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120-488: From 1948, Japan had a powerful, centralized, nationwide student movement thanks to the establishment of Zengakuren (the "All-Japan Federation of Student Self-Government Associations") that same year. However at least initially, Zengakuren remained firmly under the sway of the Japan Communist Party (JCP), having been founded with JCP urging and assistance. However, in 1950, in response to criticism by Joseph Stalin ,

240-531: A containment policy to stop Soviet expansion. In June 1943, a visiting politician had suggested to Eisenhower that he might become president after the war. Believing that a general should not participate in politics, Merlo J. Pusey wrote that "figuratively speaking, [Eisenhower] kicked his political-minded visitor out of his office". As others asked him about his political future, Eisenhower told one that he could not imagine wanting to be considered for any political job "from dogcatcher to Grand High Supreme King of

360-598: A very bloody large-scale battle , and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945. Throughout 1945, the allied armies liberated numerous Nazi concentration camps throughout Europe. As the allies learned the full extend of the Holocaust , Eisenhower anticipated that, in the future, attempts to recharacterize Nazi crimes as propaganda ( Holocaust denial ) would be made, and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of Nazi death camps . Following

480-629: A basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and he became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts , inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on numerous occasions. Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. He began oil painting while at Columbia University, after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait. Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during

600-835: A broken-down Tin Lizzie , loaded with paint, has been driven over it". Angels in the Outfield was Eisenhower's favorite movie. His favorite reading material for relaxation was the Western novels of Zane Grey . With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at cards. He learned poker, which he called his "favorite indoor sport", in Abilene. Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him. A friend reported that after learning to play contract bridge at West Point, Eisenhower played

720-464: A camp for thousands of troops and developing a full combat training schedule. After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain and a few days later was promoted to major , a rank he held for 16 years. The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads. Indeed, the convoy averaged only 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later

840-454: A leading role in the 1968–69 Japanese university protests . Above all, the passive role played by the JCP and other "Old Left" groups involved in the protest movement convinced a younger generation of activists to break free from what they saw as the stifling hierarchy and soul-crushing conformity of Old Left organizations to establish new forms of radical activism. Immediately following the defeat of

960-640: A life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly with the Philippine Army Air Corps at the Zablan Airfield in Camp Murphy under Capt. Jesus Villamor , making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937, and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at Fort Lewis . Also around this time, he

1080-478: A man's character by the way he plays cards. Eisenhower is a calm and collected player and never whines at his losses. He is brilliant in victory but never commits the bridge player's worst crime of gloating when he wins." Bridge expert Oswald Jacoby frequently participated in the White House games and said, "The President plays better bridge than golf. He tries to break 90 at golf. At bridge, you would say he plays in

1200-473: A military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow . The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in

1320-555: A pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house in Coombe, Kingston upon Thames , and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney. He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7. In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of

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1440-469: A railroad mechanic and then at a creamery. By 1898, the parents made a decent living and provided a suitable home for their large family. Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third of seven sons born to Ida and David. His mother soon reversed his two forenames after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family. He was named Dwight after

1560-461: A rival organization called "Zenjiren," and the remainder of Zengakuren split up into a large number of warring "sects" ( sekuto ), who would battle against each other at least as much as they battled against the police. Arming themselves with construction helmets painted in the colors of their various factions and large wooden staves they called "violence sticks" ( gebabō, from the German Gewalt ),

1680-722: A schism arose within the group over how best to continue their armed struggle. Those that wanted to relocate overseas became the Japanese Red Army , led by Shigenobu Fusako , while those who wished to continue the revolution at home in Japan joined forces with the Kanagawa prefectural branch of the Revolutionary Left Faction to form the United Red Army , led by Tsuneo Mori and Hiroko Nagata . The Japanese Red Army decamped to

1800-508: A splintering effect on the student movement, as heated disagreements over who was to blame for the failure to stop the treaty led to infighting and recriminations. The first open splits within Zengakuren occurred in the immediate aftermath, and thereafter the previously unified nationwide student federation rapidly disintegrated into numerous warring factions, paving the way for the rise of the radical New Left "sects" ( sekuto ) that would play

