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113-650: The National Solar Mission is an initiative of the Government of India and State Governments to promote solar power. The mission is one of the several policies of the National Action Plan on Climate Change . The program was inaugurated as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission by former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 11 January 2010 with a target of 20 GW by 2022. This was later increased to 100 GW by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in

226-454: A writ petition at the filing counter of the court or by addressing a letter to the Chief Justice of India , highlighting the question of public importance for redress. These are known as public interest litigations . India has a quasi-federal form of government, called "union" or "central" government, with elected officials at the union, state and local levels. At the national level,

339-555: A NDA -led government (a coalition of the BJP and its allies) since 2014. The prime minister and their senior ministers belong to the Union Council of Ministers —its executive decision-making committee being the cabinet . The government, seated in New Delhi , has three primary branches: the legislative, the executive and the judiciary, whose powers are vested in a bicameral Parliament ,

452-470: A Prime Minister and a Governor-General as the viceregal representative of the head of state, George VI . Its unicameral legislature, the Constituent Assembly , was tasked with drafting the country's constitution. The Constitution of India came into effect on 26 January 1950 , making India a republic with a president as head of state, replacing the monarch and his viceregal representative,

565-478: A fluidized bed reactor . The photovoltaic industry also produces upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon (UMG-Si), using metallurgical instead of chemical purification processes. When produced for the electronics industry, polysilicon contains impurity levels of less than one part per billion (ppb), while polycrystalline solar grade silicon (SoG-Si) is generally less pure. In the 2010's, production shifted toward China, with China-based companies accounting for seven of

678-508: A prime minister , and the Supreme Court respectively, with a president as head of state. The Council of Ministers are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from fellow members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the directly elected Lok Sabha rather than the (mostly) indirectly elected Rajya Sabha . As

791-600: A complaint at World Trade Organization challenging India's domestic content requirements in Phase II of this Mission, citing discrimination against US exports and that industry in US which has invested hugely will be at loss. US insists that such restrictions are prohibited by WTO. India however claims that it is only an attempt to grow local potential and to ensure self sustenance and reduce dependence Government of India The Government of India ( ISO : Bhārata Sarakāra, legally

904-462: A consequence, in 2013 it imposed import tariffs of as much as 57 percent on polysilicon shipped from these two countries in order to stop the product from being sold below cost. Due to the rapid growth in manufacturing in China and the lack of regulatory controls, there have been reports of the dumping of waste silicon tetrachloride . Normally the waste silicon tetrachloride is recycled but this adds to

1017-550: A constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it holds the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha . The President is responsible for appointing many high officials in India. These high officials include the governors of the 28 states ; the chief justice ; other judges of the supreme court and high courts on the advice of other judges;

1130-542: A controlled/planned environment to force developers to purchase modules from a small, albeit growing, group of module manufacturers in India. Manufacturers want to avoid competition with global players and are lobbying the government to incentivise growth of local industry. Market responded to domestic content requirement by choosing to procure thin film modules from well established international players. A significant number of announced project completions are using modules from outside India. US Trade Representative has filed

1243-525: A cost-effective and faster alternative for producing solar-grade poly-Si thin films. Modules produced by such method are shown to have a photovoltaic efficiency of ~6%. Polysilicon doping, if needed, is also done during the deposition process, usually by adding phosphine, arsine, or diborane. Adding phosphine or arsine results in slower deposition, while adding diborane increases the deposition rate. The deposition thickness uniformity usually degrades when dopants are added during deposition. The Siemens process

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1356-502: A crystal grain size smaller than the device feature size is needed for homogeneity of the devices. Another method to produce poly-Si at low temperatures is metal-induced crystallization where an amorphous-Si thin film can be crystallized at temperatures as low as 150 °C if annealed while in contact of another metal film such as aluminium , gold , or silver . Polysilicon has many applications in VLSI manufacturing. One of its primary uses

1469-505: A foothold in India. A few technology providers like Abengoa have some Indian presence in anticipation of demand from this mission. NVVN issued Request for Selection notice for allotment of capacity to Independent Power Producers (IPPs). See NVVN Solar PV RfS . 150MWs of Solar PV and 470MW of Solar Thermal were up for allotment under the first batch of Phase 1 projects. Project size per IPP was fixed at 5MW for Solar PV and 100MW for Solar Thermal projects. To avoid allocating entire capacity to

1582-500: A low-pressure reactor either by changing the pumping speed or changing the inlet gas flow into the reactor. If the inlet gas is composed of both silane and nitrogen, the inlet gas flow, and hence the reactor pressure, may be varied either by changing the nitrogen flow at constant silane flow, or changing both the nitrogen and silane flow to change the total gas flow while keeping the gas ratio constant. Recent investigations have shown that e-beam evaporation, followed by SPC (if needed) can be

