The Japan Electric Association ( 日本電気協会 ) ( JEA ) is a membership organisation for the electricity sector in Japan and, although it has roots dating back to 1892, was founded in October 1921. It currently has around 4,800 corporate and individual members.
121-398: The JCA has a number of committees that set national technical guidelines (JEAGs), codes (JEACs) and standards covering areas ranging from electrical safety to the design of nuclear power stations some of which are regarded as optional 'independent standards of the private sectors' while others have official status as the 'standards of academic societies and associations'. The JCA also acts as
242-468: A spallation neutron source being used for nuclear transmutation of "legacy" waste and/or power generation. Such reactors could also be used to produce medical isotopes. Some isotopes, like Cobalt-60 are currently mostly produced in reactors like the Canadian CANDU . Plutonium-238 , the preferred material for radioisotope thermal generators for use in spacecraft, faced a significant shortage after
363-635: A "perfect partner for renewables" (wording from Shell and Statoil advertisements). Groups like the Sierra Club , Environmental Defense Fund and Natural Resources Defense Council are receiving grants from other fossil fuel companies. As of 2011, a strategy paper released by Greenpeace titled "Battle of Grids" proposed gradual replacement of nuclear power by fossil gas plants which would provide "flexible backup for wind and solar power". However, Greenpeace has since distanced itself from advocating for fossil gas, instead proposing grid energy storage as
484-604: A controversial area of public policy . When compared to other energy sources, nuclear power has one of the lowest death rates per unit of energy produced – 0.07 per TWh, as compared to over 32 per TWh in case of brown coal. This figure is driven by a 2005 WHO projection of up to 4000 stochastic cancer deaths that could result from the Chernobyl disaster. The UNSCEAR reports in its 2008 summary on Chernobyl that no increases in cancer incidence (other than thyroid cancer) have been observed to date that can be attributed to radiation from
605-765: A decision by the previous Democratic Party, the government will re-open nuclear plants, aiming for "a realistic and balanced energy structure". In May 2014 the Fukui District Court blocked the restart of the Oi reactors. In April 2015 courts blocked the restarting of two reactors at the Takahama Nuclear Power Plant but permitted the restart of two reactors at the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant . The government hopes that nuclear power will produce 20% of Japan's electricity by 2030. As of June 2015, approval
726-752: A function subsequently transferred to the Japan Electric Meters Inspection Corporation (JEMIC). The Japan Electrical Safety & Environment Technology Laboratories (JET) were founded as the Japan Electrical Testing Laboratories of Japan Electric Association in February 1963. Nuclear power in Japan Japan has generated up to 30% of its electrical power from nuclear reactors and planned to increase that share to 40% up until 2011. Nuclear power energy
847-513: A gradual exit from nuclear energy. By October 2011, while there had been electricity shortages, Japan survived the summer of 2011 without the extensive blackouts that some had predicted, but at the price of casting doubts on Japan ambitious carbon emissions cuts. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, stated that "Public confidence in the safety of nuclear power
968-410: A group of twenty-one scientists published a critique of Jacobson's work and found that his analysis involves "errors, inappropriate methods and implausible assumptions" and failed to provide "credible evidence for rejecting the conclusions of previous analyses that point to the benefits of considering a broad portfolio of energy system options." Critics state that the anti-nuclear arguments overestimate
1089-610: A landslide or earthquake. In response, Yoshinobu Terasaka, head of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency , replied that the plants were so well designed that "such a situation is practically impossible". Following damage at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant due to the 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake , Kiyoo Mogi called for the immediate closure of the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant , which
1210-682: A license themselves to build similar plant designs. Developments in nuclear power since that time have seen contributions from Japanese companies and research institutes on the same level as the other big users of nuclear power. From the early 1970s to the present, the Japanese government promoted the siting of nuclear power plants through a variety of policy instruments involving soft social control and financial incentives. By offering large subsidies and public works projects to rural communities and by using educational trips, junkets for local government officials, and OpEds written as news by pro-nuclear supporters,
1331-458: A long history of earthquakes and seismic activity , and destructive earthquakes , often resulting in tsunamis , occur several times a century. Due to this, concern has been expressed about the particular risks of constructing and operating nuclear power plants in Japan. Amory Lovins has said: "An earthquake-and-tsunami zone crowded with 127 million people is an unwise place for 54 reactors". To date,
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#17328630564151452-408: A long history of nuclear power companies conspiring with governments to manipulate public opinion in favour of nuclear energy". One nuclear company "even stacked public meetings with its own employees who posed as ordinary citizens to speak in support of nuclear power plants". An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says "public confidence in the safety of nuclear power
1573-459: A major issue. In 1975, an administrative court withdrew the construction licence for the plant. The Wyhl experience encouraged the formation of citizen action groups near other planned nuclear sites. In 1972, the nuclear disarmament movement maintained a presence in the Pacific, largely in response to French nuclear testing there. New Zealand activists sailed boats into the test zone, interrupting
1694-503: A nuclear phase-out policy, aiming to end nuclear power generation in Sweden by 2010. On 5 February 2009, the Government of Sweden announced an agreement allowing for the replacement of existing reactors, effectively ending the phase-out policy. Globally, the number of operable reactors remains nearly the same over the last 30 years, and nuclear electricity production is steadily growing after
1815-620: A nuclear power programme. Protest movements against nuclear power first emerged in the United States, at the local level, and spread quickly to Europe and the rest of the world. National nuclear campaigns emerged in the late 1970s. Fuelled by the Three Mile Island accident and the Chernobyl disaster , the anti-nuclear power movement mobilised political and economic forces which for some years "made nuclear energy untenable in many countries". In