1920-558: A violent war against each other in the 1970s, resulting in several deaths per year, and New Left sects continued to carry out the Sanrizuka Struggle against the expansion of Narita Airport well into the 1980s, with vestigial remnants of some sects such as Chūkaku-ha continuing to exist to the present day. Zengakuren Zengakuren is a league of university student associations founded in 1948 in Japan . The word Zengakuren ( 全学連 )

2040-408: A voracious reader on the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling. Eisenhower's parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David. His mother, previously a member (with David) of

2160-469: Is an abridgement of Zen Nihon Gakusei Jichikai Sō Rengō ( 全日本学生自治会総連合 ) which literally means "All-Japan Federation of Student Self-Government Associations." Notable for organizing protests and marches, Zengakuren has been involved in Japan's anti- Red Purge movement, the anti-military base movement, the Anpo protests against the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty , the 1968–1969 Japanese university protests , and

2280-471: Is named, married Richard Nixon 's daughter Julie in 1968. Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and he joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948. He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow. He had

2400-678: The 1956 election in landslides , both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II . Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain the spread of communism and reduce federal deficits . In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end the Korean War and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and an armistice resulted, which remains in effect. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized "inexpensive" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued Harry S. Truman 's policy of recognizing Taiwan as

2520-700: The Allied forces 2 to 1. In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower – not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He

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2640-777: The Army Industrial College in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy). His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression . He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in

2760-688: The Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas . His administration undertook the development and construction of the Interstate Highway System , which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history. In 1957, following the Soviet launch of Sputnik , Eisenhower led the American response which included

2880-527: The Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers. During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with

3000-500: The French armed forces . The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle , a French antifascist monarchist. Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General Henri Giraud , who had been installed by

3120-579: The Geneva Convention . Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067 but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization . In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment. His actions reflected

3240-670: The Italian leader , had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche . But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering

3360-684: The Japan Revolutionary Communist League (Revolutionary Marxist Faction) , known best by its Japanese abbreviation "Kakumaru-ha." In 1965, the Socialist Party's Youth Alliance developed a " Liberation Faction " (Kaihо̄-Ha) that rejected Trotskyism and advocated for Luxemburgism . In 1966, the Kansai Bund merged with some other splinter groups to re-form the Communist League as a nationwide organization, which came to be nicknamed

3480-684: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington , where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow , and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he

3600-792: The Lucky Dragon Incident of 1954, the " Sunagawa Struggle " against the expansion of the United States' Tachikawa Air Base in 1955–1957, the 1958 movement against the Police Duties Bill, and the massive Anpo protests against the US-Japan Security Treaty in 1959–1960. In the late 1950s, an " anti-Stalinist " (i.e. anti-JCP) faction within Zengakuren nicknamed " The Bund " ( Bunto in Japanese) managed to secure control of Zengakuren, in part by rigging elections. Their control of

3720-644: The North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned in the underground headquarters within the Rock of Gibraltar . Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command Gibraltar in 200 years. French cooperation

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3840-547: The Panama Canal Zone , where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz 's On War ), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met." On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–1926 he attended

3960-709: The River Brethren ( Brethren in Christ Church ) sect of the Mennonites , joined the International Bible Students Association , later known as Jehovah's Witnesses . The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Dwight never joined. His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked", but she did not overrule his decision. Speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he

4080-571: The Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis . Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was cancelled when a US spy plane

4200-742: The creation of NASA and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the National Defense Education Act . The Soviet Union began to reinforce their own space program , escalating the Space Race . His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958 . In his farewell address , he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending , particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the military–industrial complex ". Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among

4320-804: The five-star rank as General of the Army . Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of World War II : Operation Torch in the North Africa campaign in 1942–1943 and the invasion of Normandy in 1944. Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas , and raised in Abilene, Kansas . His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became a Jehovah's Witness . Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud , with whom he had two sons. During World War I , he

4440-461: The struggle against the construction of Narita Airport . Zengakuren emerged in the early postwar period as students at Japanese universities established self-governing associations ( jichikai ) in order to protest against perceived fascist remnants in the university system and to organize against proposed tuition hikes. All university students were automatically enrolled in these associations, and dues were automatically deducted from their tuition. In