1695-478: A member of one of the houses of the parliament. The cabinet is headed by the prime minister , and is advised by the cabinet secretary , who also acts as the head of the Indian Administrative Service and other civil services. Other members of the council are either union cabinet ministers, who are heads of various ministries; or ministers of state, who are junior members who report directly to one of

1808-608: A minimum capacity of 500 MW. Guidelines for the solar mission mandated cells and modules for solar PV projects based on crystalline silicon to be manufactured in India. That accounts to over 60% of total system costs. For solar thermal, guidelines mandated 30% project to have domestic content. A vigorous controversy emerged between power project developers and solar PV equipment manufacturers. The former camp prefers to source modules by accessing highly competitive global market to attain flexible pricing, better quality, predictable delivery and use of latest technologies. The latter camp prefers

1921-453: A minimum temperature, however, wherein the rate of deposition becomes faster than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives at the surface. Beyond this temperature, the deposition rate can no longer increase with temperature, since it is now being hampered by lack of silane from which the polysilicon will be generated. Such a reaction is then said to be "mass-transport-limited". When a polysilicon deposition process becomes mass-transport-limited,

2034-512: A more efficient semiconductor than polycrystalline as it has undergone additional recrystallization via the Czochralski method. Polysilicon deposition, or the process of depositing a layer of polycrystalline silicon on a semiconductor wafer, is achieved by the chemical decomposition of silane (SiH 4 ) at high temperatures of 580 to 650 °C. This pyrolysis process releases hydrogen. Polysilicon layers can be deposited using 100% silane at

2147-629: A power station. The issue of efficiency versus cost is a value decision of whether one requires an "energy dense" solar cell or sufficient area is available for the installation of less expensive alternatives. For instance, a solar cell used for power generation in a remote location might require a more highly efficient solar cell than one used for low-power applications, such as solar accent lighting or pocket calculators, or near established power grids. Polysilicon production by country in 2013 (company head-quarter, not location of facility). World total of 227,000 tonnes. The polysilicon manufacturing market

2260-474: A pressure of 25–130 Pa (0.19–0.98 Torr) or with 20–30% silane (diluted in nitrogen) at the same total pressure. Both of these processes can deposit polysilicon on 10–200 wafers per run, at a rate of 10–20 nm/min and with thickness uniformities of ±5%. Critical process variables for polysilicon deposition include temperature, pressure, silane concentration, and dopant concentration. Wafer spacing and load size have been shown to have only minor effects on

2373-471: A quarter of the 543 elected members of parliament had been charged with crimes, including murder. Many of the biggest scandals since 2010 have involved high-level government officials, including cabinet ministers and chief ministers, such as the 2010 Commonwealth Games scam ( ₹ 700 billion (equivalent to ₹ 1.6 trillion or US$ 19 billion in 2023)), the Adarsh Housing Society scam ,

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2486-441: A select few corporate, guidelines required no two projects to have the same parent company or common shareholders. In case of over subscription, a reverse bidding process was to be used to select the final IPPs based on lowest tariff they offer. Several hundred IPPs responded to this RfS. The approach for reverse bidding and methodology to calculate the discount to be offered was presented by Shri Shakti Alternative Energy Ltd through

2599-507: A vote in the house where he is not a member. A secretary to the Government of India , a civil servant , generally an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, is the administrative head of the ministry or department, and is the principal adviser to the minister on all matters of policy and administration within the ministry/department. Secretaries to the Government of India rank 23rd on Indian order of precedence . Secretaries at

2712-441: A webinar on 19 October 2010 on the eve of the reverse bidding by NVVN Download presentation on Reverse Bidding by NVVN – What to Expect . The quantum of discount would depend on project site location (i.e. solar radiation), technology used, simulated energy generation, capital cost and interest cost. Multivariate analysis was carried out using key variables like capital cost, interest and the capacity utilization factor (i.e. CUF which

2825-530: A whole is responsible to the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha is a temporary house and can be dissolved only when the party in power loses the support of the majority of the house. The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and can never be dissolved. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for a six-year term. The executive of government is the one that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of

2938-475: Is bicameral in nature, with the Lok Sabha being the lower house , and the Rajya Sabha the upper house . The judiciary systematically contains an apex supreme court , 25 high courts , and hundreds of district courts , all subordinate to the supreme court. The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major parliamentary legislation, such as the civil procedure code ,

3051-400: Is a material consisting of multiple small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline cells can be recognized by a visible grain, a "metal flake effect". Semiconductor grade (also solar grade) polycrystalline silicon is converted to single-crystal silicon – meaning that the randomly associated crystallites of silicon in polycrystalline silicon are converted to a large single crystal. Single-crystal silicon

3164-671: Is a type of chemical vapor deposition process. Upgraded metallurgical-grade (UMG) silicon (also known as UMG-Si) for solar cells is being produced as a low cost alternative to polysilicon created by the Siemens process . UMG-Si greatly reduces impurities in a variety of ways that require less equipment and energy than the Siemens process. It is about 99% pure which is three or more orders of magnitude less pure and about 10 times less expensive than polysilicon ($ 1.70 to $ 3.20 per kg from 2005 to 2008 compared to $ 40 to $ 400 per kg for polysilicon). It has