1936-704: A number of codes and guides for the Japanese nuclear power industry , including the Rules of Quality Assurance for Safety of Nuclear Power Plants (JEAC 4111-2003) and the Guideline for Development and Design of Computerized Human-Machine Interface in the Central Control Room (JEAG 4617-2005), intended to meet the performance requirements specified under the Electricity Utilities Industry Law As of 2007,
2057-474: A number of related concerns: Of these concerns, nuclear accidents and disposal of long-lived radioactive waste have probably had the greatest public impact worldwide. Anti-nuclear campaigners point to the 2011 Fukushima nuclear emergency as proof that nuclear power can never be 100% safe. Costs resulting from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster are likely to exceed 12 trillion yen ($ 100 billion) and
2178-517: A single reactor producing it shut down, before the U.S. established a capacity to produce it from Neptunium-237 at one of their laboratories. Anti-nuclear groups say that reliance on nuclear energy can be reduced by adopting energy conservation and energy efficiency measures. Energy efficiency can reduce energy consumption while providing the same level of energy "services". Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight , wind , tides , plant growth , and geothermal heat , as
2299-518: A solution to issues caused by intermittent renewable energy . In Germany the Energiewende , which was advertised as a shift to renewable energy but included a gradual phaseout of nuclear power from 2000 to end 2022, caused among other things a rise in fossil gas power production from 49.2 TWh in 2000 to 94.7 TWh in 2020. In the same interval total electricity generation barely changed (576.6 TWh in 2000 vs 574.2 TWh in 2020) while it did rise and fall in
2420-407: A strong earthquake with a magnitude above 7.0 could pose a 'serious problem' for Japan's nuclear power stations. Before Fukushima, "14 lawsuits charging that risks had been ignored or hidden were filed in Japan, revealing a disturbing pattern in which operators underestimated or hid seismic dangers to avoid costly upgrades and keep operating. But all the lawsuits were unsuccessful". Underscoring
2541-582: A variety of strategies to persuade the public to accept nuclear power", including the publication of numerous "fact sheets" that discuss issues of public concern. M.V. Ramana says that none of these strategies have been very successful. Nuclear proponents have tried to regain public support by offering newer, purportedly safer, reactor designs. These designs include those that incorporate passive safety and Small Modular Reactors . While these reactor designs "are intended to inspire trust, they may have an unintended effect: creating distrust of older reactors that lack
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#17328630564152662-404: Is a threat to modern civilization from global nuclear war by accidental or deliberate nuclear strike. Some climate scientists estimate that a war between two countries that resulted in 100 Hiroshima-size atomic explosions would cause significant loss of life, in the tens of millions from climatic effects alone as well as disabled future generations. Soot thrown up into the atmosphere could blanket
2783-403: Is almost certainly the case with Israel ) or indeed the reverse, as is the case with most users of nuclear power past and present. There are large variations in peoples' beliefs regarding the issues surrounding nuclear power, including the technology itself, its deployment, climate change , and energy security . There is a wide spectrum of views and concerns over nuclear power and it remains
2904-601: Is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electricity usage, 11.4% in the EU, and it is widely used in Asia , and the United States . In 2014, worldwide installed photovoltaics capacity increased to 177 gigawatts (GW), sufficient to supply 1 per cent of global electricity demands . As of 2020 wind power expansion slowed down due to protests of residents and environmentalists. Solar thermal energy stations operate in
3025-600: Is another area causing concern. In 2008 Taku Komatsubara, a geologist at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology alleged that the presence of active faults was deliberately ignored when surveys of potential new power plant sites were undertaken, a view supported by a former topographer . Takashi Nakata, a seismologist from the Hiroshima Institute of Technology has made similar allegations and suggests that conflicts of interest between
3146-703: Is clear that the safety culture in Japan's nuclear industry has come under greater scrutiny. On 18 April 2007, Japan and the United States signed the United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan , aimed at putting in place a framework for the joint research and development of nuclear energy technology. Each country will conduct research into fast reactor technology, fuel cycle technology, advanced computer simulation and modeling, small and medium reactors, safeguards and physical protection; and nuclear waste management. In March 2008, Tokyo Electric Power Company announced that
3267-532: Is comparable to the 1986 Chernobyl disaster . The Economist reports that the Fukushima disaster is "a bit like three Three Mile Islands in a row, with added damage in the spent-fuel stores", and that there will be ongoing impacts: Anti-nuclear The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement that opposes various nuclear technologies . Some direct action groups, environmental movements , and professional organisations have identified themselves with
3388-573: Is estimated at ¥13.46 trillion ($ 123 billion). In February 2023, a survey by Asahi Shimbun showed that 51% of participants in Japan favored the restart of nuclear plant operations, with 42% opposed. In 1954, the Operations Coordinating Board of the United States National Security Council proposed that the U.S. government undertake a "vigorous offensive" urging nuclear energy for Japan in order to overcome
3509-437: Is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs. Many have since referred to Jacobson's work to justify advocating for all 100% renewables, however, in February, 2017,
3630-518: Is the case with any energy sources, including renewable energy , IPCC analyzed total life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions , which account for all emissions during manufacturing, installation, operations and decommissioning. With 12 gCO2eq/kWh nuclear power still remains one of the lowest emitting energy sources available. In 2011, a French court fined Électricité de France (EDF) €1.5m and jailed two senior employees for spying on Greenpeace, including hacking into Greenpeace's computer systems. Greenpeace
