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119-454: Construction began on the building on October 27, 1952 and was inaugurated on July 17, 1954 as part of the public works carried out during the Ochenio of General Manuel A. Odría . President Odría and his Ministry of Education , Juan Mendoza Rodríguez  [ es ] , were present both at the laying of the first stone and at the inauguration of the now completely constructed building. There

238-558: A blind eye to his son's lack of capability. Following a revolt during which Amaru almost led the Inca forces to defeat, the Sapa Inca decided to replace the co-ruler with another one of his sons, Topa Inca Yupanqui . Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Inca ruler after Pachacuti's death in 1471. Túpac Inca's most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor ,

357-447: A child, Sinchi Roca . The people who were already living in Cusco fought hard to keep their land, but Mama Huaca was a good fighter. When the enemy attacked, she threw her bolas (several stones tied together that spun through the air when thrown) at a soldier (gualla) and killed him instantly. The other people became afraid and ran away. After that, Ayar Manco became known as Manco Capac ,

476-495: A constitutional monarchy, whilst Bolivar (Head of the Northern Expedition) favored a republic. Nonetheless, they both followed the notion that it was to be independent of Spain. Following the interview, San Martin abandoned Peru on 22 September 1822 and left the whole command of the independence movement to Simon Bolivar. The Peruvian congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824, which allowed him to reorganize

595-480: A difficult environment, and the organization and management fostered or imposed on its people and their labor. The Inca Empire functioned largely without money and without markets. Instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. "Taxes" consisted of a labour obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers (who theoretically owned all

714-714: A federation in America, which led to the Congress of Panama and later the anti-Bolivarian sentiment that led to him leaving Peru on September 3, 1826. A year later, the Constituent Congress was dissolved. José de La Mar became president of Peru on August 22, 1827, having been chosen by the new Congress. Under his presidency, Peru went to war with Bolivia and Colombia due to the perceived disadvantage that Peru saw itself in due to being surrounded by Bolivarian countries. Inca Empire The Inca Empire , officially known as

833-505: A large portion of modern-day Chile into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia . Its official language was Quechua . The Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many of the features associated with civilization in the Old World . Anthropologist Gordon McEwan wrote that the Incas were able to construct "one of the greatest imperial states in human history" without the use of

952-415: A method of taxation: For as is well known to all, not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it by those who were in charge of these matters. There were even provinces where, when the natives alleged that they were unable to pay their tribute, the Inca ordered that each inhabitant should be obliged to turn in every four months a large quill full of live lice, which

1071-521: A much earlier date than previously believed. In 2006, a research team discovered a 4200-year-old observatory at Buena Vista , a site in the Andes several kilometers north of present-day Lima . They believe the observatory was related to the society's reliance on agriculture and understanding of the seasons. The site includes the oldest three-dimensional sculptures found thus far in South America. In 2007,

1190-558: A red pigment during the ceremony before their chests had been cut open, most likely to remove their hearts. Remains showed that these kids came from different regions and when the children and llamas were sacrificed, the area was drenched with water. In September 2021, archaeologists announced the remains of eight 800-year-old bodies nearby ancient town of Chilca. Bodies included adults and children who were covered in plant material before being buried. Some dishes and musical instruments were uncovered as well. Researchers think remains belong to

1309-528: A third point Troll pointed out irrigation technology as advantageous to Inca state-building. While Troll theorized concerning environmental influences on the Inca Empire, he opposed environmental determinism , arguing that culture lay at the core of the Inca civilization. The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Indigenous Andean oral history tells two main origin stories:

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1428-517: A union of provinces. The Spanish normally transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo . While the term Inka nowadays is translated as "ruler" or "lord" in Quechua, this term does not simply refer to the "king" of the Tawantinsuyu or Sapa Inca but also to the Inca nobles, and some theorize its meaning could be broader. In that sense, the Inca nobles were a small percentage of the total population of

1547-486: A written form of language; however, they visually recorded narratives through paintings on vases and cups ( qirus ). These paintings are usually accompanied by geometric patterns known as toqapu, which are also found in textiles. Researchers have speculated that toqapu patterns could have served as a form of written communication (e.g. heraldry, or glyphs), however this remains unclear. The Incas also kept records by using quipus . The high infant mortality rates that plagued

1666-598: Is actually a family of languages rather than one single language, parallel to the Romance or Slavic languages in Europe. Most communities within the empire, even those resistant to Inca rule, learned to speak a variety of Quechua (forming new regional varieties with distinct phonetics) in order to communicate with the Inca lords and mitma colonists, as well as the wider integrating society, but largely retained their native languages as well. The Incas also had their own ethnic language, which

1785-458: Is four and - ntin is a suffix naming a group, so that a tawantin is a quartet, a group of four things taken together, in this case the four suyu ("regions" or "provinces") whose corners met at the capital. The four suyu were: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east; the Amazon jungle), Qullasuyu (south) and Kuntisuyu (west). The name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating

