes, e.g., a sphere for the cranium, a cylinder for the torso, etc. Then refine those shapes to more closely resemble the human form. For those working without visual reference (or as a means of checking one's work), proportions commonly recommended in figure drawing are: These proportions are most useful for
3648-431: The spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, rays, skates, and chimeras, have skeletons made entirely of cartilage. The lighter weight of cartilage allows these fish to expend less energy when swimming. To facilitate the movement of marine mammals in water, the hind legs were either lost altogether, as in the whales and manatees , or united in
3712-496: The spontaneity of this approach despite the fact that it limits the ability to correct mistakes. Matisse is an artist known to have worked in this way. A favored method of Watteau and other 17th and 18th-century artists of the Baroque and Rococo eras was to start with a colored ground of tone halfway between white and black, and to add shade in black and highlights in white, using pen and ink or "crayon". The human figure has been
3776-467: The subject of drawings since prehistoric times. While the studio practices of the artists of antiquity are largely a matter of conjecture, that they often drew and modeled from nude models is suggested by the anatomical sophistication of their works. An anecdote related by Pliny describes how Zeuxis reviewed the young women of Agrigentum naked before selecting five whose features he would combine in order to paint an ideal image. The use of nude models in
3840-498: The techniques of silk screen printing as a fine art medium. Jepson was also the founder of the Western Institute of Serigraphy. Other instructors included Hammersley, William Brice , Howard Warshaw, Milly Rocque, Geno Pettit and Roger Hollenbeck. The Institute's Design department included teachers Bill Moore, a well known graphic designer , advertising art director C. Manfred Grove, Gene Allen, and Kip Stewart, who later became
3904-460: The total, as they are constant. The number of bones varies between individuals and with age – newborn babies have over 270 bones some of which fuse together. These bones are organized into a longitudinal axis, the axial skeleton , to which the appendicular skeleton is attached. The human skeleton takes 20 years before it is fully developed, and the bones contain marrow , which produces blood cells. There exist several general differences between
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#17330858499313968-454: The unique contours or surface textures they provide. The variety of models hired may be limited by the need for them to hold a pose for extended periods (eliminating restless children and frail older persons), and concerns of modesty and legality when models pose nude (restricting the use of minors). Skeleton A skeleton is the structural frame that supports the body of most animals . There are several types of skeletons, including
4032-460: The use of models in "life drawing" courses. The use of photographic reference—although common since the development of photography —is often criticized or discouraged for its tendency to produce "flat" images that fail to capture the dynamic aspects of the subject. Drawing from imagination is often lauded for the expressiveness it encourages, and criticized for the inaccuracies introduced by the artist's lack of knowledge or limited memory in visualizing
4096-536: Was considered improper and possibly even dangerous for them to study from nude models. Though men were given access to both male and female nudes, women were confined to learning anatomy from casts and models. It was not until 1893 that female students were allowed access to life drawing at the Royal Academy in London, and even then the model was required to be partially draped. The limited access to nude figures impeded
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