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101-491: Traditionally, Jephthah ranks among the major judges because of the length of the biblical narrative referring to him, but his story also shares features with those of the minor judges, such as his short tenure—only six years—in office. The story of Jephthah is found in the Book of Judges , chapters 11 – 12 . The Israelites "again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord ... they forsook

202-456: A High Priest of Israel (the office to which Aaron was appointed at the end of the Exodus story). Although Judges probably had a monarchist redaction (see above), the book contains passages and themes that represent anti-monarchist views. One of the major themes of the book is Yahweh's sovereignty and the importance of being loyal to Him and His laws above all other gods and sovereigns. Indeed,

303-404: A Machiavellian tyrant guilty for much bloodshed (see chapters 8 and 9). However, the last few chapters of Judges (specifically, the stories of Samson, Micah, and Gibeah) highlight the violence and anarchy of decentralized rule. Judges is remarkable for the number of female characters who "play significant roles, active and passive, in the narratives." Rabbi Joseph Telushkin wrote, Most of

404-454: A binding agreement) with the God Yahweh, under which they agree to accept Yahweh as their God (hence the phrase "God of Israel") and Yahweh promises them a land where they can live in peace and prosperity. Deuteronomy contains the laws by which Israel is to live in the promised land, Joshua chronicles the conquest of Canaan , the promised land, and its allotment among the tribes, Judges describes

505-521: A decisive influence on establishing the correct text of the Talmud. Up to and including his age, texts of each Talmudic tractate were copied by hand and circulated in yeshivas. Errors often crept in: sometimes a copyist would switch words around, and other times incorporate a student's marginal notes into the main text. Because of the large number of merchant-scholars who came from throughout the Jewish world to attend

606-562: A double prologue (chapters 1:1–3:6), a main body (3:7–16:31), and a double epilogue (17–21). The book opens with the Israelites in the land that God has promised to them, but worshiping "foreign gods" instead of Yahweh , the God of Israel, and with the Canaanites still present everywhere. Chapters 1:1–2:5 are thus a confession of failure, while chapters 2:6–3:6 are a major summary and reflection from

707-627: A human being to Him as a burnt-offering, for His acceptance. Such offerings were common to heathen nations at that time, but it is noteworthy that Israel stands out among them with this great peculiarity, that human sacrifices were unknown in Israel. However, in the Hebrew Bible, the same word for 'burnt offering' (Hebrew, ʿōlāh ) used in reference to Jephthah and his daughter in Judges 11:31 is also used in other Biblical stories alluding to human sacrifice, such as

808-577: A leader or champion (a "judge"; see shophet ); the judge delivers the Israelites from oppression and they prosper, but soon they fall again into unfaithfulness and the cycle is repeated. Scholars consider many of the stories in Judges to be the oldest in the Deuteronomistic history , with their major redaction dated to the 8th century BCE and with materials such as the Song of Deborah dating from much earlier. Judges can be divided into three major sections:

909-524: A man may even fulfill of the requirement of Shnayim mikra ve-echad targum by reading Rashi's commentary rather than the standard Targum Onkelos . Since its publication, Rashi's commentary on the Torah is standard in almost all Chumashim produced within the Orthodox Jewish community. Mordechai Leifer of Nadvorna said that anyone who learns the weekly Parsha together with the commentary by Rashi every week

1010-519: Is Deborah (4:4). By the end of Judges, Yahweh's treasures are used to make idolatrous images, the Levites (priests) become corrupt, the tribe of Dan conquers a remote village instead of the Canaanite cities, and the tribes of Israel make war on the tribe of Benjamin , their own kinsmen. The book concludes with two appendices, stories which do not feature a specific judge: Despite their appearance at

1111-501: Is also sometimes compared to that of Agamemnon 's daughter Iphigenia . In his play Jephthas sive votum – Jeptha or the Vow , the Scottish scholar and dramatist George Buchanan (1506–1582) called Jephthah's daughter "Iphis", obviously alluding to Iphigenia, and Handel 's 1751 oratorio , Jephtha , based on Buchanan's play, uses the same name. According to an early Jewish tradition, Jephthah

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1212-512: Is assigned a leadership role, implies that this redaction took place in Judah. Since the second half of the 20th century most scholars have agreed with Martin Noth 's thesis that the books of Deuteronomy , Joshua , Judges, Samuel and Kings form parts of a single work. Noth maintained that the history was written in the early Exilic period (6th century BCE) in order to demonstrate how Israel's history

1313-404: Is elaborated and emphasized; "the author has done his utmost to put this woman on the same level as the patriarchs, in this case especially Isaac." John Chrysostom held that God allowed Jephthah to kill his daughter in order to prevent similar rash vows being made in the future and that it was for that purpose that the annual bewailing of the event took place as a constant reminder. Ambrose cited