1904-546: Is not a Quechuan nor Caribbean word, but Indo-Hispanic or hybrid. In the years between 1524 and 1526, smallpox , introduced from the conquistadors in Panama and preceding the Spanish conquerors in Peru through transmission among natives, had swept through the Inca Empire. Smallpox caused the death of the Inca ruler Huayna Capac as well as most of his family including his heir, caused

2023-509: Is one of at least five civilizations in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine." The concept of a "pristine" civilization refers to a civilization that has developed independently of external influences and is not a derivative of other civilizations. The Inca Empire was preceded by two large-scale empires in the Andes: the Tiwanaku ( c.  300 –1100 AD), based around Lake Titicaca , and

2142-518: Is regarded as one of several cradles of civilization around the world where civilization emerged independent of other civilizations. In the early 21st century, archeologists discovered new evidence of ancient pre-Ceramic complex cultures: three irrigation canals that were 5400 years old, and a possible fourth that was 6700 years old in the Zaña Valley in northern Peru. This was the evidence of community agricultural improvements that occurred at

2261-401: Is thought to have been closely related to or a dialect of Puquina . There are several common misconceptions about the history of Quechua, as it is frequently identified as the "Inca language". Quechua did not originate with the Incas, had been a lingua franca in multiple areas before the Inca expansions, was diverse before the rise of the Incas, and it was not the native or original language of

2380-416: The encomienda system, by which the Spanish extracted tribute from the local population, part of which was forwarded to Seville in return for converting the natives to Christianity. Title to the land itself remained with the king of Spain . As governor of Peru, Pizarro used the encomienda system to grant virtually unlimited authority over groups of native Peruvians to his soldier companions, thus forming

2499-517: The Andes , became the predominant cultures of the region encompassing much of modern-day Peru and Bolivia . They were succeeded by powerful city-states such as Chancay , Sipán , and Cajamarca , and two empires: Chimor and Chachapoyas . These cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of cultivation , gold and silver craft, pottery , metallurgy , and knitting . Around 700 BC, they appear to have developed systems of social organization that were

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2618-591: The Battle of Ayacucho , Spanish General José de Canterac signed the final capitulation of the Royalist Army in Peru. Despite the Spanish capitulation, relations between both states would not be established until 1879. During this era, the First Militarism ( Spanish : Primer Militarismo ), a period where several military figures held control of the country, started in 1827, with José de La Mar 's presidency. By

2737-465: The Constituent Congress of his resignation of his office, which was not accepted, instead being extended until 1827. During this time, he travelled to southern and Upper Peru, and the final flag and coat of arms of Peru was established on February 25, 1825, the latter designed by José Gregorio Paredes  [ es ] . Upper Peru, whose public opinion was split between joining Peru or

2856-516: The Criollo oligarchy in Peru remained mostly Spanish loyalist, which accounts for the fact that the Viceroyalty of Peru became the last redoubt of the Spanish dominion in South America. Peru's movement toward independence was launched by an uprising of Spanish-American landowners and their forces, led by José de San Martín of Argentina and Simón Bolívar of Venezuela . San Martín, who had displaced

2975-722: The Iberian Peninsula and took the king, Ferdinand VII , hostage. Later in 1812, the Cadíz Cortes , the national legislative assembly of Spain, promulgated a liberal Constitution of Cadiz . These events inspired emancipating ideas between the Spanish Criollo people throughout the Spanish America. In Peru, the Creole rebellion of Huánuco arose in 1812 and the rebellion of Cuzco arose between 1814 and 1816. Despite these rebellions,

3094-601: The Mapuche , who later would strategically defeat the Spanish as they expanded further south . The first engagement between the Inca and the Spanish was the Battle of Puná , near present-day Guayaquil , Ecuador, on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in

3213-620: The Moche and Nazca flourished from about 100 BC to about AD 700: the Moche produced impressive metalwork, as well as some of the finest pottery seen in the ancient world, while the Nazca are known for their textiles and the enigmatic Nazca lines . These coastal cultures eventually began to decline as a result of recurring el Niño floods and droughts. In consequence, the Huari and Tiwanaku , who dwelt inland in

3332-564: The Realm of the Four Parts ( Quechua : Tawantinsuyu , lit.  "land of four parts" ), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America . The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco . The Inca civilization rose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century . The Spanish began the conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 and by 1572,

3451-570: The Sapa Inca , to be the "son of the Sun". The Inca economy, especially in the past, was often the subject of scholarly debate. Darrell E. La Lone, in his work The Inca as a Nonmarket Economy , noted that scholars have previously described it as "feudal, slave, [or] socialist," as well as "a system based on reciprocity and redistribution; a system with markets and commerce; or an Asiatic mode of production ." The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu , "the suyu of four [parts]". In Quechua , tawa

3570-558: The Spanish landed in 1531, Peru 's territory was the nucleus of the highly developed Inca civilization . Centered at Cuzco , the Inca Empire extended over a vast region, stretching from southwest Ecuador to northern Chile . Francisco Pizarro and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. In 1532, they arrived in the country, which they called Peru. (The forms Biru , Pirú , and Berú are also seen in early records.) According to Raúl Porras Barrenechea , Peru