4560-500: The upper tier of American presidents . The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer" or "iron miner") family migrated from the German village of Karlsbrunn to the Province of Pennsylvania in 1741. Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized . David Jacob Eisenhower, Eisenhower's father, was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father's urging to stay on

4680-632: The " Citizen's League for Peace in Vietnam ," abbreviated Beheiren in Japanese, to allow ordinary citizens a space to protest against the Vietnam war without becoming involved in arcane doctrinal disputes. Then in 1967, university students, inspired by the writings of activists such as Michiko Kanba , Mitsuko Tokoro and others, began establishing " All-Campus Joint Struggle Committees ," abbreviated Zenkyо̄tо̄ in Japanese, that any student or faculty member could join, regardless of ideological or party affiliation, for

4800-629: The " Second Bund " ( Dainiji Bunto ). Among many others, these five "sects" and a dizzying array of additional factions and sub-factions descended into a "season of schisms" ( 分裂の季節 , bunretsu no kisetsu ) characterized by internecine violence known as uchi-geba (literally, "internal violence," borrowing " geba " from the German gewalt ), as student radicals armed themselves with colorful helmets and wooden staves known as [gebabо̄] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) or "volence sticks" and battled each other at least as much as they battled police. By

4920-661: The 1972 Asama Mountain Lodge Incident . Together the Asama Mountain Lodge Incident and the Lod Airport Massacre have often been portrayed as an end point of Japan's New Left movement, as these extreme actions shocked the Japanese people and led to mass desertions from the remaining sects. However, the New Left sects did not entirely disappear after 1972. For example, remnants of Chūkaku-ha and Kakumaru-ha waged

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5040-590: The 70s." Eisenhower served initially in logistics and then the infantry at various camps in Texas and Georgia until 1918. When the US entered World War I , he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was denied and assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas . In February 1918, he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers . His unit was later ordered to France, but, to his chagrin, he received orders for

5160-600: The AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the Western Front north of the Alps . He was ever mindful of

5280-735: The Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army , equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill , Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle . He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov , his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends. In December 1944,

5400-549: The Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief. Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel 's move into the Kasserine Pass , Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall , commanding II Corps . He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns. In February 1943, his authority

5520-409: The Bund and the Kakukyōdō-affiliated students had gained control of approximately 60% of the Zengakuren jichikai, becoming the "mainstream faction" ( shūryū-ha ) and making them strong enough to elect charismatic Bund member Kentarō Karōji chairman of the entire Zengakuren organization and redirect the federation's protests toward more confrontational "direct action," over and against the wishes of

5640-465: The Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone. Every ground commander seeks the battle of annihilation; so far as conditions permit, he tries to duplicate in modern war

5760-518: The Communist Party to form the Communist League , better known by its German-inspired nickname "The Bund" ( Bunto ). In later years, these two groups would retroactively be viewed as early precursors to the New Left in Japan. Over the course of 1959, the Bund and Kakukyōdō worked in concert to seize control of the Zengakuren-member student associations ( jichikai ) at colleges and universities across Japan, in some cases, Bund leaders later confessed, by rigging leadership elections. By November, 1959,

5880-404: The Diet compound to show their anger at the Treaty. This time, however, they were met by hundreds of police armed with truncheons, who attempted to force them back out, precipitating a bloody struggle that lasted for many hours, long into the night. It was during this violent confrontation that female Bund activist Michiko Kanba was killed, shocking the nation and helping to precipitate the fall of

6000-463: The German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany, located primarily in Southern Germany , and headquartered in Frankfurt am Main . Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps , he ordered camera crews to document evidence for use in the Nuremberg Trials . He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in US custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to

6120-435: The Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the Battle of the Bulge , which the Allies turned back in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Army Air Force to engage. German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the Eastern Front with the Red Army and the Western Front with the Western Allies. The British wanted to capture Berlin , but Eisenhower decided it would be

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6240-460: The JCP and other members of the nationwide coalition organized to protest the Security Treaty. The radical student activists were undeterred however, and in January 1960, organized a sit-in in Tokyo's Haneda Airport to try to physically block Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi from traveling to Washington, D.C. to sign the new treaty. Finally on June 15, 1960, at the climax of the protests, the radical student activists once again smashing their way into