1414-703: Is guaranteed to sit in the Yeshiva (school) of Rashi in the Afterlife. Voluminous supercommentaries have been published on Rashi's Bible commentaries, including Gur Aryeh by Judah Loew (the Maharal), Sefer ha-Mizrachi by Elijah Mizrachi (the Re'em), and Yeri'ot Shlomo by Solomon Luria (the Maharshal). Menachem Mendel Schneerson , in his Rashi Sichos , often addresses several of these commentaries at once. Rashi's influence grew

1515-475: Is no evidence for this. Most scholars and a Jewish oral tradition contend that he was a vintner. The only reason given for the centuries-old tradition that he was a vintner being not true is that the soil in all of Troyes is not optimal for growing wine grapes, claimed by the research of Haym Soloveitchik . There exists a reference to a seal said to be from his vineyard. Although there are many legends about his travels, Rashi likely never went further than from

1616-556: Is no evidence that Rashi's daughters did. It is reputed that the famous Polish Talmudist Moses Isserles (1530-1572) was a descendant of Rashi. Rashi's commentary on the Tanakh—and especially his commentary on the Chumash —is the essential companion for any study of the Bible among Orthodox Jews . Drawing on the breadth of Midrashic, Talmudic and Aggadic literature (including literature that

1717-523: Is no longer extant), as well as his knowledge of Hebrew grammar and halakhah , Rashi clarifies the "simple" meaning of the text so that a bright child of five could understand it. At the same time, his commentary forms the foundation for some of the most profound legal analysis and mystical discourses that came after it. Scholars debate why Rashi chose a particular Midrash to illustrate a point, or why he used certain words and phrases and not others. Shneur Zalman of Liadi wrote that "Rashi's commentary on Torah

1818-517: Is placed under the category of post-Talmudic, for its explanation and elaboration on the Talmud; however, he not only wrote about the meaning of Biblical and Talmudic passages, but also on liturgical texts, syntax rules, and cases regarding new religions emerging. Some say that his responsa allows people to obtain "clear pictures of his personality," and shows Rashi as a kind, gentle, humble, and liberal man. They also illustrate his intelligence and common sense. Rashi's responsa not only addressed some of

1919-583: Is recited on the eve of Rosh Hashanah , and Az Terem Nimtehu , which is recited on the Fast of Gedalia . Rashi died on July 13, 1105 ( Tammuz 29, 4865) at the age of 65. He was buried in Troyes. The approximate location of the cemetery in which he was buried was recorded in Seder ha-Dorot , but over time the location of the cemetery was forgotten. A number of years ago, a Sorbonne professor discovered an ancient map depicting

2020-670: Is remembered for the killing of the fugitive Ephraimites who were identified by their accent; they said the Hebrew word shibboleth as sibboleth . "At that time 42,000 of the Ephraimites fell" ( Judges 12:5–6 ). Jephthah is referenced once in the Epistle to the Hebrews 11:32. Jephthah's sacrifice of his daughter stands in stark contrast to the Binding of Isaac in the Book of Genesis , in which Abraham

2121-630: Is sometimes referred to as Jarchi or Yarhi ( ירחי ‎), his abbreviated name being interpreted as R abbi Sh lomo Y arhi. This was understood to refer to the Hebrew name of Lunel in Provence , popularly derived from the occitan luna "moon", in Hebrew ירח ‎, in which Rashi was assumed to have lived at some time or to have been born, or where his ancestors were supposed to have originated. Later Christian writers Richard Simon and Johann Christoph Wolf claimed that only Christian scholars referred to Rashi as Jarchi, and that this epithet

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2222-648: Is still visible in the wall of the Worms Synagogue . Additional legends, particularly in Hasidic literature, postulate that Rashi's tremendous works and accomplishments were inspired by the Holy Spirit , the Shekhinah, as no mere human could produce such immense works. One text goes so far as to claim that Rashi was beyond human; the author proposes that he never died a natural death, but rather ascended to Heaven alive like

2323-491: Is the 'wine of Torah'. It opens the heart and uncovers one's essential love and fear of G-d." Scholars believe that Rashi's commentary on the Torah grew out of the lectures he gave to his students in his yeshiva, and evolved with the questions and answers they raised on it. Rashi completed this commentary only in the last years of his life. It was immediately accepted as authoritative by all Jewish communities, Ashkenazi and Sephardi alike. The first dated Hebrew printed book

2424-517: Is the explanation..." Rashi's commentaries on the Bible, especially those on the Pentateuch, circulated in many different communities. In the 12th–17th centuries, Rashi's influence spread from French and German provinces to Spain and the east. He had a tremendous influence on Christian scholars. The French monk Nicholas de Lyra of Manjacoria, who was known as the "ape of Rashi", relied on Rashi's commentary when writing his Postillae Perpetuate , one of

2525-497: The beth din 's head after the death of Zerach ben Abraham. Rashi is generally considered a leading biblical exegete in the Middle Ages . Acclaimed for his ability to present the basic meaning of the text in a concise and lucid fashion, Rashi's commentaries appeal to both learned scholars and beginning students, and his works remain a centerpiece of contemporary Torah study . A large fraction of rabbinic literature published since

