Misplaced Pages

#759240

112-529: The University of Jamestown was founded as Jamestown College in 1883, but closed during the depression of 1893 . The school reopened in 1909 and has remained in operation ever since. In 1979, Jamestown College's football team went to the NAIA National Championships. Two graduates of the institution have become Rhodes Scholars . In 2013, in light of a new master's program and applied doctorate degree program, Jamestown College changed its name to

224-579: A coalition of poor, white cotton farmers in the South (especially North Carolina, Alabama and Texas) and hard-pressed wheat farmers in the Plains States (especially Kansas and Nebraska), the Populists represented a radical form of agrarianism and hostility to elites, cities, banks, railroads, and gold. The Free Silver movement arose from a synergy of farming and mining interests. Farmers sought to invigorate

336-639: A black man was met with outrage, but Cleveland claimed to have known Matthews personally. Although Cleveland had condemned the "outrages" against Chinese immigrants, he believed that Chinese immigrants were unwilling to assimilate into white society. Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard negotiated an extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act , and Cleveland lobbied the Congress to pass the Scott Act , written by Congressman William Lawrence Scott , which prevented

448-424: A combination of purchasing gold from smelters, convincing its members to purchase Treasury bonds with gold, inspiring confidence in bond and railroad securities investors, and unofficial capital controls by convincing members and gold-exporting houses to "ship no gold" overseas. Grover Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908) was the 22nd and 24th president of

560-579: A conciliatory note, despite the opposition of New England 's Republican Senators. Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration of the Berlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the Congo . Cleveland's military policy emphasized self-defense and modernization. In 1885 Cleveland appointed the Board of Fortifications under Secretary of War William C. Endicott to recommend

672-469: A continuing trend downward from a high of 3 and 1/8 pence in 1891. In February 1895, the U.S. Government turned to private financial institutions to underwrite the sale of Treasury bonds , stabilize exchange rates , and return the Treasury to its gold reserve requirement. The result was a contract drawn with what was called "The Morgan-Belmont Syndicate". The persistent balance of payments deficit in

784-555: A contributing factor to the depression. The People's Party , also known as the ' Populists ', was an agrarian -populist political party in the United States. From 1892 to 1896, it played a major role as a left-wing force in American politics. It drew support from angry farmers in the West and South. It was highly critical of capitalism , especially banks and railroads, and allied itself with

896-573: A job there as district secretary for the American Home Missionary Society . Despite his father's dedication to his missionary work, his income was insufficient for the large family. Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school and place him in a two-year mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville. The experience was valuable and brief, and the living conditions quite austere. Grover returned to Clinton and his schooling at

1008-467: A lifestyle of simplicity, taking residence in a plain boarding house . He devoted his growing income to the support of his mother and younger sisters. While his personal quarters were austere, Cleveland enjoyed an active social life and "the easy-going sociability of hotel-lobbies and saloons ". He shunned the circles of higher society of Buffalo in which his uncle-in-law's family traveled. From his earliest involvement in politics, Cleveland aligned with

1120-425: A new coastal fortification system for the United States. No improvements to U.S. coastal defenses had been made since the late 1870s. The Board's 1886 report recommended a massive $ 127 million construction program (equivalent to $ 4.3 billion in 2023) at 29 harbors and river estuaries , to include new breech-loading rifled guns, mortars, and naval minefields . The Board and the program are usually called

1232-535: A percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219–182. Following the electoral victory, the "Ma, Ma ..." attack phrase gained a classic riposte: "Gone to the White House. Ha! Ha! Ha!" Soon after taking office, Cleveland was faced with the task of filling all the government jobs for which the president had the power of appointment. These jobs were typically filled under the spoils system , but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who

SECTION 10

#1732885107760

1344-518: A refutation buried in Cleveland's past. Aided by the sermons of Reverend George H. Ball , a minister from Buffalo, they made public the allegation that Cleveland had fathered a child while he was a lawyer there, and their rallies soon included the chant "Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?". When confronted with the scandal, Cleveland immediately instructed his supporters to "Above all, tell the truth." He admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin,

