Jampur ( جام پور ) is the capital city of Jampur Tehsil , in Punjab province of Pakistan. It comprises an area of about 16.7 square kilometers and has a population of about 155,243 (2023) It is the capital of Jampur Tehsil . Approximately 50 km to the west are the high and dry, barren mountains of the Sulaiman Range. To the east is the Indus river.
67-399: The old name of Jampur was Jadam Pur.The word Jampur has two parts: "JAM" and "PUR". "Jadam"(was Jakhar by Caste) faded into "Jam" with the passage of time. "Pur" means "vivified by" or "populated by". Jampur is a lightly populated city with a lack of industry, though the land is fertile. One of the main local educational institutes is Govt. Boys High School Jampur which was founded in 1885, as
134-525: A lexicostatistical study of the New Indo-Aryan languages based on a 100-word Swadesh list , using techniques developed by the glottochronologist and comparative linguist Sergei Starostin . That grouping system is notable for Kogan's exclusion of Dardic from Indo-Aryan on the basis of his previous studies showing low lexical similarity to Indo-Aryan (43.5%) and negligible difference with similarity to Iranian (39.3%). He also calculated Sinhala–Dhivehi to be
201-499: A Saraiki version of its site, as well. The language, partly codified during the British Raj , derived its emotional attraction from the poetry of the Sufi saint, Khawaja Ghulam Farid , who has become an identity symbol. His poems, known as Kafi are still famous. The beloved's intense glances call for blood The dark hair wildly flows The Kohl of the eyes is fiercely black And slays
268-783: A branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family . As of the early 21st century, they have more than 800 million speakers, primarily concentrated east of the Indus river in Bangladesh , North India , Eastern Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Maldives and Nepal . Moreover, apart from the Indian subcontinent , large immigrant and expatriate Indo-Aryan–speaking communities live in Northwestern Europe , Western Asia , North America ,
335-803: A consequence of the introduction of the British Government system in 1857. Jampur has two public girls high schools for education up to the 10th class. The city has one public college for boys and one for girls. Jampur has a Tehsil Headquarter Hospital (T.H.Q) which consists of 1000 beds and many private clinics where specialized doctors serve. Tehsil Jampur has 19 Union Councils namely: union council Tatar Walla (Mirza Ubaid Ullah House), Allahabad, Basti Rindan, Bokhara, Burrerywala, Dajal, Hajipur, Harrand, Jampur East, Jampur Gharbi, Kot Tahir, Kotla Dewan, Kotla Mughlan, Muhammad Pur, Noorpur Manjuwala, Noshahera, Tal Shumali, Tatarwala, Tibbi Lundan, Wah Leshari The city used to have tribal and sub-tribal systems due to
402-473: A dialect of either Sindhi or of Panjabi due to a high degree of mutual intelligibility. The following dialects have been tentatively proposed for Saraiki: The historical inventory of names for the dialects now called Saraiki is a confusion of overlapping or conflicting ethnic, local, and regional designations. One historical name for Saraiki, Jaṭki, means "of the Jaṭṭs ", a northern South Asian ethnic group. Only
469-403: A language in its own right and see the use of the term "dialect" as stigmatising . A language movement was started in the 1960s to standardise a script and promote the language. The national census of Pakistan has tabulated the prevalence of Saraiki speakers since 1981. Saraiki is primarily spoken in the south-western part of the province of Punjab , in an area that broadly coincides with
536-469: A large portion of its vocabulary and morphology . At the same time in its phonology it is radically different (particularly in the lack of tones, the preservation of the voiced aspirates and the development of implosive consonants), and has important grammatical features in common with the Sindhi language spoken to the south. Saraiki however, does relate considerably with other Western Punjabi dialects. There
603-442: A set of implosives , so that for each place of articulation there are up to five contrasting stops, for example: voiceless /tʃala/ 'custom' ~ aspirated /tʃʰala/ 'blister' ~ implosive /ʄala/ 'cobweb' ~ voiced /dʒala/ 'niche' ~ voiced aspirate /dʒʰəɠ/ 'foam'. There are five contrasting places of articulation for the stops: velar , palatal , retroflex , dental and bilabial . The dentals /t tʰ d dʰ/ are articulated with