2626-480: The peshat , or plain and literal meaning of the text, and the aggadah or rabbinic interpretation. Rashbam , one of Rashi's grandchildren, heavily critiqued his response on his "commentary on the Torah [being] based primarily on the classic midrashim (rabbinic homilies)." Rashi himself explained his method as utilizing both peshat and derash : "I, however, am only concerned with the plain sense of Scripture ( peshuto shel mikra ) and with such Agadoth that explain

2727-400: The Chumash (the "Five Books of Moses")—serves as the basis of more than 300 "supercommentaries" which analyze Rashi's choice of language and citations, penned by some of the greatest names in rabbinic literature . Tens of thousands of men, women and children study "Chumash with Rashi" as they review the Torah portion to be read in synagogue on the upcoming Shabbat . According to halakha ,

2828-769: The Dead Sea Scrolls feature parts of Judges: 1QJudg, found in Qumran Cave 1 ; 4QJudg and 4QJudg , found in Qumran Cave 4 ; and XJudges, a fragment discovered in 2001. The earliest complete surviving copy of the Book of Judges in Hebrew is in the Aleppo Codex (10th century CE). The Septuagint (Greek translation) is found in early manuscripts such as the Codex Colberto-Sarravianus (c. AD 400; contains many lacunae) and

2929-517: The Deuteronomists . The opening thus sets out the pattern which the stories in the main text will follow: Once peace is regained, Israel does right and receives Yahweh's blessings for a time, but relapses later into doing evil and repeats the pattern above. Judges follows the Book of Joshua and opens with a reference to Joshua 's death. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges suggests that "the death of Joshua may be regarded as marking

3030-751: The Seine to the Rhine ; his furthest destinations were the yeshivas of Lorraine. In 1096, the People's Crusade swept through the Lorraine, murdering 12,000 Jews and uprooting whole communities. Among those murdered in Worms were the three sons of Isaac ben Eliezer Halevi, Rashi's teacher. Rashi wrote several Selichot (penitential poems) mourning the slaughter and the destruction of the region's great yeshivot. Seven of Rashi's Selichot still exist, including Adonai Elohei Hatz'vaot , which

3131-517: The Torah and the Talmud (at a time when women were not expected to study) and would help him when he was too weak to write. His daughters married his disciples; most present-day Ashkenazi rabbinical dynasties can trace their lineage back to his daughters Miriam or Yocheved. A late-20th century legend claims that Rashi's daughters wore tefillin . While a few women in medieval Ashkenaz did wear tefillin, there

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3232-579: The Tosafot often go beyond the passage itself in terms of arguments, parallels, and distinctions that could be drawn out. This addition to Jewish texts was seen as causing a "major cultural product" which became an important part of Torah study. In the standard printed Talmud, the Tosafot's commentaries can be found in the Talmud opposite Rashi's commentary. The Tosafot also added comments and criticism in places where Rashi had not added comments. Rashi also exerted

3333-406: The "core" territory of Israel. A statement repeated throughout the epilogue, "In those days there was no king in Israel" implies a date in the monarchic period for the redaction (editing) of Judges. Twice, this statement is accompanied with the statement "every man did that which was right in his own eyes", implying that the redactor is pro-monarchy, and the epilogue, in which the tribe of Judah

3434-455: The 14th century and continues to be propounded today, as by Solomon Landers, who considers it most likely that the fate of Jephthah's daughter was perpetual virginity or solitary confinement. Ethelbert William Bullinger , looks at the word "and" in Jephthah's vow (Judges 11:31: "whatever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return in peace from the people of Ammon, shall surely be

3535-508: The 8th century BCE, when the Northern kingdom of Israel (Samaria) began to collect its heroic tales, royal stories, and foundation myths. Finkelstein has also suggested that the story of Jephthah's vow may have been added into the story as late as the Hellenistic period. Some observers have noted the similarities between Jephthah and the mythical Cretan general, Idomeneus , as related by Servius

3636-498: The Fragment of Leipzig (c. AD 500). Scholars hold different opinions regarding whether any of the people named as judges existed. The basic source for Judges was a collection of loosely connected stories about tribal heroes who saved the people in battle. This original "book of saviours" made up of the stories of Ehud , Jael and parts of Gideon , had already been enlarged and transformed into "wars of Yahweh" before being given

3737-505: The Grammarian in his Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil . Idomeneus had asked the gods to calm a storm, promising in return that he would sacrifice the first living thing he saw upon his return, which turned out to be his son. The similarity has caused some to wonder if they share a common ancestor. A similar story about Meander is given by Pseudo-Plutarch . The story of Jephthah's daughter

3838-419: The Israelites is due to their turning to Canaanite gods, breaking the covenant and "doing evil in the sight of the lord". Further themes are present: the "sovereign freedom of Yahweh" (God does not always do what is expected of him); the " satirisation of foreign kings" (who consistently underestimate Israel and Yahweh); the concept of the "flawed agent" (judges who are not adequate to the task before them) and