3277-439: Is actual generation of the plant and depends on the location (radiation) and technology used) to calculate the levelized tariff for a target equity IRR based on which the discount to be offered can be determined. The final 30 solar PV projects selected had bids between INR 10.95 to INR 12.75. The Solar Thermal projects selected had bids between INR 10.24 to INR 12.24. PPAs were signed with IPPs in early January. In December 2014,

3390-457: Is as gate electrode material for MOS devices. A polysilicon gate's electrical conductivity may be increased by depositing a metal (such as tungsten) or a metal silicide (such as tungsten silicide) over the gate. Polysilicon may also be employed as a resistor, a conductor, or as an ohmic contact for shallow junctions, with the desired electrical conductivity attained by doping the polysilicon material. One major difference between polysilicon and a-Si

3503-404: Is commonly used for the conducting gate materials in semiconductor devices such as MOSFETs ; however, it has potential for large-scale photovoltaic devices. The abundance, stability, and low toxicity of silicon, combined with the low cost of polysilicon relative to single crystals makes this variety of material attractive for photovoltaic production. Grain size has been shown to have an effect on

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3616-460: Is considered the lower house . The parliament does not have complete control and sovereignty , as its laws are subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court . However, it does exercise some control over the executive . The members of the Council of Ministers , including the prime minister , are either chosen from parliament or elected there within six months of assuming office. The council as

3729-534: Is growing rapidly. According to Digitimes , in July 2011, the total polysilicon production in 2010 was 209,000 tons. First-tier suppliers account for 64% of the market while China-based polysilicon firms have 30% of market share. The total production is likely to increase 37.4% to 281,000 tons by end of 2011. For 2012, EETimes Asia predicts 328,000 tons production with only 196,000 tons of demand, with spot prices expected to fall 56%. While good for renewable energy prospects,

3842-492: Is in hands of a subsidiary of National Thermal Power Corporation , the largest power producer in India. The subsidiary, NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Ltd (NVVN), laid out guidelines for selection of developers for commissioning grid connected solar power projects in India. See JNNSM Phase 1 Guidelines . While NVVN is the public face of this phase, several other departments and ministries will play a significant role in formulating guidelines. NVVN will sign power purchase agreements with

3955-404: Is motivated by the desire to be able to manufacture digital displays on flexible screens. Therefore, a relatively new technique called laser crystallization has been devised to crystallize a precursor amorphous silicon (a-Si) material on a plastic substrate without melting or damaging the plastic. Short, high-intensity ultraviolet laser pulses are used to heat the deposited a-Si material to above

4068-530: Is one single, continuous and unbroken crystal as its structure contains no grain boundaries . Large single crystals are rare in nature and can also be difficult to produce in the laboratory (see also recrystallisation ). In contrast, in an amorphous structure the order in atomic positions is limited to short range. Polycrystalline and paracrystalline phases are composed of a number of smaller crystals or crystallites . Polycrystalline silicon (or semi-crystalline silicon, polysilicon, poly-Si, or simply "poly")

4181-416: Is that the mobility of the charge carriers of the polysilicon can be orders of magnitude larger and the material also shows greater stability under electric field and light-induced stress. This allows more complex, high-speed circuitry to be created on the glass substrate along with the a-Si devices, which are still needed for their low- leakage characteristics. When polysilicon and a-Si devices are used in

4294-575: Is the ex-officio head of the Civil Services Board, the Cabinet Secretariat , the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and the head of all civil services under the rules of business of the government. The cabinet secretary is generally the senior-most officer of the Indian Administrative Service . The cabinet secretary ranks 11th on the Indian order of precedence . The cabinet secretary

4407-411: Is the case in most parliamentary systems, the government is dependent on Parliament to legislate, and general elections are held every five years to elect a new Lok Sabha . The most recent election was in 2024 . After an election, the president selects as prime minister the leader of the party or alliance most likely to command the confidence of the majority of the Lok Sabha . In the event that

4520-403: Is the chief executive of the government and the leader of the majority party that holds a majority in the Lok Sabha. The prime minister leads the executive of the Government of India. The prime minister is the senior member of the cabinet in the executive government in a parliamentary system. The prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet; allocates posts to members within

4633-401: Is the most commonly used method of polysilicon production, especially for electronics, with close to 75% of the world's production using this process as of 2005. The process converts metallurgical-grade Si , of approximately 98% purity, to SiHCl 3 and then to silicon in a reactor, thus removing transition metal and dopant impurities. The process is relatively expensive and slow. It

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4746-584: Is to act following aid and advice tendered by the Prime Minister, who leads the Council of Ministers as described in Article 74 of the Constitution . The council of ministers remains in power during the 'pleasure' of the president. However, in practice, the council of ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a president were to dismiss the council of ministers on his or her initiative, it might trigger