670-458: A small minority of Saraiki speakers are Jaṭṭs, and not all Saraiki speaking Jaṭṭs necessarily speak the same dialect of Saraiki. However, these people usually call their traditions as well as language as Jataki . Conversely, several Saraiki dialects have multiple names corresponding to different locales or demographic groups. The name " Derawali " is used to refer to the local dialects of both Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan , but "Ḍerawali" in
737-493: A standardised and Sanskritised register of Dehlavi , is the official language of the Government of India (along with English ). Together with Urdu , it is the third most-spoken language in the world. The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, also known as Magadhan languages, are spoken throughout the eastern subcontinent, including Odisha and Bihar , alongside other regions surrounding the northwestern Himalayan corridor. Bengali
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#1732876270606804-613: A subfamily of Indo-Aryan. The Dardic group as a genetic grouping (rather than areal) has been scrutinised and questioned to a degree by recent scholarship: Southworth, for example, says "the viability of Dardic as a genuine subgroup of Indo-Aryan is doubtful" and "the similarities among [Dardic languages] may result from subsequent convergence". The Dardic languages are thought to be transitional with Punjabi and Pahari (e.g. Zoller describes Kashmiri as "an interlink between Dardic and West Pahāṛī"), as well as non-Indo-Aryan Nuristani; and are renowned for their relatively conservative features in
871-474: Is a nasalised retroflex flap [ɽ̃] . The contrasts /ŋ/ ~ /ŋɡ/ , and /ɲ/ ~ /ɲdʒ/ are weak; the single nasal is more common in southern varieties, and the nasal + stop cluster is prevalent in central dialects. Three nasals /ŋ n m/ have aspirated counterparts /ŋʰ nʰ mʰ/ . The realisation of the alveolar tap /ɾ/ varies with the phonetic environment. It is trilled if geminated to /ɾɾ/ and weakly trilled if preceded by /t/ or /d/ . It contrasts with
938-692: Is a political movement in Pakistan to declare Saraiki the administrative language of its own region. The Saraiki language identity arose in the 1960s, encompassing more narrow local earlier identities (like Multani, Derawi or Riasati), and distinguishing itself from broader ones like that of Punjabi. Due to effects of dominant languages in Pakistani media like Urdu, Standard Punjabi and English and religious impact of Arabic and Persian, Saraiki like other regional varieties of Pakistan are continuously expanding its vocabulary base with loan words. The present extent of
1005-694: Is also being offered by English department of Ghazi University , Dera Ghazi Khan and MA Saraiki is being offered by Gomal University , Dera Ismail Khan privately. It is taught as a subject in schools and colleges at higher secondary and intermediate. Saraiki is also taught at degree level at the Allama Iqbal Open University at Islamabad, and the Al-Khair University at Bhimbir have Pakistani Linguistics Departments. They offer M.Phil. and Ph.D in Saraiki. The Associated Press of Pakistan has launched
1072-586: Is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda ( priiamazda ) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as Citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra " (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza ( šattiṷaza ) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu "having good relatives" (a name in Palestine , Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta ( tṷišeratta, tušratta , etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastar "whose chariot
1139-461: Is found in the northeastern Jhangi dialect , considered transitional between Standard Punjabi and Saraiki by Wagha (1997 , p. 229), which is characterised by a lack of phonemic contrast between implosives and plain stops, and a preference for implosives even in words where Saraiki has a plain stop. The dental implosive in Jhangi is articulated with the tongue completely covering the upper teeth. It
1206-650: Is in many cases somewhat arbitrary. The classification of the Indo-Aryan languages is controversial, with many transitional areas that are assigned to different branches depending on classification. There are concerns that a tree model is insufficient for explaining the development of New Indo-Aryan, with some scholars suggesting the wave model . The following table of proposals is expanded from Masica (1991) (from Hoernlé to Turner), and also includes subsequent classification proposals. The table lists only some modern Indo-Aryan languages. Anton I. Kogan , in 2016, conducted