3939-574: The Lord and did not serve him. So the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he sold them into the hand of the Philistines and into the hand of the Ammonites ...". Jephthah, having been born illegitimately, is driven out by his half-brothers and takes up his dwelling in Tob , east of Gilead. "Outlaws collected around Jephthah and went raiding with him." The elders of Gilead ask him to be their leader in

4040-408: The Lord's, and I will offer it up as a burnt offering"). As he explains the Hebrew prefix "ו" that is translated in the above passage as "and" is often used as a disjunctive, and means "or", when there is a second proposition. Indeed, this rendering is suggested in the margin of the A.V. Bullinger goes on to give examples from the Bible where the same word has been translated as "or". According to him,

4141-567: The Middle Ages discusses Rashi, either using his view as supporting evidence or debating against it. His commentary on the Talmud , which covers nearly all of the Babylonian Talmud, has been included in every edition of the Talmud since its first printing by Daniel Bomberg in the 1520s. His commentaries on the Tanakh —especially his commentary on the Chumash (the "Five Books of Moses")—serves as

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4242-405: The Talmud would have remained a closed book. Rashi's commentary had a profound influence on subsequent Talmud study and scholarship: The commentaries of Rashi democratized talmudic scholarship. Prior to his work, the only way to master a tractate was to travel to a talmudic academy and study at the feet of a master. No written work could systematically convey with any degree of sustained accuracy

4343-598: The Torah, the law, and other compilations. For example, in his writing regarding relations with the Christians, he provides a guide for how one should behave when dealing with martyrs and converts, as well as the "insults and terms of [disgrace] aimed at the Jews." Stemming from the aftermath of the Crusades, Rashi wrote concerning those who were forced to convert, and the rights women had when their husbands were killed. Rashi focused

4444-541: The acronym Rashi , was a French rabbi who authored comprehensive commentaries on the Talmud and Hebrew Bible . Born in Troyes , Rashi studied Torah studies in Worms under German rabbi Yaakov ben Yakar and French rabbi Isaac ben Eliezer Halevi , both of whom were pupils of the famed scholar Gershom ben Judah . After returning to Troyes, Rashi joined the beth din , began answering halakhic questions and later served as

4545-532: The authority of the judges comes not through prominent dynasties nor through elections or appointments, but rather through the Spirit of God. Anti-monarchist theology is most apparent toward the end of the Gideon cycle in which the Israelites beg Gideon to create a dynastic monarchy over them and Gideon refuses. The rest of Gideon's lifetime saw peace in the land, but after Gideon's death, his son Abimelech ruled Shechem as

4646-665: The basis of more than 300 "supercommentaries" which analyze Rashi's choice of language and citations, penned by some of the greatest names in rabbinic literature . Rashi's surname, Yitzhaki, derives from his father's name, Yitzhak. The acronym "Rashi" stands for Ra bbi Sh lomo Y itzhaki, but is sometimes fancifully expanded as Ra bban Sh el Y Israel which means the "Rabbi of Israel", or as Ra bbenu SheY ichyeh (Our Rabbi, may he live). He may be cited in Hebrew and Aramaic texts as (1) "Shlomo son of Rabbi Yitzhak", (2) "Shlomo son of Yitzhak", (3) "Shlomo Yitzhaki", and myriad similar highly respectful derivatives. In older literature, Rashi

4747-406: The birth of a noble son "who would illuminate the world with his Torah knowledge." Another legend also states that Rashi's parents moved to Worms, Germany while Rashi's mother was pregnant. As she walked down one of the narrow streets in the Jewish quarter, she was imperiled by two oncoming carriages. She turned and pressed herself against a wall, which opened to receive her. This miraculous niche

4848-509: The campaign against the Ammonites, but he holds out for a more permanent and a broader position, and the elders agree that, provided Jephthah succeeds in defeating Ammon, he will be their permanent chieftain. On behalf of Israel as a whole and in reliance on the might of God the Judge, Jephthah challenges the Ammonites. Jephthah swears an oath: ". . . and whatever [footnote: Or whoever ] comes out from

4949-662: The different cases and questions regarding Jewish life and law, but it shed light into the historical and social conditions which the Jews were under during the First Crusade. He covered the following topics and themes in his responsa: linguistic focus on texts, law related to prayer, food, and the Sabbath, wine produced by non-Jews, oaths and excommunications, sales, partnerships, loans and interest, bails, communal affairs, and civil law. Rashi's responsa can be broken down into three genres: questions by contemporary sages and students regarding

5050-593: The disunity of the Israelite community, which gathers pace as the stories succeed one another. The book is as intriguing for the themes it leaves out as for what it includes: the Ark of the Covenant , which is given so much importance in the stories of Moses and Joshua , is almost entirely missing, cooperation between the various tribes is limited, and there is no mention of a central shrine for worship and only limited reference to