3751-402: Is well under way. In the old economy, energy was produced by burning something – oil, coal, or natural gas – leading to the carbon emissions that have come to define our economy. The new energy economy harnesses the energy in wind, the energy coming from the sun, and heat from within the earth itself. In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW. Yearly wind energy production
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3872-482: Is widespread", and a 2001 survey by the European Commission found that "only 10.1 percent of Europeans trusted the nuclear industry". This public distrust is periodically reinforced by nuclear safety violations, or through ineffectiveness or corruption of the nuclear regulatory authorities. Once lost, says Ramana, trust is extremely difficult to regain. Faced with public antipathy, the nuclear industry has "tried
3993-457: The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake , inundating the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant , was more than twice the design height, while the ground acceleration also slightly exceeded the design parameters. In 2006 a Japanese government subcommittee was charged with revising the national guidelines on the earthquake-resistance of nuclear power plants, which had last been partially revised in 2001, resulting in
4114-499: The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . According to the Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan, "by April 27 approximately 55 percent of the fuel in reactor unit 1 had melted, along with 35 percent of the fuel in unit 2, and 30 percent of the fuel in unit 3; and overheated spent fuels in the storage pools of units 3 and 4 probably were also damaged". The accident exceeds the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in seriousness, and
4235-544: The Chernobyl disaster , an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people marched in Rome to protest against the Italian nuclear program. In Australia unions, peace activists and environmentalists opposed uranium mining from the 1970s onwards and rallies bringing together hundreds of thousands of people to oppose nuclear weapons peaked in the mid- 1980s. In the US, public opposition preceded the shutdown of
4356-470: The Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant be shut down as an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or higher is estimated 87% likely to hit the area within the next 30 years. Kan wanted to avoid a possible repeat of the Fukushima nuclear disaster . On 9 May 2011, Chubu Electric decided to comply with the government's request. In July 2011, a mayor in Shizuoka Prefecture and a group of residents filed a lawsuit seeking
4477-523: The International Energy Agency explains: Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources. Anti-nuclear groups also favour
4598-510: The Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency were engaged in the process of evaluating certain standards produced by the JEA and others for technical adequacy. There have been allegations that the JEA wields too much power in setting standards. Professor Katsuhiko Ishibashi , one of the seismologists on a Japanese government subcommittee that produced the 2006 Regulatory Guide for Reviewing Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Reactor Facilities claimed that
4719-588: The Pacific . In 1961, at the height of the Cold War , about 50,000 women brought together by Women Strike for Peace marched in 60 cities in the United States to demonstrate against nuclear weapons. In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing. Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s, and in the late 1960s some members of
4840-612: The Partial Test Ban Treaty which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing. Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s, and in the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to express their concerns. In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl , West Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America . Nuclear power became an issue of major public protest in
4961-528: The Russian invasion of Ukraine , Japan's Prime Minister announced the restart of nine units by winter 2022 and seven more by summer 2023. The National Diet of Japan Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) is the first independent investigation commission by the National Diet in the 66-year history of Japan's constitutional government. NAICC was established on 8 December 2011 with
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5082-694: The Shoreham , Yankee Rowe , Millstone 1 , Rancho Seco , Maine Yankee , and many other nuclear power plants. For many years after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, nuclear power was off the policy agenda in most countries, and the anti-nuclear power movement seemed to have won its case, so some anti-nuclear groups disbanded. In the 2000s , however, following public relations activities by the nuclear industry, advances in nuclear reactor designs , and concerns about climate change , nuclear power issues came back into energy policy discussions in some countries. The 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident subsequently undermined
5203-555: The Tomari-3 , after the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa 6 was shut down. The Tomari-3 was shut down for maintenance on 5 May, leaving Japan with no nuclear-derived electricity for the first time since 1970, when the country's then-only two reactors were taken offline for five days for maintenance. On 15 June 2012, approval was given to restart Ōi Units 3 and 4 which could take six weeks to bring them to full operation. On 1 July 2012, unit 3 of
5324-492: The global energy crisis which greatly increased the cost of imported fossil fuels, Japan's prime minister announced the building of safer next-generation nuclear reactors and restarting idle existing plants would be considered. In 2022 ten reactors were operational producing about 5% of Japan's electricity. In December 2022, Japan's Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) approved a draft-rule allowing nuclear reactors to operate beyond 60 years by excluding inspection downtimes. This
5445-486: The Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted. This reactor can provide 1,180 MW of electricity. On 21 July 2012 unit 4 was restarted, also 1,180 MW. The reactor was shut down again on 14 September 2013, again leaving Japan with no operating power reactors. Government figures in the 2014 Annual Report on Energy show that Japan depended on imported fossil fuels for 88% of its electricity in fiscal year 2013, compared with 62% in fiscal 2010. Without significant nuclear power,
5566-443: The "range of physical hazards which accompany the technology" and leads to a "concern over the political relations of the nuclear industry". Baruch Fischhoff , a social scientist, said that many people really do not trust the nuclear industry. Wade Allison , a physicist, said "radiation is safe & all nations should embrace nuclear technology" M.V. Ramana says that "distrust of the social institutions that manage nuclear energy