1456-537: A run on gold in the U.S. Treasury . Specie was considered more valuable than paper money; when people were uncertain about the future, they hoarded specie and rejected paper notes. During the Gilded Age of the 1870s and 1880s, the United States had experienced economic growth and expansion, but much of this expansion depended on high international commodity prices. Exacerbating the problems with international investments, wheat prices crashed in 1893. In particular,

1568-598: A series of failed attempts to restore reserves by issuing bonds and depreciating specie issued for legal tender , the Treasury negotiated a contract with the Morgan-Belmont Syndicate to restore confidence in the government's ability to maintain the convertibility of legal tender into gold. The full list of syndicate members was not made public, however the contract named Drexel, Morgan & Co ., A. Belmont & Co., J. S. Morgan & Co. , and N. M. Rothschild & Sons . The syndicate achieved its goals through

1680-485: A split in the state Republican Party in 1882, the Democratic party was considered to be at an advantage; several men contended for that party's nomination. The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry Warner Slocum . Their factions deadlocked and the convention could not agree on a nominee. Cleveland, who came in third place on the first ballot, picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as

1792-477: The 1884 presidential election , which he narrowly won against Republican James G. Blaine . In the 1888 election, he ran against Benjamin Harrison, winning the popular vote but losing the electoral college and therefore the election. After his loss, he returned to New York City and joined a law firm . In the 1892 election , Cleveland defeated Harrison in both the popular vote and electoral college, restoring him to

1904-456: The Battle of Bunker Hill , and was the son of an immigrant from Guernsey . On his mother's side, Cleveland was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia. Cleveland was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland , after whom the city of Cleveland , Ohio, was named. Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of

2016-453: The Blue Room at the White House. Cleveland was 49 years old at the time; Frances was 21. He was the second president to wed while in office and remains the only president to marry in the White House. This marriage was unusual because Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom's estate and had supervised Frances's upbringing after her father's death; nevertheless, the public took no exception to

2128-641: The Bourbon Democrats , a pro-business movement opposed to high tariffs , free silver , inflation , imperialism , and subsidies to businesses, farmers, or veterans . His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the time. Cleveland also won praise for honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism . His fight against political corruption, patronage, and bossism convinced many like-minded Republicans, called " Mugwumps ", to cross party lines and support him in

2240-591: The Democratic Party . He had a decided aversion to Republicans John Fremont and Abraham Lincoln , and the heads of the Rogers law firm were solid Democrats. In 1865, he ran for District Attorney , losing narrowly to his friend and roommate, Lyman K. Bass , the Republican nominee. In 1870, with the help of friend Oscar Folsom, Cleveland secured the Democratic nomination for sheriff of Erie County, New York . He won

2352-550: The National Cordage Company (NCC), then the most actively traded stock, caused its lenders to call in their loans immediately, and the company went into bankruptcy receivership as a result. The company, a rope manufacturer, had tried to corner the market for imported hemp. As demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price and value of silver dropped. Holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds, and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and

SECTION 20

#1732885107760

2464-542: The Navy and canceled construction contracts that had resulted in inferior ships. Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of Western lands they held by government grant. Secretary of the Interior Lucius Q. C. Lamar charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements. The lands were forfeited, resulting in

2576-1093: The North Star Athletic Association (NSAA), which they were members from 2013–14 to 2017–18. The Jimmies previously competed in the Great Plains Athletic Conference (GPAC) from 2018–19 to 2023–24, and in the defunct Dakota Athletic Conference (DAC) from 2000–01 to 2011–12, as well as an NAIA Independent within the Association of Independent Institutions (AII) during the 2012–13 school year. Jamestown competes in 24 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, ice hockey (Division 1 and Division II), soccer, track and field (indoor and outdoor), volleyball and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, ice hockey, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, track & field (indoor and outdoor), volleyball and wrestling; and co-ed sports include eSports and shotgun sports. In 2023,

2688-584: The Northern Pacific Railway , the Union Pacific Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad failed. This was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies; in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks, many of them in the West, failed. According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was unemployed at the panic's peak. The huge spike in unemployment, combined with

2800-614: The Pension Bureau , Congress should not attempt to override that decision. When Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic , passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland also vetoed that. In his first term alone, Cleveland used the veto 414 times, which was more than four times more often than any previous president had used it. In 1887, Cleveland issued his most well-known veto, that of