1273-785: Is not phonemic ; it is phonetically realised on the whole syllable, and results from an underlying /h/ that follows the vowel, thus [ɓʰɛh] is phonemically /ɓɛh/ . The historical origin of the Saraiki implosives has been on the whole the same as in Sindhi. Their source has generally been the older language's series of plain voiced stops, thus Sanskrit j anayati > Saraiki ʄ əɲən 'be born'. New plain voiced stops have in turn arisen out of certain consonants and consonant clusters (for example, y ava > dʒ ao 'barley'), or have been introduced in loanwords from Sanskrit , Hindi , Persian or English ( ɡ ərdən 'throat', b əs 'bus'). The following table illustrates some of
1340-426: Is not present in Saraiki, although Bahl (1936 , p. 29) contends that it should be reconstructed for the earlier language. Its absence has been attributed to structural factors: the forward articulation of /ʄ/ and the lesser retroflexion of /ᶑ/ . Aspirated ( breathy voiced ) implosives occur word-initially, where they contrast with aspirated plain stops: /ɓʰɛ(h)/ 'sit' ~ /bʰɛ/ 'fear'. The aspiration
1407-577: Is suggested that "proto-Munda" languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain , and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Marathi-Konkani languages are ultimately descended from Maharashtri Prakrit , whereas Insular Indo-Aryan languages are descended from Elu Prakrit and possess several characteristics that markedly distinguish them from most of their mainland Indo-Aryan counterparts. Insular Indo-Aryan languages (of Sri Lanka and Maldives ) started developing independently and diverging from
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#17328762706061474-501: Is the Majhi dialect of Punjabi , which has long been the basis of standard literary Punjabi. However, outside of Indo-Aryanist circles, the concept of "Lahnda" is still found in compilations of the world's languages (e.g. Ethnologue ). Saraiki appears to be a transitional language between Punjabi and Sindhi . Spoken in Upper Sindh as well as the southern Panjab, it is sometimes considered
1541-604: Is the official language of Gujarat , and is spoken by over 50 million people. In Europe, various Romani languages are spoken by the Romani people , an itinerant community who historically migrated from India. The Western Indo-Aryan languages are thought to have diverged from their northwestern counterparts, although they have a common antecedent in Shauraseni Prakrit . Within India, Central Indo-Aryan languages are spoken primarily in
1608-562: Is the seventh most-spoken language in the world, and has a strong literary tradition; the national anthems of India and Bangladesh are written in Bengali. Assamese and Odia are the official languages of Assam and Odisha , respectively. The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa and ultimately from Magadhi Prakrit . Eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages , while western Indo-Aryan languages do not. It
1675-528: Is unique in Indo-Aryan and that speakers of Multani take pride in its distinctiveness. The plain voiced /ɖ/ and the implosive /ᶑ/ are mostly in complementary distribution although there are a few minimal pairs, like /ɖakʈəɾ/ 'doctor' ~ /ᶑak/ 'mail'. The retroflex implosive alternates with the plain voiced dental stop /d/ in the genitive postposition /suffix /da/ , which takes the form of /ᶑa/ when combined with 1st or 2nd person pronouns: /meᶑa/ 'my', /teᶑa/ 'your'. A dental implosive ( /ɗ̪/ )
1742-643: Is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736). The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit , that is used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent , the foundational canon of the Hindu synthesis known as the Vedas . The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda , but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords. While Old Indo-Aryan
1809-731: The Caribbean , Southeast Africa , Polynesia and Australia , along with several million speakers of Romani languages primarily concentrated in Southeastern Europe . There are over 200 known Indo-Aryan languages. Modern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Old Indo-Aryan languages such as early Vedic Sanskrit , through Middle Indo-Aryan languages (or Prakrits ). The largest such languages in terms of first-speakers are Hindi–Urdu ( c. 330 million ), Bengali (242 million), Punjabi (about 150 million), Marathi (112 million), and Gujarati (60 million). A 2005 estimate placed
1876-463: The Salt Range is the rough divide with the northern varieties of Lahnda, such as Pothwari . Saraiki is the first language of approximately 29 million people in Pakistan according to the 2023 census. The first national census of Pakistan to gather data on the prevalence of Saraiki was the census of 1981. In that year, the percentage of respondents nationwide reporting Saraiki as their native language