3689-507: The United Provinces , soon saw a new train of thought establish itself, which suggested that the region become an independent state. Soon, the State of Upper Peru was established as an independent state, later becoming Bolivia . Bolívar was in charge of the constitution, as well as Peru's and later Colombia's . The similarities between the constitutions was related to his desire to establish

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3808-526: The Viceroyalty of Peru , which was reorganized after the arrival of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572. He put an end to the indigenous Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba and executed Tupac Amaru I . He also sought economic development through commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from the silver mines of Potosí . He reused the Inca mita , a forced labor program, to mobilize native communities for mining work. This organization transformed Peru into

3927-676: The Wari or Huari ( c.  600 –1100 AD), centered near the city of Ayacucho . The Wari occupied the Cuzco area for about 400 years. Thus, many of the characteristics of the Inca Empire derived from earlier multi-ethnic and expansive Andean cultures. To those earlier civilizations may be owed some of the accomplishments cited for the Inca Empire: "thousands of kilometres/miles of roads and dozens of large administrative centers with elaborate stone construction...terraced mountainsides and filled in valleys", and

4046-453: The " Requerimiento " that demanded that he and his empire accept the rule of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity. Atahualpa dismissed the message and asked them to leave. After this, the Spanish began their attack against the mostly unarmed Inca, captured Atahualpa as hostage, and forced the Inca to collaborate. Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he

4165-455: The 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases . While the attrition was not an organized attempt at genocide , the results were similar. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease such as smallpox (unlike the Spanish, the Amerindians had no immunity to the disease) was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of

4284-508: The 1970s, it had this function that it maintained until the beginning of the 1990s when this entity moved to a new location in the San Borja district. Later, the headquarters of the Superior Court of Justice of Lima and the civil, labor and family courts, as well as the superior civil courts of Lima, were installed in the building. From then on he took his new name, Javier Alzamora Valdez, who

4403-511: The Acamama Valley; therefore, the couple decided to remain there and informed the inhabitants of the area that they were sent by the Sun God . They then proceeded to teach them agriculture and weaving. Thus, the Inca civilization began. Under the leadership of Manco Capac, the Inca formed the small city-state Kingdom of Cuzco (Quechua Qusqu ). In 1438, they began a far-reaching expansion under

4522-531: The American natives. Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns centered around a plaza with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for the foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, like Huanuco Viejo , were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish. In 1542, the Spanish Crown created

4641-632: The Atlantic route. For the Pacific, it passed to Mexico and disembarked from the port of Acapulco and eventually arrived at the Philippines. By the 18th century, Lima had become a distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital, seat of a university and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas. Peru was thus wealthy and highly populated. Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera , governor of Panama settled Zamboanga City in

4760-494: The Chilca culture, which was apart from other pre-Hispanic cultures in the area. The Incas built the largest and most advanced empire and dynasty of pre-Columbian America . The Tahuantinsuyo—which is derived from Quechua for "The Four United Regions"—reached its greatest extension at the beginning of the 16th century. It dominated a territory that included (from north to south) the southwest part of Ecuador , part of Colombia ,

4879-476: The Inca ("Emperor"). The Tawantinsuyu was organized in dominions with a stratified society in which the ruler was the Inca. It was also supported by an economy based on the collective property of the land. The empire, being quite large, also had an impressive transportation system of roads to all points of the empire called the Inca Trail , and chasquis , message carriers who relayed information from anywhere in

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4998-434: The Inca ). It narrates the adventure of a couple, Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo , who were sent by the Sun God and emerged from the depths of Lake Titicaca ( pacarina ~ paqarina "sacred place of origin") and marched north. They carried a golden staff, given by the Sun God ; the message was clear: in the place where the golden staff sank, they would establish a city and settle there. The staff sank at Mount Guanacaure in

5117-419: The Inca Empire caused all newborn infants to be given the term wawa when they were born. Most families did not invest very much into their child until they reached the age of two or three years old. Once the child reached the age of three, a "coming of age" ceremony occurred, called the rutuchikuy . For the Incas, this ceremony indicated that the child had entered the stage of "ignorance". During this ceremony,

5236-474: The Inca state and chuño has been questioned, as other crops such as maize can also be dried with only sunlight. Troll also argued that llamas , the Incas' pack animal, can be found in their largest numbers in this very same region. The maximum extent of the Inca Empire roughly coincided with the distribution of llamas and alpacas , the only large domesticated animals in Pre-Hispanic America . As

5355-455: The Inca to indoctrinate them into the Inca nobility and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Pachacuti had named his favorite son, Amaru Yupanqui, as his co-ruler and successor. However, as co-ruler Amaru showed little interest in military affairs. Due to this lack of military talent, he faced much opposition from the Inca nobility, who began to plot against him. Despite this, Pachacuti decided to take

5474-408: The Inca used weapons made out of wood, stone, copper and bronze, while using an Alpaca fiber based armor, putting them at significant technological disadvantage—none of their weapons could pierce the Spanish steel armor. In addition, due to the absence of horses in Peru, the Inca did not develop tactics to fight cavalry. However, the Inca were still effective warriors, being able to successfully fight