2912-833: The Pullman Strike . After their defeat in 1896, the Democrats did not regain control of any branch of the Federal Government until 1910 . A rarely talked-about effect is the Love Canal disaster. People who were earlier keen to invest in the Love Canal stopped doing so, which led to the abandonment of its construction. Ultimately the canal ended up being a large toxic waste repository, with severe negative environmental effects. Love Canal remains synonymous with environmental pollution and degradation. The Panic of 1893 affected many aspects of

3024-526: The Texas Seed Bill . After a drought had ruined crops in several Texas counties, Congress appropriated $ 100,000 (equivalent to $ 3,391,111 in 2023) to purchase seed grain for farmers there. Cleveland vetoed the expenditure. In his veto message, he espoused a theory of limited government: I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution, and I do not believe that the power and duty of

3136-462: The U.S. Constitution , which guaranteed voting rights to African Americans. Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs, he allowed Frederick Douglass to continue in his post as recorder of deeds in Washington, D.C., and appointed another black man ( James Campbell Matthews , a former New York judge) to replace Douglass upon his resignation. His decision to replace Douglass with

3248-526: The U.S. Treasury fell to a dangerously low level. This forced President Cleveland to borrow $ 65 million in gold from Wall Street banker J.P. Morgan and the Rothschild banking family of England , through what was known as the Morgan-Belmont Syndicate His party suffered enormous losses in the 1894 elections , largely being blamed for the downward spiral in the economy and the brutal crushing of

3360-578: The University of Jamestown . In 2018, Dr. Robert Badal retired from his position as university president after serving in the role for nearly 16 years. He was succeeded by Dr. Polly Peterson. The Jamestown athletic teams are called the Jimmies. The university is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). For the 2024–25 academic year, the Jimmies are primarily competing in

3472-468: The contested election of 1876 . After Tilden declined a nomination due to his poor health, his supporters shifted to several other contenders. Cleveland was among the leaders in early support, and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware , Allen G. Thurman of Ohio , Samuel Freeman Miller of Iowa , and Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts also had considerable followings, along with various favorite sons . Each of

University of Jamestown - Misplaced Pages Continue

3584-635: The presidency of William McKinley . The Panic of 1893 has been traced to many causes, one of them pointing to Argentina; investment was encouraged by the Argentine agent bank, Baring Brothers . However, the 1890 wheat crop failure and a failed coup in Buenos Aires ended further investments. In addition, speculations in South African and Australian properties also collapsed. Because European investors were concerned that these problems might spread, they started

3696-482: The shipping industry , both by rail and maritime. It arrested the acquisition of ships and rolling stock and depressed shipping rates. The bad omen of investors switching from equity based stocks to constant return bonds in 1894 was mirrored in the corporate finance actions of railroads which reduced their acquisition of rolling stock . Railroad expansion including capital expenditures rose again in 1895, but slowed in 1897 during another economic trough. In 1893,

3808-566: The " Baby Ruth " candy bar was named after her. Cleveland also claimed paternity of a child with Maria Crofts Halpin, Oscar Folsom Cleveland, who was born in 1874. During his first term, Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . The first, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, was a former Mississippi senator who served in Cleveland's Cabinet as Interior Secretary. When William Burnham Woods died, Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887. Lamar's nomination

3920-469: The 1890s which drained the Treasury gold reserves, caused concern from both domestic and foreign investors that the U.S. would abandon the gold standard. This prompted further gold withdrawals and bond liquidations which exacerbated the deficit. By February 2, 1895, the Treasury's gold reserves fell to approximately $ 42 million, well below the $ 100 million level required by the Resumption Act of 1875 . After

4032-705: The Congressional elections that year , and the forces of protectionism increased their numbers in the Congress, but Cleveland continued to advocate tariff reform. As the surplus grew, Cleveland and the reformers called for a tariff for revenue only. His message to Congress in 1887 (quoted at right) highlighted the injustice of taking more money from the people than the government needed to pay its operating expenses. Republicans, as well as protectionist northern Democrats like Samuel J. Randall , believed that American industries would fail without high tariffs, and they continued to fight reform efforts. Roger Q. Mills , chairman of

4144-484: The Democrats' strongest asset. William C. Hudson created Cleveland's contextual campaign slogan "A public office is a public trust." Reform-minded Republicans called " Mugwumps " denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland. The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher , were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government. At