5687-565: The 1950s was engaging in campaigns against the nuclear industry which it perceived as a threat to their commercial interests. Organizations such as the American Petroleum Institute , the Pennsylvania Independent Oil and Gas Association and Marcellus Shale Coalition were engaged in anti-nuclear lobbying in the late 2010s and from 2019, large fossil fuel suppliers started advertising campaigns portraying fossil gas as
5808-612: The 1970s and while opposition to nuclear power continues, increasing public support for nuclear power has re-emerged over the last decade in light of growing awareness of global warming and renewed interest in all types of clean energy (see the Pro-nuclear movement ). A protest against nuclear power occurred in July 1977 in Bilbao , Spain, with up to 200,000 people in attendance. Following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, an anti-nuclear protest
5929-549: The 1970s and 1980s, the formation of green parties was often a direct result of anti-nuclear politics (e.g., in Germany and Sweden). Some of these anti-nuclear power organisations are reported to have developed considerable expertise on nuclear power and energy issues. In 1992, the chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission said that "his agency had been pushed in the right direction on safety issues because of
6050-475: The 2030 target for nuclear energy to 20%-22% of power generation by restarting reactors, compared to LNG 27%, coal 25%, renewables 23% and oil 3%. This would reduce Japan's carbon dioxide emissions by 26% compared to 2013, and increase self-sufficiency to about 24% by 2030, compared to 8% in 2016. Since the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, Japan has restarted twelve reactors and fifteen more have applied to restart, including two that are under construction. Amid
6171-633: The Fukushima disaster, and India is proposing to build about 20 new reactors over the next decade. However, there is Japanese domestic opposition to the agreement, as India has not agreed to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons . In 2014, following the failure of the prototype Monju sodium-cooled fast reactor , Japan agreed to cooperate in developing the French ASTRID demonstration sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor. As of 2016, France
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#17328630564156292-557: The Fukushima disaster. The application of nuclear technology , as a source of energy and as an instrument of war, has been controversial. These issues are discussed in nuclear weapons debate , nuclear power debate , and uranium mining debate . Scientists and diplomats have debated nuclear weapons policy since before the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The public became concerned about nuclear weapons testing from about 1954, following extensive nuclear testing in
6413-498: The Fukushima nuclear disaster last March". There were flaws in, and lax enforcement of, the safety rules governing Japanese nuclear power companies, and this included insufficient protection against tsunamis. On 6 May 2011, Prime Minister Naoto Kan ordered the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant to be shut down as an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or higher is likely to hit the area within the next thirty years. As of 27 March 2012, Japan had only one out of 54 nuclear reactors operating;
6534-528: The Genkai 1, Mihama 1 and 2, Shimane 1, and Tsuruga 1 reactors. In terms of consequences of radioactivity releases and core damage, the Fukushima I nuclear accidents in 2011 were the worst experienced by the Japanese nuclear industry, in addition to ranking among the worst civilian nuclear accidents , though no fatalities were caused and no serious exposure of radiation to workers occurred. The Tokaimura reprocessing plant fire in 1999 had 2 worker deaths, one more
6655-592: The Japanese Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction , has expressed similar concerns, stating in 2004 that the issue 'is a critical problem which can bring a catastrophe to Japan through a man-made disaster'. Warnings from Kunihiko Shimazaki, a professor of seismology at the University of Tokyo, were also ignored. In 2004, as a member of an influential cabinet office committee on offshore earthquakes, Mr. Shimazaki "warned that Fukushima's coast
6776-756: The Japanese nuclear industry and the regulators contribute to the problem. A 2011 Natural Resources Defense Council report that evaluated the seismic hazard to reactors worldwide, as determined by the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program data, placed 35 of Japan's reactors in the group of 48 reactors worldwide in very high and high seismic hazard areas. As of January 2022 there are 33 operable reactors in Japan, of which 12 reactors are currently operating. Additionally, 5 reactors have been approved for restart and further 8 have restart applications under review. Download coordinates as: On 6 May 2011, then Prime Minister Naoto Kan requested
6897-566: The Philippines, there were many protests in the late 1970s and 1980s against the proposed Bataan Nuclear Power Plant , which was built but never operated due to safety concerns and issues regarding corruption. In 1981, Germany's largest anti-nuclear power demonstration protested against the construction of the Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant west of Hamburg. Some 100,000 people came face to face with 10,000 police officers. In
7018-469: The United States and Spain, and as of 2016, the largest of these is the 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System in California. The world's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of
7139-508: The accident. Many studies have shown that the public "perceives nuclear power as a very risky technology" and, around the world, nuclear energy declined in popularity in the aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster , but it has recently rebounded in response to the climate crisis. Anti-nuclear critics see nuclear power as a dangerous, expensive way to boil water to generate electricity. Opponents of nuclear power have raised
7260-623: The beginning of Japan's nuclear program. The Atomic Energy Basic Law limited activities to only peaceful purposes. The first nuclear power plant in Japan, the Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant , was built by the UK 's GEC and was commissioned in 1966. In the 1970s, the first light water reactors were built in cooperation with American companies. These plants were bought from U.S. vendors such as General Electric and Westinghouse with contractual work done by Japanese companies, who would later get
7381-473: The benefits of renewable energy and fail to consider land per unit of energy inefficiencies and data that claims to forecast, "...biomass, wind, and solar power are set to occupy an area equivalent of the size of the European Union by 2050." The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement which operates at the local, national, and international level. Various types of groups have identified themselves with