5151-446: The division between the period of conquest and the period of occupation", the latter being the focus of the Book of Judges. The Israelites meet, probably at the sanctuary at Gilgal or at Shechem , and ask the Lord who should be first (in order of time, not of rank) to secure the land they are to occupy. The main text gives accounts of six major judges and their struggles against the oppressive kings of surrounding nations, as well as

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5252-498: The doors of my house to meet me when I return in peace from the Ammonites shall be the L ORD 's, and I will offer it [footnote: Or him ] up for a burnt offering . The victorious Jephthah is met on his return by his only child, a daughter . Jephthah tears his clothes and cries, "Alas, my daughter! You have brought me very low!" but is bound by his vow: "I have opened my mouth to the Lord, and I cannot take back my vow". The girl asks for two months' grace, "...that I may go up and down on

5353-403: The end of the book, certain characters (like Jonathan , the grandson of Moses ) and idioms present in the epilogue show that the events therein "must have taken place... early in the period of the judges." Judges contains a chronology of its events, assigning a number of years to each interval of judgment and peace. It is overtly schematic and was likely introduced at a later period. Four of

5454-440: The final Deuteronomistic revision. In the 20th century, the first part of the prologue (chapters 1:1–2:5) and the two parts of the epilogue (17–21) were commonly seen as miscellaneous collections of fragments tacked onto the main text, and the second part of the prologue (2:6–3:6) as an introduction composed expressly for the book. More recently, this view has been challenged, and there is an increasing willingness to see Judges as

5555-415: The first comprehensive commentary on the Talmud , covering nearly all of the Babylonian Talmud (a total of 30 out of 39 tractates , due to his death). The commentary, drawing on his knowledge of the entire contents of the Talmud, attempts to provide a full explanation of the words and of the logical structure of each Talmudic passage. Unlike other commentators, Rashi does not paraphrase or exclude any part of

5656-464: The foreign oppression. After a period of peace, the cycle recurs. Scholars also suggest that the Deuteronomists also included the humorous and sometimes disparaging commentary found in the book such as the story of the tribe of Ephraim who could not pronounce the word " shibboleth " correctly (12:5–6). The essence of Deuteronomistic theology is that Israel has entered into a covenant (a treaty,

5757-554: The great fairs in Troyes, Rashi was able to compare different manuscripts and readings in Tosefta , Jerusalem Talmud , Midrash , Targum , and the writings of the Geonim , and determine which readings should be preferred. However, in his humility, he deferred to scholars who disagreed with him. For example, in Chulin 4a, he comments about a phrase, "We do not read this. But as for those who do, this

5858-618: The great women in the Bible either are married to a great man or related to one. ... A rare exception to this tradition is the prophetess and judge Deborah, perhaps the Bible's greatest woman figure. Deborah stands exclusively on her own merits. The only thing we know about her personal life is the name of her husband, Lapidot. Original text Christian translations Articles Brief introduction Rashi Shlomo Yitzchaki ( Hebrew : רבי שלמה יצחקי ‎; Latin : Salomon Isaacides ; French : Salomon de Troyes ; c.  1040  – 13 July 1105), commonly known by

5959-428: The high priesthood was taken from him and temporarily given to the offspring of Ithamar , essentially Eli and his sons. Since at least the 12th or 13th century, Jewish scholars, among them the compiler and summarizer David Kimhi (1160–1235) and Levi Ben Gershon (1288–1344), have taken fulfilment of Jephthah's vow as meaning that he only kept her in seclusion. This view is put forward also by Christian scholars from

6060-556: The immortal prophet Elijah . According to tradition, Rashi was first brought to learn Torah by his father on Shavuot day at the age of five. His father was his main Torah teacher until his death when Rashi was still a youth. At the age of 17 he married and soon after went to learn in the yeshiva of Yaakov ben Yakar in Worms , returning to his wife three times yearly, for the Days of Awe , Passover and Shavuot . When Yaakov died in 1064, Rashi continued learning in Worms for another year in

6161-453: The judges in the order in which they appear in the text are: There are also brief glosses on six minor judges: Shamgar (Judges 3:31; after Ehud), Tola and Jair (10:1–5), Ibzan , Elon , and Abdon (12:8–15; after Jephthah). Some scholars have inferred that the minor judges were actual adjudicators, whereas the major judges were leaders and did not actually make legal judgements. The only major judge described as making legal judgments

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6262-453: The majority of his responsa, if not all, on a "meticulous analysis of the language of the text". Rashi wrote several selichot (penitential prayers), some of which are still recited today as part of the Jewish liturgy . These include: Other poems are sometimes falsely attributed to Rashi. The above list is probably not exhaustive, but no evidence exists to connect Rashi to other poems. Rashi

6363-432: The most in the 15th century; from the 17th century onwards, his commentaries were translated into many other languages. Rashi's commentary on the Pentateuch was known as the first printed Hebrew work. English translations include those of Rosenbaum and Silbermann and ArtScroll . Rashi's commentary on the Talmud continues to be a key basis for contemporary rabbinic scholarship and interpretation. Without Rashi's commentary,