4256-697: The Endicott Board and the Endicott Program. Most of the Board's recommendations were implemented, and by 1910, 27 locations were defended by over 70 forts. Many of the weapons remained in place until scrapped in World War II as they were replaced with new defenses. Endicott also proposed to Congress a system of examinations for Army officer promotions. For the Navy, the Cleveland administration, spearheaded by Secretary of

4368-775: The Fayetteville Academy and the Clinton Grammar School (not the Clinton Liberal Institute). After his father died in 1853, he again left school to help support his family. Later that year, Cleveland's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City, and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher. Cleveland returned home to Holland Patent at

4480-500: The First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell, where his father was pastor at the time. He became known as Grover in his adult life. In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York , where Grover spent much of his childhood. Neighbors later described him as "full of fun and inclined to play pranks", and fond of outdoor sports. In 1850, Cleveland's father Richard moved his family to Clinton, New York , accepting

4592-560: The House Ways and Means Committee, proposed a bill to reduce the tariff from about 47% to about 40%. After significant exertions by Cleveland and his allies, the bill passed the House. The Republican Senate failed to come to an agreement with the Democratic House, and the bill died in the conference committee . Dispute over the tariff persisted into the 1888 presidential election. Cleveland

University of Jamestown - Misplaced Pages Continue

4704-520: The Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century, Blaine's mother was Irish Catholic, and he had been supportive of the Irish National Land League while he was Secretary of State. The Irish, a significant group in three of the swing states , did appear inclined to support Blaine until a Republican, Samuel D. Burchard , gave a speech pivotal for the Democrats, denouncing them as

4816-478: The Navy William Collins Whitney , moved towards modernization, although no ships were constructed that could match the best European warships. Although completion of the four steel-hulled warships begun under the previous administration was delayed due to a corruption investigation and subsequent bankruptcy of their building yard, these ships were completed in a timely manner in naval shipyards once

4928-548: The Providence Asylum. Halpin was only kept at the asylum for five days because she was deemed not to be insane. Cleveland later provided financial support for her to begin her own business outside of Buffalo. Although lacking irrefutable evidence that Cleveland was the father, the child became a campaign issue for the Republican Party in Cleveland's first presidential campaign, where they smeared him by claiming that he

5040-599: The Pullman Company was a railroad car company, this only increased the difficulty of acquiring rolling stock. The maritime industry of the United States did not escape the effects of the Panic of 1893. The total gross registered merchant marine tonnage employed in "foreign and coastwise trade and in the fisheries", as measured by the U.S. Census between 1888 and 1893, grew at a rate of about 2.74%. In 1894, U.S. gross tonnage decreased by 2.9%, and again in 1895 by 1.03%. In 1894,

5152-501: The United States , serving from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. He was the first Democrat to win the presidency after the Civil War . He was also the first president to serve nonconsecutive terms. Cleveland was elected mayor of Buffalo in 1881 and governor of New York in 1882. While governor, he closely cooperated with state assembly minority leader Theodore Roosevelt to pass reform measures, winning national attention. He led

5264-580: The White House. As his second administration began, the Panic of 1893 sparked a severe national depression. Many voters blamed the Democrats, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and Silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. An anti-imperialist , Cleveland opposed the push to annex Hawaii , launched an investigation into the 1893 coup against Queen Liliʻuokalani , and called for her to be restored. Cleveland

5376-405: The bonds of a common brotherhood. One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver , or by gold alone . The issue cut across party lines, with Western Republicans and Southern Democrats joining in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard . Because silver

5488-475: The completion of the apprentice contract. In 1853, missionary work began to take a toll on Richard's health. He took a new work assignment in Holland Patent, New York (near Utica ) and moved his family once again. Shortly after, Richard Cleveland died from a gastric ulcer . Grover was said to have learned about his father's death from a boy selling newspapers. Cleveland received his elementary education at

5600-508: The compromise choice. With Republicans still divided heading into the general election , Cleveland emerged the victor, receiving 535,318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger 's 342,464. Cleveland's margin of victory was, at the time, the largest in a contested New York election. The Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the New York State Legislature . Cleveland brought his opposition to needless spending to