4859-509: Is under the direct charge of the prime minister . Presently, the Cabinet Secretary of India is Rajiv Gauba , IAS . India's independent union judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries . The Supreme Court of India consists of the chief justice and 33 associate justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of

4972-510: Is used to manufacture most Si-based microelectronic devices. Polycrystalline silicon can be as much as 99.9999% pure. Ultra-pure poly is used in the semiconductor industry, starting from poly rods that are two to three meters in length. In the microelectronics industry (semiconductor industry), poly is used at both the macro and micro scales. Single crystals are grown using the Czochralski , zone melting and Bridgman–Stockbarger methods. At

5085-693: Is yet unclear which companies will be able to produce at costs low enough to be profitable after the steep drop in spot-prices of the last months. Wacker's projected its total hyperpure-polysilicon production capacity to increase to 67,000 metric tons by 2014, due to its new polysilicon-production facility in Cleveland, Tennessee (US) with an annual capacity of 15,000 metric tons. Prices of polysilicon are often divided into two categories, contract and spot prices, and higher purity commands higher prices. While in booming installation times, price rally occurs in polysilicon. Not only spot prices surpass contract prices in

5198-477: The 2015 Union budget of India . India increased its utility solar power generation capacity by nearly 5 times from 2,650 MW on 26 May 2014 to 12,288.83 MW on 31 March 2017. The country added 9,362.65 MW in 2017–18, the highest of any year. The original target of 20 GW was surpassed in 2018 (counting only utility installed capacity), four years ahead of the 2022 deadline. India had a total rooftop solar installed capacity of 6.1 GW as of 30 June 2021. The objective of

5311-481: The Chief Justice of India and 33 sanctioned other judges, it has extensive powers in the form of original , appellate and advisory jurisdictions . As the final court of appeal of the country, it takes up appeals primarily against verdicts of the high courts of various states of the Union and other courts and tribunals. It safeguards fundamental rights of citizens and settles disputes between various governments in

5424-496: The Chief Justice of India . The jury trials were abolished in India in the early 1960s, after the famous case KM Nanavati v. the State of Maharashtra , for reasons of being vulnerable to media and public pressure, as well as to being misled. Unlike its United States counterpart, the Indian justice system consists of a unitary system at both state and union levels. The judiciary consists of

5537-637: The Coal Mining Scam ( ₹ 1.86 trillion (equivalent to ₹ 4.2 trillion or US$ 50 billion in 2023)), the mining scandal in Karnataka and the cash-for-votes scandal . Polycrystalline silicon Polysilicon is produced from metallurgical grade silicon by a chemical purification process, called the Siemens process . This process involves distillation of volatile silicon compounds, and their decomposition into silicon at high temperatures. An emerging, alternative process of refinement uses

5650-569: The Council of State of 60 members (of which 34 were elected and 26 nominated). The next structural modification to the governance of British India , the Government of India Act 1935 (the longest Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom until surpassed by the Greater London Authority Act 1999 ) was aimed at devolution of powers by establishing provincial governments and the creation of civil service institutions . However, it

5763-526: The Governor-General . It was based in large part on the Government of India Act 1935 , which was itself based on the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom . It also drew notable inspirations from the constitutions of several other Commonwealth dominions and the French , Soviet , Japanese , German and American constitutions. India today prides itself in being the world's largest democracy , and

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5876-478: The Indian Armed Forces . The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person once, particularly in cases involving the punishment of death. The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the president exercises his or her executive powers on

5989-478: The Supreme Court of India , high courts at the state level, and district courts and Sessions Courts at the district level. The Supreme Court of India is situated in New Delhi , the capital region of India . The Supreme Court is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal under the Constitution of India , the highest constitutional court, with the power of constitutional review . Consisting of

6102-641: The Union Government or Union of India and colloquially known as the Central Government ) is the government of the Republic of India , located in South Asia , consisting of 36 states and union territories . The government is led by the prime minister (currently Narendra Modi since 26 May 2014) who exercises the most executive power and selects all the other ministers . The country has been governed by

6215-550: The attorney general ; the comptroller and auditor general ; the chief election commissioner and other election commissioners ; the chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission ; the officers of the All India Services ( IAS , IFoS and IPS ) and Central Civil Services in group 'A'; officers of the Indian Armed Forces ; and the ambassadors and high commissioners to other countries on

6328-473: The constitution empowers the union government to levy income tax , tax on capital transactions ( wealth tax , inheritance tax ), sales tax , service tax, customs and excise duties and the state governments to levy sales tax on intrastate sale of goods, taxon entertainment and professions , excise duties on manufacture of alcohol , stamp duties on transfer of property and collect land revenue (levy on land owned). The local governments are empowered by

6441-421: The executive , the legislature , and the judiciary , and powers are vested by the constitution in the prime minister , parliament , and the supreme court , respectively. The president of India is the head of state and the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces , while the elected prime minister acts as the head of the executive and is responsible for running the Union government. Parliament