6464-504: The mountains and weep for my virginity". And so Jephthah "did with her according to his vow that he had made". The story ends by recounting how "the daughters of Israel went year by year to lament the daughter of Jephthah, the Gileadite, four days in the year". Later, Jephthah was forced to fight against the Ephraimites , who refused to aid him in his struggle against the Ammonites. The story

6565-441: The oral traditions pertaining to the Talmud as they had been passed down for centuries, as well as an understanding of the Talmud's logic and forms of argument. Rashi took concise, copious notes from what he learned in yeshiva, incorporating this material in his commentaries. He was also greatly influenced by the exegetical principles of Menahem Kara . He returned to Troyes at the age of 25, after which time his mother died, and he

6666-433: The people are unfaithful to Yahweh and He therefore delivers them into the hands of their enemies; the people then repent and entreat Yahweh for mercy, which He sends in the form of a judge; the judge delivers the Israelites from oppression, but after a while they fall into unfaithfulness again and the cycle is repeated. Israel's apostasy is repeatedly invoked by the author as the cause of threats to Israel. The oppression of

6767-444: The precise line of a talmudic argument... With the appearance of Rashi’s work, anyone, regardless of means, could by dint of talent and effort master any talmudic topic. It further expanded the range of knowledge of most scholars. Previously, one knew accurately only what one had been fortunate to study at an academy... The lifelong study of Talmud, the constant conquest of new tractates, and the unlimited personal acquisition of knowledge

6868-447: The primary sources used in Luther 's translation of the Bible. He believed that Rashi's commentaries were the "official repository of Rabbinical tradition" and significant to understanding the Bible. Rashi's commentaries became significant to humanists at this time who studied grammar and exegesis. Christian Hebraists studied Rashi's commentaries as important interpretations "authorized by

6969-441: The problem that had confronted scholars for close to half a millennium—how to turn the abrupt and sometimes gnomic formulations of the Talmud into a coherent and smoothly flowing text—had been solved definitively by Rashi. The subsequent task of scholars, therefore, was to emend and add to his interpretations. In general, Rashi's commentary provides the peshat or literal meaning of the Talmud, while subsequent commentaries such as

7070-433: The right translation of this passage is: "whatever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return in peace from the people of Ammon, shall surely be the Lord's, or I will offer it up as a burnt offering." Jephthah's daughter, being the first that came out of the house, was thus, according to Bullinger, dedicated to God. He also says: In any case, it should have been unlawful, and repugnant to Jehovah, to offer

7171-520: The settlement of the land, Samuel the consolidation of the land and people under David , and Kings the destruction of kingship and loss of the land. The final tragedy described in Kings is the result of Israel's failure to uphold its part of the covenant: faithfulness to Yahweh brings success, economic, military and political, but unfaithfulness brings defeat and oppression. This is the theme played out in Judges:

7272-460: The shedding of his limbs, which are buried in numerous places, as is learned from Jud. 12:7: 'Then Jephthah the Gileadite died and he was buried in the towns of Gilead.' One limb would slough away and be buried in one location, and then another would fall off somewhere else and be buried there." Rashi also quotes the Midrash Rabba saying that he was punished for not going to the high priest to get

7373-406: The side of the page closest to the binding. Some of the other printed commentaries which are attributed to Rashi were composed by others, primarily his students. Akiva Eger stated that the commentary on Nazir was not in fact by Rashi, while Zvi Hirsch Chajes stated that the commentary on Taanit was not by Rashi. In some editions of the Talmud, the text indicates that Rashi died before completing

7474-520: The site of the cemetery, which lay under an open square in the city of Troyes. After this discovery, French Jews erected a large monument in the center of the square—a large, black and white globe featuring the three Hebrew letters of רשי artfully arranged counterclockwise in negative space, evoking the style of Hebrew microcalligraphy . The granite base of the monument is engraved: Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki — Commentator and Guide . In 2005, Yisroel Meir Gabbai erected an additional plaque at this site marking

7575-410: The spoken French language of his day, giving latter-day scholars a window into the vocabulary and pronunciation of Old French . Rashi's Talmud commentary spread quickly, reaching Jews as far as Yemen by mid-12th century. It has been included in every version of the Talmud since its first printing in the fifteenth century. It is always situated towards the middle of the opened book display; i.e., on

7676-462: The square as a burial ground. The plaque reads: " The place you are standing on is the cemetery of the town of Troyes. Many Rishonim are buried here, among them Rabbi Shlomo, known as Rashi the holy, may his merit protect us ". Rashi had no sons. All of his three children were girls, named Yocheved, Miriam and Rachel. He invested himself in their education; his writings and the legends which surround him suggest that his daughters were well-versed in

7777-530: The story as an example of how it is "sometimes contrary to duty to fulfill a promise, or to keep an oath". One midrash characterizes Yiftach (Jephthah) as a person of poor judgment, who makes "unfitting" vows without proper consideration for consequences ( B'reishit Rabbah , 60:3). Another midrash (Tanhuma Bechukotai 7) asserts that if Jephthah had read the laws of vows in the Torah, he would not have lost his daughter. The rabbis also ascribe Jephthah's death to his actions, as punishment: "Jephthah’s penalty consists of