5593-423: The Inca's only serious rival for the coast. Túpac Inca's empire then stretched north into what are today Ecuador and Colombia . Topa Inca's son Huayna Capac added a small portion of land to the north in what is today Ecuador. At its height, the Inca Empire included modern-day Peru, what are today western and south central Bolivia , southwest Ecuador and Colombia and a large portion of modern-day Chile , at

5712-465: The Incas, the Spanish Empire established a Viceroyalty with jurisdiction over most of its South American domains. Peru declared independence from Spain in 1821, but achieved independence only after the Battle of Ayacucho three years later. Modern historiography of Peru divides its history into three main periods: Hunting tools dating back to more than 11,000 years ago have been found inside

5831-408: The Incas. However, the Incas left a linguistic legacy, in that they introduced Quechua to many areas where it is still widely spoken today, including Ecuador, southern Bolivia, southern Colombia, and parts of the Amazon basin. The Spanish conquerors continued the official usage of Quechua during the early colonial period, and transformed it into a literary language. The Incas were not known to develop

5950-462: The Philippines, where residents now speak a Spanish Creole , by employing soldiers and colonists recruited from the towns of Peru. Nevertheless, throughout the eighteenth century, further away from Lima in the provinces, the Spanish did not have complete control. The Spanish could not govern the provinces without the help of local elite. This local elite, who governed under the title of Curaca, took pride in their Incan history. Additionally, throughout

6069-435: The Spanish colonists and re-create the Inca Empire until the late 18th century. See Juan Santos Atahualpa and Túpac Amaru II . The number of people inhabiting Tawantinsuyu at its peak is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 4–37 million. Most population estimates are in the range of 6 to 14 million. In spite of the fact that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus , knowledge of how to read them

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6188-405: The Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state. After the fall of the Inca Empire many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system, known as the vertical archipelago model of agriculture. Spanish colonial officials used the Inca mita corvée labor system for colonial aims, sometimes brutally. One member of each family

6307-456: The Spanish had re-founded the Inca city of Cuzco as a new Spanish colonial settlement. Establishing a stable colonial government was delayed for some time by native revolts and bands of the Conquistadores (led by Pizarro and Diego de Almagro ) fighting among themselves. A long civil war developed, from which Pizarro emerged victorious at the Battle of Las Salinas . In 1541, Pizarro

6426-426: The Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Other diseases, including a probable typhus outbreak in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, and measles in 1618, all ravaged the Inca people. There would be periodic attempts by indigenous leaders to expel

6545-409: The Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State , where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered and the last ruler, Topa Amaru , Manco's son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to

6664-523: The Viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata (at the expense of its territory), the duty exemptions that moved the commercial center from Lima to Caracas and Buenos Aires , and the decrease of the mining and textile production. This crisis proved favorable for the indigenous rebellion of Túpac Amaru II and determined the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1808, Napoleon invaded

6783-605: The archaeologist Walter Alva and his team found a 4000-year-old temple with painted murals at Ventarrón , in the northwest Lambayeque region . The temple contained ceremonial offerings gained from an exchange with Peruvian jungle societies, as well as those from the Ecuador a coast. Such finds show sophisticated, monumental construction requiring large-scale organization of labor, suggesting that hierarchical complex cultures arose in South America much earlier than previously thought. Many other civilizations developed and were absorbed by

6902-489: The arrival of reinforcements for the Patriot side. This led to Rodil's forces being besieged from December 5, 1824, to January 23, 1826, and becoming the final Spanish stronghold in South America. The deteriorating conditions of the besieged fortress eventually led to the surrender of Rodil and his forces due to their inability to continue the siege alive. Simón Bolívar , who became dictator of Peru on January 17, 1824, notified

7021-577: The battle of the Maule was a stalemate, but argues the Incas lacked incentives for conquest they had had when fighting more complex societies such as the Chimú Empire . Silva also disputes the date given by traditional historiography for the battle: the late 15th century during the reign of Topa Inca Yupanqui (1471–93). Instead, he places it in 1532 during the Inca Civil War . Nevertheless, Silva agrees on

7140-509: The benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles and promising that they would be materially richer as his subjects. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. Refusal to accept Inca rule resulted in military conquest. Following conquest the local rulers were executed. The ruler's children were brought to Cuzco to learn about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed

7259-521: The building is convex in shape towards the corner of the avenues, containing a block of twenty-two levels, a basement and ten elevators (six for public use and four private which reach the twentieth floor), flanked by two lateral blocks. twelve levels each. The structure is made of steel, which was imported from the Mann factory in Germany , and reinforced concrete. The central block reaches 87.50 meters in height and

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7378-505: The caves of Pachacamac , Telarmachay, Junin, and Lauricocha . Some of the oldest civilizations appeared circa 6000 BC in the coastal provinces of Chilca and Paracas , and in the highland province of Callejón de Huaylas . Over the next three thousand years, inhabitants switched from nomadic lifestyles to cultivating land, as evidenced from sites such as Jiskairumoko , Kotosh , and Huaca Prieta . Cultivation of plants such as corn and cotton ( Gossypium barbadense ) began, as well as