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#17328630564157502-538: The central government won over the support of depopulating, hard-on-their-luck coastal towns, and villages. Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the Three Mile Island accident (TMI) or the Chernobyl disaster as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s, 1990s, and up to the present day. While many new plants had been proposed, all were subsequently canceled or never brought past initial planning. Cancelled plant orders include: However, starting in
7623-716: The clean up effort to decontaminate affected areas and decommission the plant is estimated to take 30 to 40 years. Excluding accidents, the standard amount of high-level radioactive waste is claimed to be manageable (UK has produced just 2150 m during its 60 years nuclear program), with the Geological Society of London alleging that it can be effectively recycled and stored safely. In his book Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power , Jim Falk explores connections between technological concerns and political concerns. Falk suggests that concerns of citizen groups or individuals who oppose nuclear power have often focused initially on
7744-471: The country is to meet its obligations under the Paris climate accord, then nuclear energy needs to make up between 20 and 22% of the nation's portfolio mix. 26 restart applications are now pending with an estimated 12 units to come back in service by 2025 and 18 by 2030. The total cost of implementing safety measures, maintaining facilities, and decommissioning of commercially operated nuclear power plants in Japan
7865-452: The country was self-sufficient for just 6% of its energy demand in 2012, compared with 20% in 2010. The additional fuel costs to compensate for its nuclear reactors being idled was ¥3.6 trillion. In parallel, domestic energy users have seen a 19.4% increase in their energy bills between 2010 and 2013, while industrial users have seen their costs rise 28.4% over the same period. In 2018 the Japanese government revised its energy plan to update
7986-854: The country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the United States. As of 2020 expansion of biomass as fuel, which was previously praised by environmental organizations such as Greenpeace , has been criticized for environmental damage . Greenpeace advocates a reduction of fossil fuels by 50% by 2050 as well as phasing out nuclear power, contending that innovative technologies can increase energy efficiency, and suggests that by 2050 most electricity will come from renewable sources. The International Energy Agency estimates that nearly 50% of global electricity supplies will need to come from renewable energy sources in order to halve carbon dioxide emissions by 2050 and minimise climate change impacts. Mark Z. Jacobson says producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030
8107-528: The decommissioning of the reactors at the Hamaoka nuclear power plant permanently. In April 2014, Reuters reported that Prime Minister Shinzo Abe favours restarting nuclear plants, but that its analysis suggests that only about one-third to two-thirds of reactors will be in a technical and economic position to restart. In April 2017 the Nuclear Regulation Authority approved plans to decommission
8228-413: The disaster response. The commission chairman, Kiyoshi Kurokawa, declared with respect to the Fukushima nuclear incident: "It was a profoundly man-made disaster – that could and should have been foreseen and prevented." He added that the "fundamental causes" of the disaster were rooted in "the ingrained conventions of Japanese culture." The report outlines errors and willful negligence at
8349-539: The dropping of the atomic bombs on Japan was not necessary. How better to make a contribution to amends than by offering Japan...atomic energy." For several years starting in 1954, the United States Central Intelligence Agency and other U.S. government agencies ran a propaganda war targeting the Japanese population to vanquish the Japanese people's opposition to nuclear power. In 1954, Japan budgeted 230 million yen for nuclear energy, marking
8470-464: The earliest. As of September 2008, Japanese ministries and agencies were seeking an increase in the 2009 budget by 6%. The total requested comes to 491.4 billion Japanese yen (US$ 4.6 billion), and the focuses of research are the development of the fast breeder reactor cycle, next-generation light water reactors, the Iter project, and seismic safety. A 2011 independent investigation in Japan has "revealed
8591-516: The earth, causing food chain disruption in what is termed a nuclear winter . Many anti-nuclear weapons groups cite the 1996 Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice , Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons , in which it found that 'the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict'. Ridding
8712-651: The independence of the Nuclear Safety Commission after a senior Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency official appeared to rule out a new review of the NSC's seismic design guide in 2007. Following the publication of the new 2006 Seismic Guide, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency , at the request of the Nuclear Safety Commission, required the design of all existing nuclear power plants to be re-evaluated. The standard of geological survey work in Japan
8833-498: The interests of the Japan Electric Association , which had 11 of its committee members on the 19-member government subcommittee. Ishibashi has subsequently claimed that, although the new guide brought in the most far-reaching changes since 1978, it was 'seriously flawed' because it underestimated the design basis of earthquake ground motion . He has also claimed that the enforcement system is 'a shambles' and questioned
8954-782: The late 1970s and early 1980s, the revival of the nuclear arms race , triggered a new wave of protests about nuclear weapons. Older organizations such as the Federation of Atomic Scientists revived, and newer organizations appeared, including the Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign and Physicians for Social Responsibility . In the UK, on 1 April 1983, about 70,000 people linked arms to form a 14-mile-long human chain between three nuclear weapons centres in Berkshire. On Palm Sunday 1982, 100,000 Australians participated in anti-nuclear rallies in
9075-577: The main lobby group for the Japanese power companies and is active in promoting nuclear power. Among its other work, the JCA promotes education, publishes a range of books and guides, and holds lectures, seminars and cultural events. Since 1942 the ECA has published The Denki Shimbun (The Electric Daily News), founded in 1907 as the Electrical News. Through the work of its committees, the JCA prepares and publishes