6554-460: The fast-growing PV market and consume most of the worldwide produced polysilicon. About 5 tons of polysilicon is required to manufacture one 1 megawatt (MW) of conventional solar modules. Polysilicon is distinct from monocrystalline silicon and amorphous silicon . In single-crystal silicon, also known as monocrystalline silicon , the crystalline framework is homogeneous, which can be recognized by an even external colouring. The entire sample

6667-516: The head of government , the prime minister , is appointed by the president of India from the party or coalition that has the majority of seats in the Lok Sabha . The members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected for a term of five years by universal adult suffrage through a first-past-the-post voting system. Members of the Rajya Sabha , which represents the states , are elected by the members of State legislative assemblies by proportional representation , except for 12 members who are nominated by

6780-472: The penal code , and the criminal procedure code . Similar to the Union government, individual state governments each consist of executive, legislative and judiciary branches. The legal system as applicable to the Union and individual state governments is based on the English common and Statutory Law . The full name of the country is the Republic of India . India and Bharat are equally official short names for

6893-646: The prime minister is not a member of either House upon appointment, he/she is given six months to be elected to either House of Parliament . The first seeds of responsible government during British colonial rule in India were sown by the Indian Councils Act 1909 , commonly known as the Morley - Minto reforms. The Act introduced elections to the Imperial Legislative Council (then the unicameral Legislature for British India). Before that, governance

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7006-537: The 12th five-year plan. The second phase extended up to 2017, while the third phase would have been the 13th five-year plan (2017–22). Targets were set as 1.4 GW in the first phase, 11–15 GW by the end of the second phase and 22 GW by the end of the third phase in 2022. The Government revised the target from 20 GW to 100 GW on 1 July 2015. To reach 100 GW by 2022, the yearly targets from 2015 to 2016 onwards were also revised upwards. India had an installed solar capacity of 161 MW on 31 March 2010, about 2 and half months after

7119-463: The 4th largest economy in the world. Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world's new nations. The Government of India is modelled after the Westminster system . The Union government is mainly composed of

7232-494: The FIT policies of Italy. The solar PV price survey and market research firm, PVinsights, reported that the prices of polysilicon might be dragged down by lack of installation in the second half of 2011. As recently as 2008 prices were over $ 400/kg spiking from levels around $ 200/kg, while seen falling to $ 15/kg in 2013. The Chinese government accused United States and South Korean manufacturers of predatory pricing or "dumping" . As

7345-473: The Government of India introduced a scheme to establish at least 25 solar parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects to add over 20 GW of installed solar power capacity. The Central Government provides financial support for the construction of these solar projects. As of December 2016, the Central Government has provided in-principle approval to set up 34 solar parks across 21 states. Each power project has

7458-462: The Government; is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet and is responsible for bringing a proposal of legislation. The resignation or death of the prime minister dissolves the cabinet. The prime minister is appointed by the president to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive. The Union Council of Ministers includes the prime minister, Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). Each minister must be

7571-479: The National Solar Mission is to establish India as a global leader in solar energy , by creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly as possible. Under the original plan, the Government aimed to achieve a total installed solar capacity of 20 GW by 2022. This was proposed to be achieved in three phase. The first phase comprised the period from 2010 to 2013, the first year of

7684-446: The National Solar Mission. All capacities are as on 31 March of the listed year. India had a total rooftop solar installed capacity of 6.1 GW as of 30 June 2021. The country added 862 MW of rooftop solar capacity during the first half of 2021, recording a 210% increase over the same period in 2020. The first phase of this mission aims to commission 1000 MW of grid-connected solar power projects by 2013. The implementation of this phase

7797-634: The Phase 1. See Solar Thermal RFS , Solar PV RfS A growing solar PV industry in India is hoping to take off by supplying equipment to power project developers. Well known equipment manufacturers started increasing their presence in India and may give competition to local Indian manufacturers. Due to generally high temperatures in India, crystalline silicon -based products are not the most ideal ones. Thin film technologies like amorphous silicon , CIGS and CdTe could be more suitable for higher temperature situations. Solar thermal technology providers barely have

7910-479: The Republic of India in the Constitution, and both names appears on legal banknotes, in treaties and in legal cases. The terms "Union government", "central government" and " bhārat sarkār " are often used officially and unofficially to refer to the government of India. The term New Delhi is commonly used as a metonym for the Union government, as the seat of the central government is in New Delhi . The powers of

8023-473: The Siemens process. GT Solar claims a new Siemens process can produce at $ 27/kg and may reach $ 20/kg in 5 years. GCL-Poly expects production costs to be $ 20/kg by end of 2011. Elkem Solar estimates their UMG costs to be $ 25/kg, with a capacity of 6,000 tonnes by the end of 2010. Calisolar expects UMG technology to produce at $ 12/kg in 5 years with boron at 0.3 ppm and phosphorus at 0.6 ppm. At $ 50/kg and 7.5 g/W, module manufacturers spend $ 0.37/W for