7497-442: The civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops, that were at the moment armed only with hunting tools (knives and lassos for hunting llamas). Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar named Vincente de Valverde , met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. The Inca offered them ceremonial chicha in a golden cup, which the Spanish rejected. The Spanish interpreter, Friar Vincente, read

7616-666: The claim that the bulk of the Inca conquests were made during the late 15th century. At the time of the Inca Civil War an Inca army was, according to Diego de Rosales , subduing a revolt among the Diaguitas of Copiapó and Coquimbo . The empire's push into the Amazon Basin near the Chinchipe River was stopped by the Shuar in 1527. The empire extended into corners of what are today

7735-513: The coast and in the Andean mountains. The first known city in the Americas was Caral , located in the Supe Valley 200 km north of Lima. It was built in approximately 2500 BC. The remnants of this civilization, also known as Norte Chico , consists of approximately 30 pyramidal structures built up in receding terraces ending in a flat roof; some of them measuring up to 20 meters in height. Caral

7854-443: The colonial land-tenure structure. The indigenous inhabitants of Peru were now expected to raise Old World cattle , poultry , and crops for their landlords. Resistance was punished severely, giving rise to the " Black Legend ". The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over these territories led to the creation of a Real Audiencia (Royal Audience). In 1542 or 1543, the Viceroyalty of Peru ( Virreinato del Perú )

7973-566: The command of Sapa Inca ("paramount leader") Pachacuti Cusi Yupanqui (Pachakutiy Kusi Yupanki), whose epithet Pachacuti means "the turn of the world". The name of Pachacuti was given to him after he conquered the tribe of the Chancas during the Chanka–Inca War (in modern-day Apurímac ). During his reign, he and his son Topa Yupanqui (Tupa Yupanki) brought much of the modern-day territory of Peru under Inca control. Pachacuti reorganized

8092-511: The country's desert coastline and in the Andes mountains. Peru's coast was home to the Norte Chico civilization , the oldest civilization in the Americas and one of the six cradles of civilization in the world. When the Spanish arrived in the sixteenth century, Peru was the homeland of the highland Inca Empire , the largest and most advanced state in pre-Columbian America. After the conquest of

8211-490: The crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias de Ávila, and goes on to relate many more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language. The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo , which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru , which became Republic of Peru after independence . When

8330-439: The diverse ethnic groups ruled by the Inca "welcomed the Spanish invaders as liberators and willingly settled down with them to share rule of Andean farmers and miners". Many regional leaders, known as kurakas , continued to serve the Spanish overlords, called encomenderos , as they had served the Inca overlords. Other than efforts to spread the religion of Christianity , the Spanish benefited from and made little effort to change

8449-524: The domestication of animals such as the wild ancestors of the llama , the alpaca and the guinea pig , as seen in the 6000 BC dated Camelid relief paintings in the Mollepunko caves in Callalli . Inhabitants practiced spinning and knitting of cotton and wool, basketry , and pottery . As these inhabitants became sedentary, farming allowed them to build settlements. As a result, new societies emerged along

8568-453: The eighteenth century, indigenous people rebelled against the Spanish. Two of the most important rebellions were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742 in the Andean jungle provinces of Tarma and Jauja , which expelled the Spanish from a large area, and the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco. At the time, an economic crisis was developing due to creation of

8687-528: The empire to Cusco. Machu Picchu (sometimes called the "Lost City of the Incas") is a well-preserved pre-Columbian Inca ruin located on a high mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley , about 70 km (44 mi) northwest of Cusco. Elevation measurements vary depending on whether the data refer to the ruin or the extremity of the mountain; Machu Picchu tourist information reports the elevation as 2,350 m (7,711 ft)[1]. Forgotten for centuries by

8806-477: The empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000, but ruling a population of around 10 million people. When the Spanish arrived in the Empire of the Incas, they gave the name Peru to what the natives knew as Tawantinsuyu. The name "Inca Empire" originated from the Chronicles of the 16th century. The Inca Empire was the last chapter of thousands of years of Andean civilizations . The Andean civilization

8925-505: The empire. Perhaps more importantly, smallpox , influenza , typhus and measles had spread from Central America. The first epidemic of European disease in the Inca Empire was probably in the 1520s, killing Huayna Capac, his designated heir, and an unknown, probably large, number of other Inca subjects. The forces led by Pizarro consisted of 168 men, along with one cannon and 27 horses . The conquistadors were armed with lances , arquebuses , steel armor and long swords . In contrast,

9044-614: The evidence of complex societal presences prior to the conquest of Amazonas region by the Incan Empire. As the Incan empire expanded, it defeated and assimilated uncooperative Andean cultures, like the Chachapoyas culture . Archaeologists revealed the largest mass child sacrifice with more than 140 children skeleton and 200 Llamas dating to the Chimú culture . Children's faces were smeared with