1943-417: The blade of the tongue against the surface behind the teeth. The retroflex stops are post-alveolar , the articulator being the tip of the tongue or sometimes the underside . There is no dental implosive, partly due to the lesser retroflexion with which the retroflex implosive /ᶑ/ is pronounced. The palatal stops are here somewhat arbitrarily represented with [tʃ] and [dʒ] . In casual speech some of
2010-458: The retroflex flap /ɽ/ ( /taɾ/ 'wire' ~ /taɽ/ 'watching'), except in the variety spoken by Hindus. The fricatives /f v/ are labio-dental . The glottal fricative /ɦ/ is voiced and affects the voice quality of a preceding vowel. There are no tones in Saraiki. All consonants except /h j ɳ ɽ/ can be geminated ("doubled"). Geminates occur only after stressed centralised vowels, and are phonetically realised much less markedly than in
2077-793: The Baloch tribes that settled here but has been modernized due to education and access to technology, like the internet. Most of the city is now inhabited by Urdu speaking Muhajir families which moved here post-partition of 1947. Local tribes include most of (Arain family), Kanera family, Nahar family, Jakhar (Jatt Tribe), Dhandla (Jatt tribe), Khethran, Chandia (Baloch), Ghilzai (Pashtun), Syed Tribe (Inayat Shah Grandsons), Kalasra, Ghauri, Mohana, Khokhar, Pitafi (Baloch), Jamali (Baloch), Lashari (Baloch), Leghari (Baloch), Ahmadani (Baloch), Babbar (Baloch), Daya, Sial, Lound, Gorchani, Rind, Mazarin, Mirza, Rata, Manjhota, Arwal, Meo, Niazi, Domki, Muhammadani, Waswani, Mundrani, and other Jat tribes. Saraiki and Urdu are
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2144-503: The Indo-European languages. In Christopher Shackle's analysis, Saraiki distinguishes up to 48 consonants and 9 monophthong vowels. The "centralised" vowels /ɪ ʊ ə/ tend to be shorter than the "peripheral" vowels /i ɛ a o u/ . The central vowel /ə/ is more open and back than the corresponding vowel in neighbouring varieties. Vowel nasalisation is distinctive: /'ʈuɾẽ/ 'may you go' vs. /'ʈuɾe/ 'may he go'. Before /ɦ/ ,
2211-718: The Mittani are either in Hurrian (which appears to have been the predominant language of their kingdom) or Akkadian (the main diplomatic language of the Late Bronze Age Near East), these apparently Indo-Aryan names suggest that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrians in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion . If these traces are Indo-Aryan, they would be the earliest known direct evidence of Indo-Aryan, and would increase
2278-620: The Multani script in ISO/IEC 10646 was submitted in 2011. Saraiki Unicode has been approved in 2005. The Khojiki script has also been in use, whereas Devanagari and Gurmukhi are not employed anymore. The Department of Saraiki, Islamia University , Bahawalpur was established in 1989 and the Department of Saraiki, Bahauddin Zakariya University , Multan was established in 2006. BS Saraiki
2345-465: The actual numbers, as the speakers will often refer to their language using narrower dialect or regional labels, or alternatively identify with the bigger language communities, like those of Punjabi, Hindi or Urdu. Therefore, the number of speakers in India remains unknown. There have been observations of Lahnda varieties "merging" into Punjabi (especially in Punjab and Delhi), as well as of outright shift to
2412-599: The context of Proto-Indo-Aryan . The Northern Indo-Aryan languages , also known as the Pahari ('hill') languages, are spoken throughout the Himalayan regions of the subcontinent. Northwestern Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in the northwestern region of India and eastern region of Pakistan. Punjabi is spoken predominantly in the Punjab region and is the official language of the northern Indian state of Punjab , in addition to being
2479-456: The context of South Asia, the choice between the appellations "language" and "dialect" is a difficult one, and any distinction made using these terms is obscured by their ambiguity. In a sense both Saraiki and Standard Panjabi are "dialects" of a " Greater Punjabi" macrolanguage. Saraiki was considered a dialect of Punjabi by most British colonial administrators, and is still seen as such by many Punjabis . Saraikis, however, consider it