5712-466: The culmination of a most bare-faced, impudent, and shameless scheme to betray the interests of the people, and to worse than squander the public money." The Council reversed itself and awarded the contract to the lowest bidder. Cleveland also asked the state legislature to form a Commission to develop a plan to improve the sewer system in Buffalo at a much lower cost than previously proposed locally; this plan

SECTION 50

#1732885107760

5824-419: The destitute. Facing starvation, people chopped wood, broke rocks, and sewed by hand with needle and thread in exchange for food. In some cases, women resorted to prostitution to feed their families. To help the people of Detroit, Mayor Hazen S. Pingree launched his "Potato Patch Plan", which were community gardens for farming. President Grover Cleveland was blamed for the depression. Gold reserves stored in

5936-453: The economy and thereby end deflation , which was forcing them to repay loans with increasingly expensive dollars. Mining interests sought the right to turn silver directly into money without a central minting institution. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, while falling short of the Free Silver movement's goals, required the U.S. government to buy millions of ounces of silver above what

6048-451: The economy deepened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks, and caused bank runs . The credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in London combined with a drop in continental European trade caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by gold. The economic policies of President Benjamin Harrison have been characterized as

6160-439: The election by a 303-vote margin and took office on January 1, 1871, at age 33. While this new career took him away from the practice of law, it was rewarding in other ways: the fees were said to yield up to $ 40,000, equivalent to $ 1,017,333 in 2023, over the two-year term. Cleveland's service as sheriff was unremarkable. Biographer Rexford Tugwell described the time in office as a waste for Cleveland politically. Cleveland

6272-451: The end of 1854, where an elder in his church offered to pay for his college education if he promised to become a minister. Cleveland declined, and in 1855 he decided to move west. He stopped first in Buffalo, New York , where his uncle-in-law Lewis F. Allen , gave him a clerical job. Allen was an important man in Buffalo, and he introduced his nephew-in-law to influential men there, including

6384-456: The end of his second term, he was severely unpopular, even among Democrats. After leaving the White House, Cleveland served as a trustee of Princeton University and continued to voice his political views. He died in 1908. Today, Cleveland is praised for honesty, integrity, adherence to his morals, defying party boundaries, and effective leadership and is typically ranked in the middle to upper tier of U.S. presidents. Stephen Grover Cleveland

6496-415: The famous Olympia ), one armored cruiser , and one monitor were also ordered, along with the experimental cruiser Vesuvius . Under Cleveland, gains in civil rights for African Americans were limited. Cleveland, like a growing number of Northerners and nearly all white Southerners, saw Reconstruction as a failed experiment, and was reluctant to use federal power to enforce the 15th Amendment of

6608-474: The first 15 months of his administration. Unlike the previous bachelor president James Buchanan , Cleveland did not remain a bachelor for long. In 1885, the daughter of Cleveland's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington. Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College . When she returned to school, President Cleveland received her mother's permission to correspond with her, and they were soon engaged to be married. The wedding occurred on June 2, 1886, in

6720-715: The first sanctioned NAIA women's wrestling championship was held at the Harold Newman Arena, on the Jamestown campus. Jamestown began the reclassification process from the NAIA to NCAA Division II in the 2024–25 season. The Jimmies will join the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference (NSIC) upon gaining full membership into the NCAA starting in the 2025–26 season. Depression of 1893 The Panic of 1893

6832-412: The general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the government, the government should not support

SECTION 60

#1732885107760

6944-412: The governor's office. He promptly sent the legislature eight vetoes in his first two months in office. The first to attract attention was his veto of a bill to reduce the fares on New York City elevated trains to five cents. The bill had broad support because the trains' owner, Jay Gould , was unpopular, and his fare increases were widely denounced. Cleveland saw the bill as unjust—Gould had taken over

7056-424: The hanging, Cleveland executed Morrissey himself. He hanged another murderer, John Gaffney , on February 14, 1873. After his term as sheriff ended, Cleveland returned to his law practice, opening a firm with his friends Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell . Bass was later replaced by George J. Sicard . Elected to Congress in 1872, Bass did not spend much time at the firm, but Cleveland and Bissell soon rose to