9163-567: The fall of the Inca political structure and contributed to the civil war between the brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar . Taking advantage of this, Pizarro carried out a coup d'état . On 16 November 1532, while the Atahualpa's victorious army was in an unarmed celebration in Cajamarca , the Spanish lured Atahualpa into a trap during the Battle of Cajamarca . The well-armed 168 Spaniards killed thousands of barely armed Inca soldiers and captured

9282-432: The family would invite all relatives to their house for food and dance, and then each member of the family would receive a lock of hair from the child. After each family member had received a lock, the father would shave the child's head. This stage of life was categorized by a stage of "ignorance, inexperience, and lack of reason, a condition that the child would overcome with time". For Inca society, in order to advance from

9401-630: The focus of a campaign commanded by Antonio José de Sucre . The campaign began in January and ended in April 1825, with the battle of Tumusla of April 1, where Olañeta was fatally wounded after being shot and died the day after. Rodil, on the other hand, established himself in the Real Felipe Fortress of the port of Callao, near Lima , expecting Spanish reinforcements that would never come. The capital city itself had been retaken by Royalist troops until

9520-442: The founder of the Inca. It is said that he and his sisters built the first Inca homes in the valley with their own hands. When the time came, Manco Capac turned to stone like his brothers before him. His son, Sinchi Roca, became the second emperor of the Inca. Legend collected by the mestizo chronicler Inca Garcilaso de la Vega in his work Los Comentarios Reales de los Incas ( transl.  The Royal Commentaries of

9639-435: The frontier regions. The exact linguistic topography of the pre-Columbian and early colonial Andes remains incompletely understood, owing to the extinction of several languages and the loss of historical records. In order to manage this diversity, the Inca lords promoted the usage of Quechua , especially the variety of what is now Lima , as the official language or lingua franca . Defined by mutual intelligibility, Quechua

9758-548: The general will of the people and the justice of its cause that God defends. Long live the homeland! Long live freedom! Long live our independence!". San Martín received the title of "Protector of Peruvian Freedom" in August 1821 after partially liberating Peru from the Spanish. On 26 and 27 July 1822, Bolívar held the Guayaquil Conference with San Martín and attempted to decide the political fate of Peru. San Martín opted for

9877-475: The inscription "A. Lizárraga 1902" on the Temple of Three Windows. Peru is pursuing legal efforts to retrieve thousands of artifacts that Bingham removed from the site and sold to the current owners at Yale University. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He says the name Birú was that of a common Indian happened upon by

9996-631: The kingdom of Cusco into the Tahuantinsuyu, which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchaysuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE). Pachacuti is thought to have built Machu Picchu , either as a family home or summer retreat, although it may have been an agricultural station. Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire and they brought to him reports on political organization, military strength and wealth. He then sent messages to their leaders extolling

10115-474: The last Inca state was fully conquered. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America , centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. At its largest, the empire joined modern-day Peru , what are now western Ecuador , western and south central Bolivia , northwest Argentina , the southwesternmost tip of Colombia and

10234-593: The legends of Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, and that of the Ayar brothers. The center cave at Tambo Tocco (Tampu T’uqu) was named Capac Tocco (Qhapaq T’uqu, "principal niche"). The other caves were Maras Tocco (Maras T’uqu) and Sutic Tocco (Sutiq T’uqu). Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave. They were: Ayar Manco (Ayar Manqu), Ayar Cachi (Ayar Kachi), Ayar Auca (Ayar Awka) and Ayar Uchu (Ayar Uchi); and Mama Ocllo (Mama Uqllu), Mama Raua (Mama Rawa), Mama Huaco (Mama Waqu) and Mama Coea (Mama Qura). Out of

10353-564: The main territory of Peru , the northern part of Chile , and the northwest part of Argentina ; and from east to west, from the southwest part of Bolivia to the Amazonian forests . The empire originated from a tribe based in Cusco , which became the capital. Pachacuti wasn't the first Inca regent, but he was the first ruler to considerably expand the boundaries of the Cusco state. His offspring later ruled an empire by both violent invasions and peaceful conquests, that is, intermarriages among

10472-459: The means of production) reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food and drink in celebratory feasts for their subjects. Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred huacas or wak’a , but the Inca leadership encouraged the sun worship of Inti —their sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other religious groups, such as that of Pachamama . The Incas considered their king,

10591-652: The monarchy and in Huanta Province , they rebelled in 1825–28, which is known as the war of the punas or the Huanta Rebellion . Spain made futile attempts to regain its former colonies, such as the Battle of Callao (1866), and only in 1879 finally recognized Peruvian independence. The republican era of Peru is usually considered to begin after the declaration of independence or the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, and its periods are modelled after Jorge Basadre 's work, Historia de la República del Perú . After

10710-431: The most powerful ones such as Kotosh ; Chavin ; Paracas ; Lima ; Nasca ; Moche ; Tiwanaku ; Wari ; Lambayeque ; Chimu and Chincha , among others. The Paracas culture emerged on the southern coast around 300 BC. They are known for their use of vicuña fibers instead of just cotton to produce fine textiles —innovations that did not reach the northern coast of Peru until centuries later. Coastal cultures such as