9196-472: The meantime, reaching a peak of 652.9 TWh in 2017. As much of that fossil gas was and is imported from Russia, controversial pipeline projects like Nord Stream 1 were built to satisfy increasing German gas demand. After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine it came to light that significant amounts of Russian lobbying was involved in both the continued anti-nuclear movement in Germany and the anti- fracking movement. From an anti-nuclear point of view, there
9317-633: The mid-1990s there were several nuclear-related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants. These accidents included the Tokaimura nuclear accident , the Mihama steam explosion , cover-ups after an accident at the Monju reactor , among others, more recently the Chūetsu offshore earthquake aftermath. While exact details may be in dispute, it
9438-579: The mission to investigate the direct and indirect causes of the Fukushima nuclear accident. NAICC submitted its inquiry report to both houses on 5 July 2012. The 10-member commission compiled its report based on more than 1,167 interviews and 900 hours of hearings. It was a six-month independent investigation, the first of its kind with wide-ranging subpoena powers in Japan's constitutional history, which held public hearings with former Prime Minister Naoto Kan and Tokyo Electric Power Co 's former president Masataka Shimizu , who gave conflicting accounts of
9559-465: The most serious seismic-related accident has been the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster , following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Professor Katsuhiko Ishibashi , one of the seismologists who have taken an active interest in the topic, coined the term genpatsu-shinsai (原発震災), from the Japanese words for "nuclear power" and "quake disaster" to express the potential worst-case catastrophe that could ensue. Dr Kiyoo Mogi , former chair of
9680-564: The movement at the local, national, or international level. Major anti-nuclear groups include Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament , Friends of the Earth , Greenpeace , International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War , Peace Action , Seneca Women's Encampment for a Future of Peace and Justice and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service . The initial objective of the movement
9801-547: The movement: Anti-nuclear groups have undertaken public protests and acts of civil disobedience which have included occupations of nuclear plant sites. Other salient strategies have included lobbying, petitioning government authorities, influencing public policy through referendum campaigns and involvement in elections. Anti-nuclear groups have also tried to influence policy implementation through litigation and by participating in licensing proceedings. Anti-nuclear power organisations have emerged in every country that has had
9922-687: The nation's largest cities. Growing year by year, the rallies drew 350,000 participants in 1985. On 29 October 1983, the Committee Cruise Missiles No [ nl ] organised a demonstration in The Hague, Netherlands which was attended by 550,000 people, and was the largest demonstration in the history of the Netherlands. In May 1986, following the Chernobyl disaster , clashes between anti-nuclear protesters and West German police were common. More than 400 people were injured in mid-May at
10043-417: The nuclear power industry's proposed renaissance and revived nuclear opposition worldwide, putting governments on the defensive. As of 2016, countries such as Australia , Austria , Denmark , Greece , Malaysia , New Zealand , and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power. Germany , Italy , Spain , and Switzerland are phasing-out nuclear power . Sweden formerly had
10164-570: The planned nuclear power projects. On 14 July 1977, in Bilbao , between 150,000 and 200,000 people protested against the Lemoniz Nuclear Power Plant . This has been called the "biggest ever anti-nuclear demonstration". In France, there were mass protests in the early 1970s, organized at nearly every planned nuclear site in France. Between 1975 and 1977, some 175,000 people protested against nuclear power in ten demonstrations. In 1977 there
10285-607: The plant before the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011 and a flawed response in the hours, days, and weeks that followed. It also offers recommendations and encourages Japan's parliament to "thoroughly debate and deliberate" the suggestions. Japan's nuclear power reactors Timeline [ view/edit ] Japan's new energy plan, approved by the Liberal Democratic Party cabinet in April 2014, calls nuclear power "the country's most important power source". Reversing
10406-560: The plant. Hidekatsu Yoshii , a member of the House of Representatives for Japanese Communist Party and an anti-nuclear campaigner , warned in March and October 2006 about the possibility of the severe damage that might be caused by a tsunami or earthquake. During a parliamentary committee in May 2010 he made similar claims, warning that the cooling systems of a Japanese nuclear plant could be destroyed by
10527-474: The pleas and protests of nuclear watchdog groups". National and local anti-nuclear groups are listed at Anti-nuclear groups in the United States and List of anti-nuclear groups . In 1971, the town of Wyhl , in Germany, was a proposed site for a nuclear power station. In the years that followed, public opposition steadily mounted, and there were large protests. Television coverage of police dragging away farmers and their wives helped to turn nuclear power into
10648-425: The predicted risks were low and no observable increases in cancer rates above baseline rates were anticipated. In September 2013, Ōi units 3 and 4 went offline, making Japan again completely without nuclear-produced electrical power. On 11 August 2015, the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant was brought back online, followed by two units (3 and 4) of the Takahama Nuclear Power Plant on 29 January 2016. However, Unit 4
10769-532: The process of being reactivated, or are undergoing modifications aimed to improve resiliency against natural disasters; Japan's 2030 energy goals posit that at least 33 will be reactivated by a later date. Though all of Japan's nuclear reactors successfully withstood shaking from the Tohoku earthquake , flooding from the ensuing tsunami caused the failure of cooling systems at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant on 11 March 2011. Japan's first-ever nuclear emergency
10890-553: The project has run into many delays and budget overruns . Several milestones of the project has already been finished, but the finishing date for First Plasma has been discussed and postponed many times with various conclusions. In late 2016, the ITER council agreed on an updated project schedule, with a planned First Plasma opening by 2025, nine years after the originally anticipated opening. Some anti-nuclear groups advocate reduced reliance on reactor-produced medical radioisotopes , through