2546-463: The continental Indo-Aryan languages from around 5th century BCE. The following languages are otherwise unclassified within Indo-Aryan: Dates indicate only a rough time frame. Proto-Indo-Aryan (or sometimes Proto-Indic ) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the pre-Vedic Indo-Aryans . Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be
2613-407: The contrast between /a/ and /ə/ is neutralised. There is a high number of vowel sequences, some of which can be analysed as diphthongs . Saraiki possesses a large inventory of consonants : In its stop consonants , Saraiki has the typical for Indo-Aryan four-fold contrast between voiced and voiceless , and aspirated and unaspirated. In parallel to Sindhi it has additionally developed
2680-548: The dialects of what is now the southwest of Punjab Province in Pakistan constitute a dialect cluster, which he designated "Southern Lahnda " within a putative "Lahnda language". Subsequent Indo-Aryanist linguists have confirmed the reality of this dialect cluster, even while rejecting the name "Southern Lahnda" along with the entity "Lahnda" itself. Grierson also maintained that "Lahnda" was his novel designation for various dialects up to then called "Western Punjabi", spoken north, west, and south of Lahore . The local dialect of Lahore
2747-544: The dominant languages of Punjabi or Hindi. One pattern reported in the 1990s was for members of the younger generation to speak the respective "Lahnda" variety with their grandparents, while communicating within the peer group in Punjabi and speaking to their children in Hindi. Saraiki's consonant inventory is similar to that of neighbouring Sindhi . It includes phonemically distinctive implosive consonants , which are unusual among
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2814-615: The extent of the proposed Saraikistan province. To the west, it is set off from the Pashto - and Balochi -speaking areas by the Suleiman Range , while to the south-east the Thar desert divides it from the Marwari language . Its other boundaries are less well-defined: Punjabi is spoken to the east; Sindhi is found to the south, after the border with Sindh province ; to the north, the southern edge of
2881-686: The first syllable is centralised, and the second syllable contains either a diphthong, or a peripheral vowel followed by a consonant, for example /dɪɾ'kʰan/ 'carpenter'. Three-syllable words are stressed on the second syllable if the first syllable contains a centralised vowel, and the second syllable has either a peripheral vowel, or a centralised vowel + geminate, for example /tʃʊ'həttəɾ/ 'seventy-four'. There are exceptions to these rules and they account for minimal pairs like /it'la/ 'informing' and /'itla/ 'so much'. Unusually for South Asian languages , implosive consonants are found in Sindhi , possibly some Rajasthani dialects , and Saraiki, which has
2948-441: The following series: / ɓ ᶑ ʄ ɠ /. The "palatal" /ʄ/ is denti-alveolar and laminal , articulated further forward than most other palatals. The " retroflex " /ᶑ/ is articulated with the tip or the underside of the tongue, further forward in the mouth than the plain retroflex stops. It has been described as post-alveolar , pre-palatal or pre-retroflex . Bahl (1936 , p. 30) reports that this sound
3015-547: The former is the Multani dialect and "Derawali" in the latter is the Thaḷi dialect. When consulting sources before 2000, it is important to know that Pakistani administrative boundaries have been altered frequently. Provinces in Pakistan are divided into districts , and sources on "Saraiki" often describe the territory of a dialect or dialect group according to the districts. Since the founding of Pakistan in 1947, several of these districts have been subdivided, some multiple times. In
3082-405: The horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian in general or early Iranian (which has aiva ). Another text has babru ( babhru , "brown"), parita ( palita , "grey"), and pinkara ( pingala , "red"). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice ( vishuva ) which
3149-502: The implosives and the extra nasals. In Sindh the Sindhi alphabet is used. The calligraphic styles used are Naskh and Nastaʿlīq . Historically, traders or bookkeepers wrote in a script known as kiṛakkī or laṇḍā , although use of this script has been significantly reduced in recent times. Likewise, a script related to the Landa scripts family, known as Multani , was previously used to write Saraiki. A preliminary proposal to encode
3216-573: The lovers with no excuse My appearance in ruins, I sit and wait While the beloved has settled in Malheer I feel the sting of the cruel dart My heart the, abode of pain and grief A life of tears, I have led Farid Shakir Shujabadi ( Kalam-e-Shakir , Khuda Janey , Shakir Diyan Ghazlan , Peelay Patr , Munafqan Tu Khuda Bachaway , and Shakir De Dohray are his famous books) is a very well recognized modern poet. Ataullah Khan Esakhelvi and Shafaullah Rokhri are considered legends of Saraiki music and