8136-498: The active and/or doped layers in thin-film transistors . Although it can be deposited by LPCVD , plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD), or solid-phase crystallization of amorphous silicon in certain processing regimes, these processes still require relatively high temperatures of at least 300 °C. These temperatures make deposition of polysilicon possible for glass substrates but not for plastic substrates. The deposition of polycrystalline silicon on plastic substrates

8249-488: The advice of the prime minister. Presently, the President of India is Droupadi Murmu . The vice president is the second-highest constitutional position in India after the president. The vice president represents the nation in the absence of the president and takes charge as acting president in the incident of resignation impeachment or removal of the president. The vice president also has the legislative function of acting as

8362-526: The budget will be presented on the 1st day of February. The budget has to be passed by the Lok Sabha before it can come into effect on 1 April, the start of India's fiscal year . The Union budget is preceded by an economic survey which outlines the broad direction of the budget and the economic performance of the country for the outgoing financial year India's non-development revenue expenditure had increased nearly five-fold in 2003–04 since 1990–91 and more than tenfold from 1985 to 1986. Interest payments are

8475-431: The cabinet ministers, often overseeing a specific aspect of government; or ministers of state (independent charges), who do not report to a cabinet minister. As per article 88 of the constitution, every minister shall have the right to speak in, and to take part in the proceedings of, either house, any joint sitting of the houses, and any committee of parliament of which he may be named a member, but shall not be entitled to

8588-422: The chairman of the Rajya Sabha . The vice president is elected indirectly by members of an electoral college consisting of the members of both the houses of the parliament following the system of proportional representation employing the single transferable vote and the voting is by secret ballot conducted by the election commission . The Prime Minister of India , as addressed in the Constitution of India ,

8701-449: The component level, polysilicon has long been used as the conducting gate material in MOSFET and CMOS processing technologies. For these technologies it is deposited using low-pressure chemical-vapour deposition ( LPCVD ) reactors at high temperatures and is usually heavily doped n-type or p-type . More recently, intrinsic and doped polysilicon is being used in large-area electronics as

8814-410: The cost. Not requiring a silicon wafer alleviates the silicon shortages occasionally faced by the microelectronics industry. An example of not using a silicon wafer is crystalline silicon on glass (CSG) materials A primary concern in the photovoltaics industry is cell efficiency. However, sufficient cost savings from cell manufacturing can be suitable to offset reduced efficiency in the field, such as

8927-400: The country. As an advisory court, it hears matters which may specifically be referred to it under the constitution by the president. It also may take cognisance of matters on its own (or 'suo moto'), without anyone drawing its attention to them. The law declared by the supreme court becomes binding on all courts within India and also by the union and state governments. Per Article 142 , it is

9040-495: The deposition process. The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature, since it follows Arrhenius behavior, that is deposition rate = A·exp(–qE a /kT) where q is electron charge and k is the Boltzmann constant . The activation energy (E a ) for polysilicon deposition is about 1.7 eV. Based on this equation, the rate of polysilicon deposition increases as the deposition temperature increases. There will be

9153-660: The developers. Since NVVN is not a utility , it will sell purchased power to different state utilities via separate agreements. For Phase 1 projects, NVVN started with a proposal for 50:50 allocation towards solar PV and solar thermal . The latter is quite ambitious given India has no operational solar thermal projects and less than 10MW of solar PV projects. While growing at a rapid pace lately, solar thermal technologies are still evolving globally. The first batch of projects allotted for Phase 1 included 150MW of Solar PV and 500MW of Solar Thermal. NVVN issued Request for Selection document outlining criteria for selection of projects under

9266-471: The duty of the president to enforce the decrees of the supreme court. In addition, Article 32 of the constitution gives an extensive original jurisdiction to the supreme court concerning enforcing fundamental rights. It is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus , mandamus , prohibition , quo warranto and certiorari to enforce them. The supreme court has been conferred with power to direct

9379-410: The efficiency of polycrystalline solar cells. Solar cell efficiency increases with grain size. This effect is due to reduced recombination in the solar cell. Recombination, which is a limiting factor for current in a solar cell, occurs more prevalently at grain boundaries, see figure 1. The resistivity, mobility, and free-carrier concentration in monocrystalline silicon vary with doping concentration of

9492-416: The higher level are assisted by one or many additional secretaries , who are further assisted by joint secretaries . At the middle they are assisted by directors/deputy secretaries and under secretaries. At the lower level, there are section officers, assistant section officers, upper division clerks, lower division clerks and other secretarial staff. The Civil Services of India are the civil services and

9605-509: The legislature in India are exercised by the Parliament , a bicameral legislature consisting of the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha . Of the two houses of parliament, the Rajya Sabha (or the 'Council of States') is considered to be the upper house and consists of members appointed by the president and elected by the state and territorial legislatures . The Lok Sabha (or the 'House of the People')