6360-464: The JCP and the JCP-linked "anti-mainstream faction" ( han-shūryū-ha ) of the Zengakuren. On November 27, 1959, as part of the Anpo protests against proposed revision the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty , Bund and Kakukyōdō members led Zengakuren students to smash their way into Japan's National Diet compound, where they proceeded to dance and sing protest songs for several hours before disbanding peacefully. This "violent" action drew condemnation from

6480-486: The JCP embarked on a course of immediate, violent communist revolution in Japan, ordering student activists into the mountains to form " mountain village guerrilla squads ." This policy proved to be an unmitigated disaster for the JCP, which completely reversed itself by 1955, disavowing the violence and in part blaming it on the student activists themselves. This volte-face enraged many student activists, who began to increasingly question whether they should continue to follow

6600-411: The Japanese government to abrogate the treaty. In 1970, following the collapse of the 1968-1969 university protests , a number of New Left sects and the anti-Vietnam War organization Beheiren held a series of protest marches against the Security Treaty. However, prime minister Eisaku Satō opted to ignore the protests completely and allow the treaty to automatically renew. Together the twin defeats of

6720-435: The Kishi cabinet. However, despite helping bring about the resignation of Kishi and the cancellation of a planned visit to Japan by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Anpo protests failed to stop the revision of the Security Treaty, which took effect on June 19, 1960, bringing the protest movement to an end and sowing dissention and disillusionment among the ranks of the radical student activists. The Anpo protests had

6840-433: The Middle East and promptly embarked on a campaign of international terrorism that lasted well into the 1980s, beginning with the Lod Airport Massacre in 1972. Meanwhile, the United Red Army retreated into the mountains north of Tokyo where they murdered twelve of their own members in self-criticism sessions before remaining members engaged in a dramatic hostage standoff with police broadcast live on national television in

6960-549: The New Left Zengakuren "sects," Zenkyо̄tо̄ activists barricaded university campuses, occupied university buildings, halted classes, harassed administrators and professors, and made a variety demands, from concrete proposals for improving campus life to more abstract demands relating to ending the war in Vietnam and overthrowing the Japanese economic and political system. Activists regularly battled against police and each other on campus grounds, donning distinctive colored helmets so that they could recognize fellow members. In late 1968, at

7080-432: The New Left sects was increasingly left in the hands of the most extreme radicals, some of whom ultimately resorted to terrorism. On March 31, 1970, nine members of the Second Bund's Red Army Faction hijacked Japan Airlines Flight 351 and forced it to fly to North Korea, which the hijackers believed to be a Socialist paradise. Other members of the group carried out a string of high-profile bank robberies in 1971. However,

7200-497: The Pacific. Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did. Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed. He also had to skillfully manage to retain

7320-416: The Philippines, which was denied; because of the ongoing Mexican Revolution , he was posted to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio , Texas, under the command of General Funston. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Funston convinced him to become the football coach for Peacock Military Academy ; he later became the coach at St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University , and was an honorary member of

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7440-508: The Sigma Beta Chi fraternity there. While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of Boone, Iowa . They were immediately taken with each other. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916. A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the impending American entry into World War I ; Funston approved 10 days of leave for their wedding. The Eisenhowers moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage. The Eisenhowers had two sons. In late 1917 while he

7560-605: The Universe", and another that he could not serve as Army Chief of Staff if others believed he had political ambitions. In 1945, Truman told Eisenhower during the Potsdam Conference that if desired, the president would help the general win the 1948 election , and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination. As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run. In January 1948, after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for

7680-404: The baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest". He made the varsity football team and was a starter at halfback in 1912, when he tried to tackle the legendary Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indians . Eisenhower suffered a torn knee while being tackled in the next game, which was the last he played; he reinjured his knee on horseback and in

7800-456: The boxing ring, so he turned to fencing and gymnastics. Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader, which caught the attention of General Frederick Funston . He graduated from West Point in the middle of the class of 1915, which became known as " the class the stars fell on ", because 59 members eventually became general officers . After graduation in 1915, Second Lieutenant Eisenhower requested an assignment in