3283-553: The major developments: Within South Asia, implosives were first described for Sindhi by Stake in 1855. Later authors have noted their existence in Multani and have variously called them "recursives" or "injectives", while Grierson incorrectly treated them as "double consonants". In the province of Punjab, Saraiki is written using the Arabic -derived Urdu alphabet with the addition of seven diacritically modified letters to represent
3350-471: The meaning "the language of the north", from the Sindhi word siro 'up-river, north'. This name can ambiguously refer to the northern dialects of Sindhi, but these are nowadays more commonly known as "Siroli" or "Sireli". An alternative hypothesis is that Sarākī originated in the word sauvīrā , or Sauvira , an ancient kingdom which was also mentioned in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata . Currently,
3417-485: The meaning of Sirāikī is a recent development, and the term most probably gained its currency during the nationalist movement of the 1960s. It has been in use for much longer in Sindh to refer to the speech of the immigrants from the north, principally Siraiki-speaking Baloch tribes who settled there between the 16th and the 19th centuries. In this context, the term can most plausibly be explained as originally having had
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#17328762706063484-431: The most common rendering of the name is Saraiki . However, Seraiki and Siraiki have also been used in academia until recently. Precise spelling aside, the name was first adopted in the 1960s by regional social and political leaders. Saraiki is a member of Western Punjabi sub family of the Indo-Aryan subdivision of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. In 1919, Grierson maintained that
3551-502: The most divergent Indo-Aryan branch. Nevertheless, the modern consensus of Indo-Aryan linguists tends towards the inclusion of Dardic based on morphological and grammatical features. The Inner–Outer hypothesis argues for a core and periphery of Indo-Aryan languages, with Outer Indo-Aryan (generally including Eastern and Southern Indo-Aryan, and sometimes Northwestern Indo-Aryan, Dardic and Pahari ) representing an older stratum of Old Indo-Aryan that has been mixed to varying degrees with
3618-1090: The most popular singers from the Saraiki belt . Former Pakistan Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani had said southern Punjab is rich in cultural heritage which needs to be promoted for next generations. In a message on the launch of Saraiki channel by Pakistan Television (PTV) in Multan , he is reported to have said that the step would help promote the rich heritage of 'Saraiki Belt'. These are not dedicated Saraiki channels but most play programmes in Saraiki. Indo-Aryan languages Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Indo-Aryan languages (or sometimes simply Indic languages ) are
3685-516: The most spoken languages in the city. Saraiki language Saraiki ( سرائیکی Sarā'īkī ; also spelt Siraiki , or Seraiki ) is an Indo-Aryan language of the Lahnda group, spoken by around 28 million people primarily in the south-western half of the province of Punjab in Pakistan. It was previously known as Multani , after its main dialect. Saraiki has partial mutual intelligibility with Standard Punjabi , and it shares with it
3752-469: The most widely-spoken language in Pakistan. Sindhi and its variants are spoken natively in the Pakistani province of Sindh and neighbouring regions. Northwestern languages are ultimately thought to be descended from Shauraseni Prakrit , with influence from Persian and Arabic . Western Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in central and western India, in states such as Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan , in addition to contiguous regions in Pakistan. Gujarati
3819-536: The newer stratum that is Inner Indo-Aryan. It is a contentious proposal with a long history, with varying degrees of claimed phonological and morphological evidence. Since its proposal by Rudolf Hoernlé in 1880 and refinement by George Grierson it has undergone numerous revisions and a great deal of debate, with the most recent iteration by Franklin Southworth and Claus Peter Zoller based on robust linguistic evidence (particularly an Outer past tense in -l- ). Some of