9718-495: The logarithm of the deposition rate against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature in the surface-reaction-limited region results in a straight line whose slope is equal to –qE a /k. At reduced pressure levels for VLSI manufacturing, polysilicon deposition rate below 575 °C is too slow to be practical. Above 650 °C, poor deposition uniformity and excessive roughness will be encountered due to unwanted gas-phase reactions and silane depletion. Pressure can be varied inside

9831-426: The market; but it is also hard to acquire enough polysilicon. Buyers will accept down payment and long-term agreements to acquire a large enough volume of polysilicon. On the contrary, spot prices will be below contract prices once the solar PV installation is in a down trend. In late 2010, booming installation brought up the spot prices of polysilicon. In the first half of 2011, prices of polysilicon kept strong owing to

9944-435: The melting point of silicon, without melting the entire substrate. The molten silicon will then crystallize as it cools. By precisely controlling the temperature gradients, researchers have been able to grow very large grains, of up to hundreds of micrometers in size in the extreme case, although grain sizes of 10 nanometers to 1 micrometer are also common. In order to create devices on polysilicon over large-areas, however,

10057-449: The mission was launched on 11 January. By 31 March 2015, three months before the targets were revised, India had achieved an installed solar capacity of 3,744 MW. To meet the scaled up target of 100,000 MW, MNRE has proposed to achieve it through 60 GW of large and medium scale solar projects, and 40 GW through rooftop solar projects. The following table records the growth of the utilities installed solar capacity in India for every year of

10170-402: The people themselves. But the handful of ministers is not expected to deal personally with the various problems of modern administration. Thus the ministers lay down the policy and it is for the civil servants to enforce it. The cabinet secretary ( IAST : Maṃtrimaṇḍala Saciva ) is the top-most executive official and senior-most civil servant of the Government of India. The cabinet secretary

10283-461: The permanent bureaucracy of India. The executive decisions are implemented by the Indian civil servants. In the parliamentary democracy of India, the ultimate responsibility for running the administration rests with the elected representatives of the people which are the ministers. These ministers are accountable to the legislatures which are also elected by the people based on universal adult suffrage . The ministers are indirectly responsible to

10396-418: The polycrystalline grains which will vary the physical properties of the material. The use of polycrystalline silicon in the production of solar cells requires less material and therefore provides higher profits and increased manufacturing throughput. Polycrystalline silicon does not need to be deposited on a silicon wafer to form a solar cell, rather it can be deposited on other-cheaper materials, thus reducing

10509-626: The polysilicon. For comparison, if a CdTe manufacturer pays spot price for tellurium ($ 420/kg in April 2010) and has a 3  μm thickness, their cost would be 10 times less, $ 0.037/Watt. At 0.1 g/W and $ 31/ozt for silver, polysilicon solar producers spend $ 0.10/W on silver. Q-Cells, Canadian Solar, and Calisolar have used Timminco UMG. Timminco is able to produce UMG-Si with 0.5 ppm boron for $ 21/kg but were sued by shareholders because they had expected $ 10/kg. RSI and Dow Corning have also been in litigation over UMG-Si technology. Currently, polysilicon

10622-451: The potential to provide nearly-as-good solar cell efficiency at 1/5 the capital expenditure, half the energy requirements, and less than $ 15/kg. In 2008 several companies were touting the potential of UMG-Si, but in 2010 the credit crisis greatly lowered the cost of polysilicon and several UMG-Si producers put plans on hold. The Siemens process will remain the dominant form of production for years to come due to more efficiently implementing

10735-419: The president. India is currently the largest democracy in the world, with around 900 million eligible voters, as of 2019. In India, power is divided between the governments of the union and the states of India , the latter being ruled by the chiefs ministers . The state legislature is bicameral in five states and unicameral in the rest. The lower house is elected with a five-year term, while in

10848-424: The production of solar cells , integrated circuits and other semiconductor devices . Polysilicon consists of small crystals , also known as crystallites , giving the material its typical metal flake effect . While polysilicon and multisilicon are often used as synonyms, multicrystalline usually refers to crystals larger than one millimetre. Multicrystalline solar cells are the most common type of solar cells in

10961-532: The reaction rate becomes dependent primarily on reactant concentration, reactor geometry, and gas flow. When the rate at which polysilicon deposition occurs is slower than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives, then it is said to be surface-reaction-limited. A deposition process that is surface-reaction-limited is primarily dependent on reactant concentration and reaction temperature. Deposition processes must be surface-reaction-limited because they result in excellent thickness uniformity and step coverage. A plot of

11074-463: The recommendations of the Council of Ministers, among others. The President, as the head of state , also receives the credentials of ambassadors from other countries, while the prime minister , as head of government , receives credentials of high commissioners from other members of the Commonwealth , in line with historical tradition. The President is the de jure commander-in-chief of