7920-418: The campus struggles in 1969 and the Anpo protests in 1970 led to a renewed round of recriminations and schisms, as New Left groups further split into dozens of warring factions amidst even more violent internal conflict. From 1969 to 2003, from 1 to 4 people died every year as the result of internal conflict between New Left groups. With more moderate activists increasingly dropping out of the movement, control of

8040-442: The center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944 . In recognition of his senior position in

8160-475: The classic example of Cannae . Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group 's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley ( 12th US Army Group ) and Devers ( Sixth US Army Group ) insisted they be given priority in

8280-526: The clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington, D.C. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct. In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army. MacArthur allowed Eisenhower to handpick an officer whom he thought would contribute to

8400-443: The disintegration of their movement, as they focused increasingly on " self-negation " ( jiko hitei ) and " self-criticism " ( hansei ). Meanwhile, as the violence on campuses spiraled out of control, leading to university closures and the cancellation of entrance examinations, public opinion turned against the student activists. In 1969, the passage of the Act on Temporary Measures concerning University Management gave police

8520-428: The end of 1948, Zengakuren comprised almost 60% of Japan's total student population. Over the course of the 1950s, Zengakuren took part in a number of "struggles" ( tōsō ) and protest movements, including the " Bloody May Day " protests against the terms of the San Francisco Peace Treaty on May 1, 1952, the struggle against the Anti-Subversive Activities Law from 1952 to 1953, the movement against nuclear testing after

8640-439: The evangelist Dwight L. Moody . All of the boys were nicknamed "Ike", such as "Big Ike" ( Edgar ) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name. By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike". In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown. As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother Earl an eye, for which he

8760-699: The fall, the Soviets brutally suppressed the Hungarian Revolution , sowing further confusion and disillusionment among the worldwide Communist movement. These developments led directly to the formation in 1957 of the Trotskyist Revolutionary Communist League (abbreviated Kakukyōdō in Japanese) by dissident student activists breaking free from the JCP, under the guidance of the charismatic half-blind philosopher Kan'ichi Kuroda . Then in December 1958, another group of Trotskyist dissidents split from

8880-658: The family farm. Eisenhower's mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower , of predominantly German Protestant ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in Lecompton, Kansas , on the campus of their alma mater, Lane University . David owned a general store in Hope, Kansas , but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $ 24 (equivalent to $ 814 in 2023) to their name. David worked as

9000-465: The first to use such a weapon." Initially, Eisenhower hoped for cooperation with the Soviets. He even visited Warsaw in 1945. Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration , he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city. However, by mid-1947, as east–west tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower agreed with

9120-417: The forthcoming Republican National Convention , Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office". Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time. Many believed he

9240-527: The funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions. Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery. When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented. At that time, a friend Edward "Swede" Hazlett was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply, since no tuition

9360-409: The game six nights a week for five months. Eisenhower continued to play bridge throughout his military career. While stationed in the Philippines, he played regularly with President Manuel Quezon , earning him the nickname the "Bridge Wizard of Manila". An unwritten qualification for an officer's appointment to Eisenhower's staff during World War II was the ability to play bridge. He played even during

9480-432: The hazing, though he willingly accepted it as a plebe. He was also a regular violator of the more detailed regulations and finished school with a less than stellar discipline rating. Academically, Eisenhower's best subject by far was English. Otherwise, his performance was average, though he thoroughly enjoyed the typical emphasis of engineering on science and mathematics. In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making

9600-594: The help of his brother Milton Eisenhower , then a journalist at the Agriculture Department , he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley , Assistant Secretary of War , from 1929 to February 1933. Major Eisenhower graduated from

9720-561: The improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as president. He assumed duties again at Camp Meade , Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton , Sereno E. Brett , and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered

9840-400: The inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion. Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history: Our landings in

9960-470: The last 20 years of his life. The images were mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington , and Abraham Lincoln . Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's paintings, "simple and earnest", caused her to "wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, Eisenhower in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like

10080-424: The late 2010s, Zengakuren ( Japanese Communist Party faction) was inactive. Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight David Eisenhower (born David Dwight Eisenhower ; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969), also known by his nickname Ike , was the 34th president of the United States , serving from 1953 to 1961. During World War II , he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved

10200-530: The legal basis to smash through the barricades, enter campuses, and restore order, dealing a harsh blow to the New Left movement. A second major blow to the New Left movements in Japan was the failure of the 1970 Anpo protests to secure an abrogation of the US-Japan Security Treaty. Throughout the decade of the 1960s, New Left activists had looked forward to the end of the revised treaty's initial 10-year term in 1970 as an opportunity to try to persuade

10320-648: The legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the Formosa Resolution . His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War . After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam . He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration. During

10440-459: The mid-1980s. Although dozens of rival sects emerged over the course of the 1960s, three major groupings occurred: By the end of the 1960s, there were several different factions claiming the mantle of the name "Zengakuren." Several different groups still claim this title today, and remain active, although their numbers have dwindled greatly since their heyday in the 1950s and 1960s. As of 1999, there were said to be five Zengakuren factions: In

10560-673: The mission. Hence he chose James Ord , a classmate of his at West Point. Having been brought up in Mexico, which inculcated into him the Spanish culture which influenced both Mexico and the Philippines, Ord was deemed the right pick for the job. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted

10680-485: The new tank corps , where he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel in the National Army . He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at Camp Colt  – his first command. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel. His spirits were raised when

10800-532: The new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis. In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army . His main role was the rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, which was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported

10920-600: The new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon . Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be

11040-467: The new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court-martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented. From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner , John J. Pershing , Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall . He first became executive officer to General Conner in

11160-595: The next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord. Admiral Ernest J. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from

11280-635: The orders of the JCP. Another blow came in February 1956, when Nikita Khrushchev secretly denounced Stalinism in his speech " On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences ." This speech went unreported in official Party organs, so the Stalinist Japanese Communist Party did not offer any reaction. But copies of this " Secret Speech " circulated around the world and had a great impact on Communist-affiliated youth and student organizations. Then in

11400-439: The organization was strenuously opposed by the "anti-mainstream" pro-JCP faction. This began the process of numerous internal schisms within Zengakuren that would continue throughout the 1960s. Nevertheless, for the time being Zengakuren held together in order mobilize its full power to try to stop the 1960 revision of the US-Japan Security Treaty. At the apex of its organizing power during the anti-Treaty protests in 1960, Zengakuren

11520-419: The participated in a number of struggles throughout the 1960s and beyond, including the struggle against normalization of diplomatic relations with Korea in 1965, protests against the docking in Japan of US Navy nuclear-powered submarines and aircraft carriers, anti- Vietnam War protests, the university struggles of 1968–69 , and the Sanrizuka Struggle against the construction of Narita Airport from 1968 into

11640-517: The protests, the Bund split into three warring factions and then dissolved. In 1961, the JCP's own "Structural Reform" faction, led by Shōjirō Kasuga , was expelled from the party, and the Zengakuren activists loyal to Kasuga formed the "Structural Reform" faction ( Kо̄kai-ha ) of Zengakuren. In 1963 Kakukyōdō split into the Japan Revolutionary Communist League, National Committee (Middle Core Faction) , better known by its Japanese abbreviation "Chūkaku-ha," and

11760-480: The purposes of carrying out joint struggles against university administrations and the Vietnam War. In 1968 and 1969, student protests forced the closure of dozens of university campuses nationwide. Known as the daigaku funsō ( 大学紛争 , lit. 'university troubles") or daigaku tōsō ( 大学闘争 , "university struggles"), the protests were part of a worldwide protest cycle in 1968 . Working in combination with

11880-621: The regimental executive officer. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated IX Corps under Major General Kenyon Joyce . In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General Walter Krueger , Commander of the Third Army , at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers , he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941. After

12000-466: The rest of their lives. Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill , George S. Patton, George Marshall, and Bernard Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur and that a positive relationship endured. While in Manila, Mamie suffered

12120-480: The second half of the 1960s, many left-leaning activists, galvanized by Japan's support of America's war in Vietnam but repulsed by the endless ideological hair-splitting and internecine violence of the New Left sects, sought to establish new types of movements that would be free of hierarchy and open to all, regardless of ideological orientation. In 1965, a group of intellectuals associated with philosopher Shunsuke Tsurumi 's "Science of Thought" study group established