3886-641: The precision in dating the split between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages (as the texts in which the apparent Indicisms occur can be dated with some accuracy). In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra , Varuna , Indra , and the Ashvins ( Nasatya ) are invoked. Kikkuli 's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (cf. Sanskrit eka , "one"), tera ( tri , "three"), panza ( panca , "five"), satta ( sapta , seven), na ( nava , "nine"), vartana ( vartana , "turn", round in
3953-567: The predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan (1500–300 BCE), which is directly attested as Vedic and Mitanni-Aryan . Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of conservative features lost in Vedic . Some theonyms, proper names, and other terminology of the Late Bronze Age Mitanni civilization of Upper Mesopotamia exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate. While what few written records left by
4020-403: The rest of the Punjabi area. A stressed syllable is distinguished primarily by its length : if the vowel is peripheral /i ɛ a o u/ then it is lengthened, and if it is a "centralised vowel" ( /ɪ ʊ ə/ ) then the consonant following it is geminated. Stress normally falls on the first syllable of a word. The stress will, however, fall on the second syllable of a two-syllable word if the vowel in
4087-432: The states of Punjab , Haryana , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh , Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir . There is also a smaller group of Muslim pastoralists who migrated to India, specifically Andhra Pradesh , prior to Partition. There are census figures available – for example, in the 2011 census, 29,000 people reported their language as " Bahawal Puri ", and 62,000 as "Hindi Multani". However, these are not representative of
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#17328762706064154-414: The stops, especially /k/ , /g/ and /dʒ/ , are frequently rendered as fricatives – respectively [x] , [ɣ] and [z] . Of the nasals , only /n/ and /m/ are found at the start of a word, but in other phonetic environments there is a full set of contrasts in the place of articulation: /ŋ ɲ ɳ n m/ . The retroflex ɳ is a realised as a true nasal only if adjacent to a retroflex stop, elsewhere it
4221-541: The theory's skeptics include Suniti Kumar Chatterji and Colin P. Masica . The below classification follows Masica (1991) , and Kausen (2006) . Percentage of Indo-Aryan speakers by native language: The Dardic languages (also Dardu or Pisaca) are a group of Indo-Aryan languages largely spoken in the northwestern extremities of the Indian subcontinent. Dardic was first formulated by George Abraham Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India but he did not consider it to be
4288-402: The total number of native speakers of the Indo-Aryan languages at nearly 900 million people. Other estimates are higher suggesting a figure of 1.5 billion speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. The Indo-Aryan family as a whole is thought to represent a dialect continuum , where languages are often transitional towards neighboring varieties. Because of this, the division into languages vs. dialects
4355-546: The western Gangetic plains , including Delhi and parts of the Central Highlands , where they are often transitional with neighbouring lects. Many of these languages, including Braj and Awadhi , have rich literary and poetic traditions. Urdu , a Persianised derivative of Dehlavi descended from Shauraseni Prakrit , is the official language of Pakistan and also has strong historical connections to India , where it also has been designated with official status. Hindi ,
4422-425: Was 9.83. In the census of 1998, it was 10.53% out of a national population of 132 million, for a figure of 13.9 million Saraiki speakers resident in Pakistan. Also according to the 1998 census, 12.8 million of those, or 92%, lived in the province of Punjab. After Partition in 1947, Hindu and Sikh speakers of Saraiki migrated to India, where they are currently widely dispersed, though with more significant pockets in
4489-582: Was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya , the term for "warrior" in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha , ≈ Sanskrit mīḍha ) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen , Heidelberg, 1986–2000; Vol. II:358). Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara ( artaššumara ) as Ṛtasmara "who thinks of Ṛta " (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva ( biridašṷa, biriiašṷ a) as Prītāśva "whose horse
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