10829-622: The newly minted Inca ruler, causing a great consternation among the natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When Huáscar was killed, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of the murder, executing him by strangulation. For a period, Pizarro maintained the ostensible authority of the Inca , recognizing Túpac Huallpa as the Sapa Inca after Atahualpa's death. But the conqueror's abuses made this facade too obvious. Spanish domination consolidated itself as successive indigenous rebellions were bloodily repressed. By 23 March 1534, Pizarro and

10948-554: The north of Argentina and part of the southern Colombia . However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as Qullasuyu, was located in the Altiplano . The Inca Empire was an amalgamation of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour. The following quote describes

11067-503: The north of the Maule River . Traditional historiography claims the advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met determined resistance from the Mapuche . This view is challenged by historian Osvaldo Silva who argues instead that it was the social and political framework of the Mapuche that posed the main difficulty in imposing imperial rule. Silva does accept that

11186-420: The outside world (although not by locals), it was brought back to international attention by Yale archaeologist Hiram Bingham III . Bingham, often cited as the inspiration for Indiana Jones, "scientifically rediscovered" the site in 1911 and brought international attention to the site with his best-selling book Lost City of the Incas . However, Agustín Lizárraga already reached the site on July 14, 1902 and left

11305-516: The political and military administration completely. Assisted by general Antonio José de Sucre , Bolívar decisively defeated the Spanish cavalry at the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824. Sucre destroyed the still numerically superior remnants of the Spanish forces at Ayacucho on 9 December 1824. The war would not end until the last royalist holdouts surrendered the Real Felipe Fortress in 1826. The victory brought about political independence, but there remained indigenous and mestizo supporters of

11424-529: The precursors of the Inca civilization. In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia , and the Wari culture , near the present-day city of Ayacucho , developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 AD. While in the forested region of the Amazon, architectural excavations from the Chachapoya and the Wari culture allow for

11543-456: The principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America. The town of Lima , founded by Pizarro on 18 January 1535 as the "Ciudad de Reyes" (City of Kings), became the seat of the new viceroyalty. It grew into a powerful city, with jurisdiction over most of Spanish South America. Precious metals passed through Lima on their way to the Isthmus of Panama and from there to Seville, Spain for

11662-400: The production of "vast quantities of goods". Carl Troll has argued that the development of the Inca state in the central Andes was aided by conditions that allow for the elaboration of the staple food chuño . Chuño, which can be stored for long periods, is made of potato dried at the freezing temperatures that are common at nighttime in the southern Andean highlands. Such a link between

11781-552: The region and be its viceroy . This approval was received as detailed in the following quote: "In July 1529 the Queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas. Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in Peru, or New Castile, as the Spanish now called the land". When the conquistadors returned to Peru in 1532, a war of succession between the sons of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa , and unrest among newly conquered territories weakened

11900-514: The royalists of Chile after the Battle of Chacabuco , and who had disembarked in Paracas in 1819, led the military campaign of 4,200 soldiers. The expedition, which included warships, was organized and financed by Chile which sailed from Valparaíso in August 1820. San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru in Lima on 28 July 1821, with the words "... From this moment on, Peru is free and independent, by

12019-409: The rulers of small kingdoms and the current Inca ruler. In Cuzco , the royal city was created to resemble a cougar ; the head, the main royal structure, formed what is now known as Sacsayhuamán . The empire's administrative, political, and military center was located in Cusco. The empire was divided into four quarters: Chinchaysuyu , Antisuyu , Kuntisuyu and Qullasuyu . The official language

12138-461: The side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans. Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live. They traveled for a long time. On the way, Ayar Cachi boasted about his strength and power. His siblings tricked him into returning to the cave to get a sacred llama . When he went into the cave, they trapped him inside to get rid of him. Ayar Uchu decided to stay on

12257-475: The society and culture of the former Inca Empire until the rule of Francisco de Toledo as viceroy from 1569 to 1581. The Spanish installed Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish while they fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile, an associate of Pizarro, Diego de Almagro , attempted to claim Cusco. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but

12376-571: The stage of ignorance to development the child must learn the roles associated with their gender. The next important ritual was to celebrate the maturity of a child. Unlike the coming of age ceremony, the celebration of maturity signified the child's sexual potency. This celebration of puberty was called warachikuy for boys and qikuchikuy for girls. The warachikuy ceremony included dancing, fasting, tasks to display strength, and family ceremonies. The boy would also be given new clothes and taught how to act as an unmarried man. The qikuchikuy signified

12495-693: The time the capitulation had been signed, the royalist forces in Peru occupied the southern provinces, slowly surrendering to the rebels. Despite the apparent end of the successful patriot campaigns, two Spanish figures refused to accept the capitulation and established themselves in Callao and Upper Peru : José Ramón Rodil and Pedro Antonio Olañeta , respectively. Additionally, a resistance in Ayacucho led by Antonio Huachaca would remain until its dissolution in 1839. Olañeta, who established himself in Potosí , soon became