11011-420: The publication of a new seismic guide – the 2006 Regulatory Guide for Reviewing Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Reactor Facilities . The subcommittee membership included Professor Ishibashi, however his proposal that the standards for surveying active faults should be reviewed was rejected and he resigned at the final meeting, claiming that the review process was 'unscientific' and the outcome rigged to suit
11132-498: The restart of Ikata-3 which took place on 19 April 2016, this reactor is the fifth to receive approval to restart. The Takahama Nuclear Power Plant unit 4 restarted in May 2017 and unit 3 in June 2017. And by 2023, Unit 1 and 2 of Takahama also restarted. In November 2016 Japan signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India . Japanese nuclear plant builders saw this as potential lifeline given that domestic orders had ended following
11253-434: The review process was 'unscientific' and the outcome rigged to suit the interests of the JEA, which had 11 of its committee members on the 19-member government subcommittee and that among other problems the guide was 'seriously flawed' as a consequence because it underestimated the design basis earthquake ground motion . Between 1923 and January 1, 1965, the JEA was one of the bodies authorised to inspect electricity meters ,
11374-508: The risks facing Japan, a 2012 research institute investigation has "determined there is a 70% chance of a magnitude-7 earthquake striking the Tokyo metropolitan area within the next four years, and 98% over 30 years". The March 2011 earthquake was a magnitude 9. Between 2005 and 2007, three Japanese nuclear power plants were shaken by earthquakes that far exceeded the maximum peak ground acceleration used in their design. The tsunami that followed
11495-421: The scientific community began to express their concerns. In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl , Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America. Nuclear power became an issue of major public protest in the 1970s. The fossil fuel industry starting from
11616-737: The south of France. A collaboration between the European Union (EU), India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea and the United States, the project aims to make a transition from experimental studies of plasma physics to electricity-producing fusion power plants. In 2005, Greenpeace International issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. A French association including about 700 anti-nuclear groups, Sortir du nucléaire (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed that ITER
11737-516: The start of operation of four new nuclear power reactors would be postponed by one year due to the incorporation of new earthquake resistance assessments. Units 7 and 8 of the Fukushima Daiichi plant would now enter commercial operation in October 2014 and October 2015, respectively. Unit 1 of the Higashidori plant is now scheduled to begin operating in December 2015, while unit 2 will start up in 2018 at
11858-531: The testing program. In Australia, thousands of people joined protest marches in Adelaide, Melbourne, Brisbane, and Sydney. Scientists issued statements demanding an end to the nuclear tests. In Fiji, anti-nuclear activists formed an Against Testing on Mururoa organization. In the Basque Country (Spain and France), a strong anti-nuclear movement emerged in 1973, which ultimately led to the abandonment of most of
11979-498: The touted safety features". Since 2000 the nuclear power was promoted as potential solution to the greenhouse effect and climate change as nuclear power emits no or negligible amounts of carbon dioxide during operations. Anti-nuclear groups highlighted the fact that other stages of the nuclear fuel chain – mining, milling, transport, fuel fabrication, enrichment, reactor construction, decommissioning and waste management – use fossil fuels and hence emit carbon dioxide. As this
12100-454: The triple reactor meltdowns at Fukushima I nuclear plant hardened attitudes toward nuclear power. In June 2011, immediately after the Fukushima disaster, more than 80 percent of Japanese said they were anti-nuclear and distrusted government information on radiation , but ten years later, in March 2021, only 11 percent of Japanese said they wanted that nuclear energy generation to be discontinued immediately. Another 49 percent were asking for
12221-567: The use of renewable energy , such as hydro , wind power , solar power , geothermal energy and biofuel . According to the International Energy Agency renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to world energy security and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . Fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy. According to Lester R. Brown : ...the transition from coal, oil, and gas to wind, solar, and geothermal energy
12342-404: The use of alternative radioisotope production and alternative clinical technologies. Cyclotrons are being increasingly used to produce medical radioisotopes to the point where nuclear reactors are no longer needed to make the most common medical isotopes. However, the development of newer, more reliable and efficient particle accelerators also fuels the proposals for subcritical reactors with
12463-516: The widespread reluctance of the Japanese population to build nuclear reactors in the country. Thirty-two million Japanese people, a third of the Japanese population, signed a petition calling for banning hydrogen bombs . Journalist and author Foster Hailey wrote an op-ed piece published in The Washington Post where he called for adopting a proposal to build nuclear reactors in Japan, stating his opinion that: "Many Americans are now aware...that
12584-560: The world of nuclear weapons has been a cause for pacifists for decades. But more recently mainstream politicians and retired military leaders have advocated nuclear disarmament . In January 2007 an article in The Wall Street Journal , authored by Henry Kissinger , Bill Perry , George Shultz and Sam Nunn . These men were veterans of the cold-war who believed in using nuclear weapons for deterrence . But they now reversed their previous position and asserted that instead of making
12705-764: The world safer, nuclear weapons had become a source of extreme concern. Since the 1970s, some countries have built their own second-strike capability of massive deterrence in the event of a military attack with weapons of mass destruction . Two examples of this second-strike capability are the Samson Option strategy of Israel, and the Dead Hand system of Russia. During the era of nuclear weapons testing many local communities were affected, and some are still affected by uranium mining , and radioactive waste disposal. It should however be noted, that countries can possess nuclear weapons without possessing nuclear power plants (as