12240-431: The services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate , and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy. The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from

12360-648: The stressful weeks leading up to the D-Day landings. His favorite partner was General Alfred Gruenther , considered the best player in the US Army; he appointed Gruenther his second-in-command at NATO partly because of his skill at bridge. Saturday night bridge games at the White House were a feature of his presidency. He was a strong player, though not an expert by modern standards. The great bridge player and popularizer Ely Culbertson described his game as classic and sound with "flashes of brilliance" and said that "you can always judge

12480-655: The unit under his command received orders overseas to France. This time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed a week before his departure date. Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite receiving the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home. In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the Great War (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery ) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing

12600-505: The wake of a failed general strike in 1947, the Japan Communist Party (JCP) stepped into organize the separate university associations into a single nationwide organization. As a result of this extensive organizing effort, the formation of Zengakuren was officially announced on September 18, 1948. Teruo Takei , a Tokyo University student and member of the Japanese Communist Party, was the organization's first chairman. Towards

12720-512: The war ended in Europe, he served as military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany (1945), Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and as the first supreme commander of NATO (1951–1952). In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft , who opposed NATO . Eisenhower won that year's election and

12840-589: The works of Marxist theorists like Karl Marx and Leon Trotsky , French existentialist philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus , and the homegrown philosophy of the Japanese poet and critic Takaaki Yoshimoto . Yoshimoto's interpretation of "autonomy" ( jiritsusei ) and "subjectivity" ( shutaisei ) were based on his critique of the progressive liberal interpretations of these ideas by other Japanese intellectuals such as Masao Maruyama , whom he denounced as hypocritical. The students' devotion to shutaisei in particular would lead ultimately to

12960-487: The zenith of the movement, tens of thousands of activists occupied Shinjuku Station in what became known as the Shinjuku riot . All told, some 165 university campuses witnessed significant protest activity in 1968 and 1969, and around 70 campuses were barricaded against police intrusion, with additional protests taking place at a large number of high schools. The New Left activists of 1968-1969 drew ideological inspiration from

13080-648: Was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953. Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated in 1909. As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening. The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and surprisingly recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year. He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked

13200-458: Was able to count on around 250 jichikai at 110 schools, representing a total strength of around 290,000 students. The first open splits within Zengakuren occurred in the immediate aftermath, as despondency at the failure of the anti-Treaty protests to stop the Treaty from being ratified led to numerous rounds of recriminations. Thereafter, the pro-JCP group split off from Zengakuren entirely to form

13320-570: Was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly. At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold , commanding general of the Army Air Forces , to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney . He returned to Washington on June 3 with

13440-495: Was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany. Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for

13560-486: Was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation" with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into Tunisia and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in Vichy France and his continued role as commander-in-chief of

13680-434: Was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained tank crews. Between the wars he served in staff positions in the US and the Philippines, reaching the rank of brigadier general shortly before the entry of the US into World War II in 1941. After further promotion Eisenhower oversaw the Allied invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany . After

13800-632: Was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army , commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign . After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the invasion of Sicily . Once Mussolini ,

13920-748: Was in charge of training at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia , his wife Mamie had their first son, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower , who died of scarlet fever at the age of three. Eisenhower was mostly reluctant to discuss his death. Their second son, John Eisenhower , was born in Denver , Colorado. John served in the United States Army , retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. He married Barbara Jean Thompson and had four children: David , Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean . David, after whom Camp David

14040-534: Was offered a post by the Philippine Commonwealth Government, namely by then Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named Quezon City , but he declined the offer. Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as commanding officer of the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment at Fort Lewis , Washington, later becoming

14160-458: Was remorseful for the remainder of his life. Eisenhower developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring the outdoors. He learned about hunting and fishing, cooking, and card playing from a man named Bob Davis who camped on the Smoky Hill River . While his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's interest in military history; he became

14280-466: Was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his Senator, Joseph L. Bristow . Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy. He accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911. At West Point, Eisenhower relished the emphasis on traditions and on sports, but was less enthusiastic about

14400-452: Was shot down over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower approved the Bay of Pigs Invasion , which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out. On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security . He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege . He signed

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