12614-401: The top of the cave to look over the Inca people. The minute he proclaimed that, he turned to stone. They built a shrine around the stone and it became a sacred object. Ayar Auca grew tired of all this and decided to travel alone. Only Ayar Manco and his four sisters remained. Finally, they reached Cusco. The staff sank into the ground. Before they arrived, Mama Ocllo had already borne Ayar Manco

12733-415: The wheel, draft animals, knowledge of iron or steel, or even a system of writing. Notable features of the Inca Empire included its monumental architecture , especially stonework, extensive road network ( Qhapaq Ñan ) reaching all corners of the empire, finely-woven textiles , use of knotted strings ( quipu or khipu ) for record keeping and communication, agricultural innovations and production in

12852-773: The work of painters such as Teodoro Núñez Ureta , Juan Manuel Ugarte Eléspuru , Enrique Camino Brent  [ es ] , among others. This mural as well as the facilities on the first floor were damaged during the Four Quarters March in the year 2000. In 2007, the building suffered some moderate damage to its structure as a result of an 8.0 magnitude earthquake in Ica . 12°03′14″S 77°01′50″W  /  12.0539°S 77.0305°W  / -12.0539; -77.0305 History of Peru#The Ochenio (1948–1956) The history of Peru spans 15 millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development along

12971-402: Was Quechua , the language of a neighbouring tribe of the original tribe of the empire. Conquered populations—tribes, kingdoms, states, and cities—were allowed to practice their own religions and lifestyles, but had to recognize Inca cultural practices as superior to their own. Inti , the sun god, was to be worshipped as one of the most important gods of the empire. His representation on earth was

13090-482: Was a project to build a twin tower in front of the building, on Abancay avenue, which would complete a circular space, but only the foundations and basement were built. It is what later became known as the "El Hueco" Shopping Center. Originally it served as the headquarters of the Ministry of Education of Peru (then the Ministry of Public Education of Peru), in addition it was also the first headquarters of Channel 7 until

13209-409: Was assassinated by a faction led by Diego de Almagro II ( El Mozo ), and the stability of the original colonial regime was shaken up in the ensuing civil war . Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Its most significant milestone was the foundation of Lima in January 1535, from which the political and administrative institutions were organized. The new rulers instituted

13328-543: Was established, with authority over most of Spanish-ruled South America. Colombia , Ecuador , Panamá (after 1571) and Venezuela were split off as the Viceroyalty of New Granada ( Virreinato de Nueva Granada ) in 1717, and Argentina , Bolivia , Paraguay , and Uruguay were set up as the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776). After Pizarro's death, there were numerous internal problems, and Spain finally sent Blasco Núñez Vela to be Peru's first viceroy in 1544. He

13447-511: Was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí . When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family was required to send a replacement. Although smallpox is usually presumed to have spread through the Empire before the arrival of the Spaniards, the devastation is also consistent with other theories. Beginning in Colombia , smallpox spread rapidly before

13566-464: Was imprisoned in and twice that amount of silver. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa's imprisonment, Huascar was assassinated elsewhere. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally executed him, in August 1533. Although "defeat" often implies an unwanted loss in battle, many of

13685-470: Was later killed by Pizarro's brother, Gonzalo Pizarro , but a new viceroy, Pedro de la Gasca , eventually managed to restore order. He captured and executed Gonzalo Pizarro. A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Inca. Historian David N. Cook estimates that their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in

13804-750: Was lost as almost all fell into disuse and disintegrated over time or were destroyed by the Spaniards. The empire was linguistically diverse. Some of the most important languages were Quechua , Aymara , Puquina and Mochica , respectively mainly spoken in the Central Andes, the Altiplano ( Qullasuyu ), the south coast ( Kuntisuyu ), and the area of the north coast ( Chinchaysuyu ) around Chan Chan , today Trujillo . Other languages included Quignam , Jaqaru , Leco , Uru-Chipaya languages , Kunza , Humahuaca , Cacán , Mapudungun , Culle , Chachapoya , Catacao languages , Manta , Barbacoan languages , and Cañari–Puruhá as well as numerous Amazonian languages on

13923-671: Was president of the Superior Court of Huaraz, member of the Supreme Court of Justice and First President of the National Council of Justice. Its design was in charge of the Peruvian architect Enrique Seoane Ros , who carried out numerous and varied preliminary projects for this building before embodying the final idea, combining the classicist and modern styles in a structure that satisfied Odría's constructive expectations. The volume of

14042-402: Was the Inca's way of teaching and accustoming them to pay tribute. Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama , reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after another expedition in 1529 Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer

14161-489: Was the tallest public building in the country for many years (until the construction in 1974 of the Lima Civic Center ). Its façade is covered with "Sprandelite" ceramic and glass material, which was used for the first time in Peru. The entire construction cost S/. 94 million soles. In its main hall there are murals with ceramic veneers inspired by the Chimú culture and mural paintings alluding to education in Peru ,

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