12826-570: Was nuclear disarmament , though since the late 1960s opposition has included the use of nuclear power . Many anti-nuclear groups oppose both nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The formation of green parties in the 1970s and 1980s was often a direct result of anti-nuclear politics. Scientists and diplomats have debated nuclear weapons policy since before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The public became concerned about nuclear weapons testing from about 1954, following extensive nuclear testing. In 1963, many countries ratified
12947-421: Was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high-energy deuterium and tritium hydrogen isotopes used in the fusion process. According to most anti-nuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream". The World Nuclear Association have said that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges". Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but
13068-646: Was a massive demonstration at the Superphénix breeder reactor in Creys-Malvillein which culminated in violence. In West Germany, between February 1975 and April 1979, some 280,000 people were involved in seven demonstrations at nuclear sites. Several site occupations were also attempted. Following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, some 120,000 people attended a demonstration against nuclear power in Bonn . In
13189-416: Was a national strategic priority in Japan. After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , all reactors had been shut down temporarily. As of November 2024 , of the 54 nuclear reactors in Japan, there were 33 operable reactors but only 13 reactors in 6 power plants were actually operating. A total of 24 reactors are scheduled for decommissioning or are in the process of being decommissioned. Others are in
13310-419: Was awarded €500,000 in damages. There are some energy-related studies which conclude that energy efficiency programs and renewable power technologies are a better energy option than nuclear power plants. The international nuclear fusion project International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is constructing the world's largest and most advanced experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor in
13431-449: Was being sought from the new Nuclear Regulatory Agency for 24 units to restart, of the 54 pre-Fukushima units. The units also have to be approved by the local prefecture authorities before restarting. In July 2015 fuel loading was completed at the Sendai-1 nuclear plant, it restarted 11 August 2015 and was followed by unit 2 on 1 November 2015. Japan's Nuclear Regulatory Authority approved
13552-421: Was declared, and 140,000 residents within 20 km (12 mi) of the plant were evacuated. All of Japan's nuclear plants were closed, or their operations were suspended for safety inspections. The last of Japan's fifty-four reactors ( Tomari-3 ) went offline for maintenance on 5 May 2012, leaving Japan completely without nuclear-produced electrical power for the first time since 1970. Problems in stabilizing
13673-445: Was exposed to radiation levels above legal limits, and over 660 others received detectable radiation doses but within permissible levels, well below the threshold to affect human health. The Mihama Nuclear Power Plant experienced a steam explosion in one of the turbine buildings in 2004 where five workers were killed and six injured. There have been many nuclear shutdowns, failures, and three partial meltdowns which were triggered by
13794-409: Was greatly damaged" by the Fukushima disaster, and calls for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. It also omits a section on nuclear power expansion that was in last year's policy review. Nuclear Safety Commission Chairman Haruki Madarame told a parliamentary inquiry in February 2012 that "Japan's atomic safety rules are inferior to global standards and left the country unprepared for
13915-428: Was greatly damaged" by the Fukushima nuclear disaster, and called for a reduction in the nation's reliance on nuclear power. Despite protests, on 1 July 2012 unit 3 of the Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted. A comprehensive assessment by international experts on the health risks associated with the Fukushima I nuclear power plant disaster concluded in 2013 that, for the general population inside and outside Japan,
14036-657: Was held in New York City, involving 200,000 people. In 1981, Germany's largest anti-nuclear power demonstration took place to protest against the Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant west of Hamburg ; some 100,000 people came face to face with 10,000 police officers. The largest protest was held on 12 June 1982, when one million people demonstrated in New York City against nuclear weapons. A 1983 nuclear weapons protest in West Berlin had about 600,000 participants. In May 1986, following
14157-445: Was knowingly built close to the centre of the expected Tōkai earthquake . Katsuhiko Ishibashi previously claimed, in 2004, that Hamaoka was "considered to be the most dangerous nuclear power plant in Japan". The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has also expressed concern. At a meeting of the G8's Nuclear Safety and Security Group, held in Tokyo in 2008, an IAEA expert warned that
14278-548: Was part of a policy at enhancing nuclear reactor use, including restarting many, extending older units' lives, and developing new reactor technologies. In February 2023, the cabinet approved this policy and the construction of new reactors. By May 2023, a law was enacted to officially omit shutdown periods from the 60-year limit, subject to the economy minister's approval. The law also required the NRA to perform inspections every 10 years for reactors over 30 years of operation. Japan has had
14399-607: Was seeking the full involvement of Japan in the ASTRID development. In 2015, the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy changed the accounting provisions of the Electricity Business Act, so companies can account for decommissioning costs in ten yearly installments rather than a one-time charge. This will encourage the decommissioning of older and smaller nuclear units, most of which have not restarted since 2011. In 2022, during
14520-559: Was shut down three days after restart due to an internal failure, and Unit 3 in March 2016 after the district court in Shiga prefecture issued an injunction to halt the operation of the Takahama Nuclear Power Plant. Of all the 54 nuclear reactors built prior to the Fukushima nuclear disaster, 43 of them remain operable but only a mere 9 reactors are currently in use. The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry said in 2017 that if
14641-401: Was vulnerable to tsunamis more than twice as tall as the forecasts of as much as five meters put forth by regulators and Tokyo Electric". Minutes of the meeting on 19 February 2004, show that the government bureaucrats running the committee moved quickly to exclude his views from the committee's final report. He said the committee did not want to force Tokyo Electric to make expensive upgrades at
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