7878-411: The story of Abimelech , an Israelite leader (a judge [shofet] in the sense of "chieftain") who oppresses his own people. The cyclical pattern set out in the prologue is readily apparent at the beginning, but as the stories progress it begins to disintegrate, mirroring the disintegration of the world of the Israelites. Although some scholars consider the stories not to be presented in chronological order,

7979-424: The story of Abraham and Isaac (Genesis 22) and Mesha of Moab and his son (2 Kings 3:27). Moreover, an ʿōlāh in the Hebrew Bible exemplifies a pure gift to the deity. Thus, Jephthah is not stating an alternative between dedicating something to God and offering it up as a burnt offering, but clearly linking the two. Adam Clarke 's Commentary has an exposition of the issues at stake in this passage and contends that

8080-497: The story was an integral part of the Deuteronomist picture of moral decline through adoption of non-Israelitic practices such as child sacrifice. Solomon Landers believed that the absence of express judgement implies that the sacrifice was not acceptable to God, notwithstanding the fact that the sacrifice nevertheless happened. Pseudo-Philo 's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum gives a name for Jephthah's daughter, Seila. Her character

8181-510: The subject of many legends. One tradition contends that his parents were childless for many years. Rashi's father, Yitzhak, a poor winemaker , once found a precious jewel and was approached by non-Jews who wished to buy it to adorn their idol. Yitzhak agreed to travel with them to their land, but en route, he cast the gem into the sea. Afterwards he was visited by either the Voice of God or the prophet Elijah , who told him that he would be rewarded with

8282-477: The text, but elucidates phrase by phrase. Often he provides punctuation in the unpunctuated text, explaining, for example, "This is a question"; "He says this in surprise", "He repeats this in agreement", etc. As in his commentary on the Tanakh, Rashi frequently illustrates the meaning of the text using analogies to the professions, crafts, and sports of his day. He also translates difficult Hebrew or Aramaic words into

8383-452: The time between the conquest described in the Book of Joshua and the establishment of a kingdom in the Books of Samuel , during which Biblical judges served as temporary leaders. The stories follow a consistent pattern: the people are unfaithful to Yahweh ; he therefore delivers them into the hands of their enemies; the people repent and entreat Yahweh for mercy, which he sends in the form of

8484-467: The tractate, and that it was completed by a student. This is true of Makkot (the end of which was composed by his son-in-law, Judah ben Nathan ), and of Bava Batra (finished, in a more detailed style, by his grandson the Rashbam ). The commentary attributed to Rashi on Horayot was thought by some to have been written by Judah ben Nathan, but evidence was uncovered indicating that the commentary on Horayot

8585-565: The vow Jephthah made was not as rash as it sounds. The Order of the Eastern Star refers to her as Adah. Israel Finkelstein has suggested that behind multiple and large-scale Deuteronomistic and post-Deuteronomistic additions and redactions, there may lie an oral story which reflects a conflict on the boundary between Israelite and Ammonite settlements in Transjordan, around the towns of Gilead and Mizpah. It may have been first written down in

8686-419: The vow annulled and was afflicted with an illness that caused his limbs to decompose off of his body at which point it would be buried where it fell thereby explaining the verse that said he was buried in the cities as opposed to city of Gilead. According to some rabbinical commentators, Phineas also sinned by failing to address the needs of relieving Jephthah of his vow to sacrifice his daughter. As consequence,

8787-438: The words of Scripture in a manner that fits in with them." In one place, he quotes a midrash and then states "But this midrash cannot be reconciled with Scripture for several reasons... Therefore I say: let scripture be reconciled according to its simple meaning, clearly, and the midrash may also be expounded, as is said: 'Is not My word... like a hammer which shatters the rock?' - it is divided into many fragments." Rashi wrote

8888-416: The work of a single individual, working by carefully selecting, reworking and positioning the source material to introduce and conclude his themes. Archaeologist Israel Finkelstein proposed that the author(s) of the "book of saviours" collected these folk tales in the time of King Jeroboam II to argue that the king's Nimshide origins, which appear to originate in the eastern Jezreel Valley , were part of

8989-503: The yeshiva of his relative, Isaac ben Eliezer Halevi , who was also chief rabbi of Worms. Then he moved to Mainz , where he studied under another of his relatives, Isaac ben Judah, the rabbinic head of Mainz and one of the leading sages of the Lorraine region straddling France and Germany. Rashi's teachers were students of Rabbeinu Gershom and Eliezer Hagadol , leading Talmudists of the previous generation. From his teachers, Rashi imbibed