11187-431: The same process, this is called hybrid processing. A complete polysilicon active layer process is also used in some cases where a small pixel size is required, such as in projection displays . Polycrystalline silicon is the key feedstock in the crystalline silicon based photovoltaic industry and used for the production of conventional solar cells . For the first time, in 2006, over half of the world's supply of polysilicon

11300-406: The single crystal silicon. Whereas the doping of polycrystalline silicon does have an effect on the resistivity, mobility, and free-carrier concentration, these properties strongly depend on the polycrystalline grain size, which is a physical parameter that the material scientist can manipulate. Through the methods of crystallization to form polycrystalline silicon, an engineer can control the size of

11413-494: The single largest item of expenditure and accounted for more than 40% of the total non-development expenditure in the 2003–04 budget. Defence expenditure increased fourfold during the same period and has been increasing to defend from a difficult neighbourhood and external terror threats. In 2020–21, India's defence budget stood at ₹ 4.71 trillion (equivalent to ₹ 5.5 trillion or US$ 66 billion in 2023). In 2009, several ministers are accused of corruption and nearly

11526-464: The state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the republican idea of the separation of powers . The executive power is vested mainly in the President of India , as per Article 53(1) of the constitution. The president has all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through subordinate officers as per the aforesaid Article 53(1). The president

11639-405: The state government to levy property tax and charge users for public utilities like water supply , sewage etc. More than half of the revenues of the union and state governments come from taxes, of which 3/4 come from direct taxes . More than a quarter of the union government's tax revenues are shared with the state governments. The tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalise

11752-407: The subsequent drop in price could be brutal for manufacturers. As of late 2012, SolarIndustryMag reports a capacity of 385,000 tons will be reached by yearend 2012. But as established producers (mentioned below) expand their capacities, additional newcomers – many from Asia – are moving into the market. Even long-time players in the field have recently had difficulties expanding plant production. It

11865-452: The tax structure and increase compliance by taking steps in the following directions: The non-tax revenues of the central government come from fiscal services, interest receipts, public sector dividends, etc., while the non-tax revenues of the States are grants from the central government, interest receipts, dividends and income from general, economic and social services. Inter-state share in

11978-497: The top ten producers and around 90% of total worldwide production capacity of approximately 1,400,000 MT. German, US and South Korea companies account for the remainder. The polysilicon feedstock – large rods, usually broken into chunks of specific sizes and packaged in clean rooms before shipment – is directly cast into multicrystalline ingots or submitted to a recrystallization process to grow single crystal boules . The boules are then sliced into thin silicon wafers and used for

12091-480: The transfer of any civil or criminal case from one state high court to another state high court, or from a Court subordinate to another state high court and the supreme court. Although the proceedings in the supreme court arise out of the judgment or orders made by the subordinate courts, of late the supreme court has started entertaining matters in which the interest of the public at large is involved. This may be done by any individual or group of persons either by filing

12204-542: The union tax pool is decided by the recommendations of the Finance Commission to the president. Total tax receipts of Centre and State amount to approximately 18% of national GDP. This compares to a figure of 37–45% in the OECD. The Finance minister of India usually presents the annual union budget in the parliament on the last working day of February. However, for the F.Y. 2017–18, this tradition had been changed. Now

12317-411: The upper house one-third of the members in the house gets elected every two years with six-year terms. Local governments function at the basic level. It is the third level of government apart from union and state governments. It consists of panchayats in rural areas and municipalities in urban areas. They are elected directly or indirectly by the people. India has a three-tier tax structure, wherein

12430-417: The use of larger solar cell arrays compared with more compact/higher efficiency designs. Designs such as CSG are attractive because of a low cost of production even with reduced efficiency. Higher efficiency devices yield modules that occupy less space and are more compact; however, the 5–10% efficiency of typical CSG devices still makes them attractive for installation in large central-service stations, such as

12543-411: Was being used by PV manufacturers. The solar industry was severely hindered by a shortage in supply of polysilicon feedstock and was forced to idle about a quarter of its cell and module manufacturing capacity in 2007. Only twelve factories were known to produce solar-grade polysilicon in 2008; however, by 2013 the number increased to over 100 manufacturers. Monocrystalline silicon is higher priced and

12656-630: Was carried by an all-European Legislative Council and Viceroy's Executive Council . As such, no Indians were represented in government before 1909. India's current bicameral Parliament has its roots in the Government of India Act 1919 , commonly known as the Montagu - Chelmsford reforms, which introduced a greatly expanded Imperial Legislative Council . It comprised a lower house, the Central Legislative Assembly of 145 members (of which 104 were elected and 41 nominated) and an upper house,

12769-515: Was unpopular amongst Indians and is considered a failure as it did not give Indians self-rule and permanent dominion status (the form of government followed in Canada , Australia and New Zealand ) as was previously promised. Between midnight on 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950 , India was an independent, self-governing dominion of the Commonwealth of Nations , a constitutional monarchy with

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