9090-592: Was Simeon bar Isaac , rabbi of Mainz . Simon was a disciple of Gershom ben Judah , who died that same year. On his father's side, Rashi has been claimed to be a 33rd-generation descendant of Johanan HaSandlar , who was a fourth-generation descendant of Gamaliel , who was reputedly descended from the Davidic line . In his voluminous writings, Rashi himself made no such claim at all. The main early rabbinical source about his ancestry, Responsum No. 29 by Solomon Luria , makes no such claim either. His fame later made him

9191-546: Was Rashi's commentary on the Chumash, printed by Abraham ben Garton in Reggio di Calabria , Italy , 18 February 1475. (This version did not include the text of the Chumash itself.) Rashi wrote commentaries on all the books of Tanakh except Chronicles I & II , and Ezra–Nehemiah . His commentary to Job is incomplete, ending at 40:25. A main characteristic of Rashi's writing was his focus on grammar and syntax. His primary focus

9292-414: Was about to perform a divinely ordered sacrifice of his son, when an angel of God directly intervened and stopped the sacrifice. Some writers have observed that the Israelites of the time widely disrespected Mosaic law , which forbade human sacrifice; and that there are several other examples of rash vows , some with similarly terrible consequences (for instance 2 Samuel 21:6–9 ). David Janzen argued that

9393-579: Was asked to join the Troyes Beth din (rabbinical court). He also began answering halakhic questions. Upon the death of the head of the Bet din , Zerach ben Abraham , Rashi assumed the court's leadership and answered hundreds of halakhic queries. At some time around 1070 he founded a yeshiva which attracted many disciples. It is thought by some that Rashi earned his living as a vintner since Rashi shows an extensive knowledge of its utensils and process, but there

9494-585: Was buried in Ajloun , a town in present-day Jordan. The story of Jephthah has influenced a number of literary works. Book of Judges#Main text The Book of Judges ( Hebrew : ספר שופטים , romanized :  Sefer Shoftim ; Greek : Κριταί ; Latin : Liber Iudicum ) is the seventh book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament . In the narrative of the Hebrew Bible, it covers

9595-1015: Was from the school of Gershom ben Judah . There is a legend that the commentary on Nedarim, which is clearly not his, was actually composed by his daughters. Another legend states that Rashi died while writing a commentary on Talmud, and that the very last word he wrote was 'tahor,' which means pure in Hebrew - indicating that his soul was pure as it left his body. About 300 of Rashi's responsa and halakhic decisions are extant. Although some may find contradictory to Rashi's intended purpose for his writings, these responsa were copied, preserved, and published by his students, grandchildren, and other future scholars. Siddur Rashi , compiled by an unknown student, also contains Rashi's responsa on prayer. Many other rulings and responsa are recorded in Mahzor Vitry . Other compilations include Sefer Hapardes , probably edited by Shemaiah of Troyes, Rashi's student, and Sefer Haorah , prepared by Nathan Hamachiri. Rashi's writing

9696-406: Was in many ways the consequence of Rashi’s inimitable work of exposition. The presence of Rashi's commentary also changed the nature of subsequent Talmud commentaries: This is not to say that Rashi’s explanations were definitive. Far from it. For some three hundred years scholars scrutinized his commentary, criticized innumerable passages, and demanded their reinterpretation. Yet, all realized that

9797-413: Was on word choice, and "essentially [he acts] as a dictionary where he defines unusual Hebrew words." He searches for things that may not be clear to the reader and offers clarification on the inconsistency that may be present. Rashi does so by "filling in missing information that [helps] lead to a more complete understanding" of the Torah. A portion of his writing is dedicated to making distinctions between

9898-513: Was one of the first authors to write in Old French (the language he spoke in everyday life, which he used alongside Hebrew), as most contemporary French authors instead wrote in Latin . As a consequence, besides its religious value, his work is valued for the insight it gives into the language and culture of Northern France in the 11th century. His commentaries on the Tanakh —especially his commentary on

9999-406: Was then revised and expanded to create a second edition, that identified by Noth, and which Cross labelled Dtr2. Scholars agree that the Deuteronomists' hand can be seen in Judges through the book's cyclical nature: the Israelites fall into idolatry, God punishes them for their sins with oppression by foreign peoples, the Israelites cry out to God for help, and God sends a judge to deliver them from

10100-478: Was unknown to the Jews. Bernardo de Rossi , however, demonstrated that Hebrew scholars also referred to Rashi as Yarhi. In 1839, Leopold Zunz showed that the Hebrew usage of Jarchi was an erroneous propagation of the error by Christian writers, instead he interpreted the abbreviation as: R abbi Sh lomo Y itzhaki. The evolution of this term has been thoroughly traced. Rashi was an only child born at Troyes , Champagne , in northern France. His mother's brother

10201-578: Was worked out in accordance with the theology expressed in the book of Deuteronomy (which thus provides the name "Deuteronomistic"). Noth believed that this history was the work of a single author, living in the mid-6th century BCE, selecting, editing and composing from his sources to produce a coherent work. Frank Moore Cross later proposed that an early version of the history was composed in Jerusalem in Josiah 's time (late 7th century BCE); this first version, Dtr1,

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