7168-588: The idea of cultural assimilation, pushing for the passage of the Dawes Act , which would allow lands held in trust by the federal government for the tribes to instead be distributed to individual tribe members. While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act, in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it. Cleveland believed the Dawes Act would lift Native Americans out of poverty and encourage their assimilation into white society. It ultimately weakened

7280-531: The inauguration of U.S. President Grover Cleveland , with the appointment of receivers for the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad , which had greatly overextended itself. Upon taking office, Cleveland dealt directly with the Treasury crisis and convinced Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , which he felt was mainly responsible for the economic crisis. As concern for the state of

7392-467: The investigation was over. Sixteen additional steel-hulled warships were ordered by the end of 1888; these ships later proved vital in the Spanish–American War of 1898, and many served in World War I. These ships included the "second-class battleships " Maine and Texas , designed to match modern armored ships recently acquired by South American countries from Europe, such as the Brazilian battleship Riachuelo . Eleven protected cruisers (including

7504-414: The labor movement. Established in 1891 as a result of the Populist movement, the People's Party reached its height in the 1892 presidential election , when its ticket, consisting of James B. Weaver and James G. Field , won 8.5% of the popular vote and carried five states (Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Nevada, and North Dakota), and the 1894 House of Representatives elections when it won nine seats. Built on

7616-455: The loss of life savings kept in failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their mortgage obligations. Many walked away from recently built homes as a result. As a result of the panic, stock prices declined. Five hundred banks closed, 15,000 businesses failed, and numerous farms ceased operation. The unemployment rate hit 25% in Pennsylvania, 35% in New York, and 43% in Michigan. Soup kitchens were opened to help feed

7728-518: The match. At 21 years, Frances Folsom Cleveland was and remains the youngest First Lady in history, and soon became popular for her warm personality. The Clevelands had five children: Ruth (1891–1904), Esther (1893–1980), Marion (1895–1977), Richard (1897–1974), and Francis (1903–1995). British philosopher Philippa Foot (1920–2010) was their granddaughter. Ruth contracted diphtheria on January 2, 1904, and died five days after her diagnosis. The Curtiss Candy Company would later assert that

7840-413: The most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written "Burn this letter", giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: "Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter! ' " Regarding Cleveland, commentator Jeff Jacoby notes that, "Not since George Washington had a candidate for President been so renowned for his rectitude." But the Republicans found

7952-419: The municipal legislation they cooperated on gained Cleveland national recognition. In June 1884, the Republican Party convened their national convention in Chicago , selecting former U.S. House Speaker James G. Blaine of Maine as their nominee for president. Blaine's nomination alienated many Republicans, including the Mugwumps , who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral. The Republican standard-bearer

8064-551: The name of Oscar Folsom, or any one else, with that boy, for that purpose is simply infamous and false." The electoral votes of closely contested New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election. In New York, the Tammany Democrats decided that they would gain more from supporting a Democrat they disliked than a Republican who would do nothing for them. Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did; while

8176-510: The nature of his enemies made him still more friends. Cleveland led on the first ballot, with 392 votes out of 820. On the second ballot, Tammany threw its support behind Butler, but the rest of the delegates shifted to Cleveland, who won. Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was selected as his running mate. Corruption in politics was the central issue in 1884; Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals. Cleveland's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved

8288-540: The old allegations that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad and the Union Pacific Railway , later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies. Although the stories of Blaine's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time Blaine's correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible. On some of

8400-438: The opening of numerous mines in the western United States led to an oversupply of silver, leading to significant debate as to how much of the silver should be coined into money (see below). During the 1880s, American railroads experienced what might today be called a " bubble ": investors flocked to railroads, and they were greatly over-built. One of the first clear signs of trouble came on 20 February 1893, twelve days before

8512-512: The other candidates had hindrances to his nomination: Bayard had spoken in favor of secession in 1861, making him unacceptable to Northerners; Butler, conversely, was reviled throughout the Southern United States for his actions during the Civil War ; Thurman was generally well-liked, but was growing old and infirm, and his views on the silver question were uncertain. Cleveland, too, had detractors—Tammany remained opposed to him—but

8624-474: The partners in the law firm of Rogers, Bowen, and Rogers. Millard Fillmore , the 13th president of the United States, had previously worked for the partnership. Cleveland later took a clerkship with the firm, began to read the law with them, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1859. Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years before leaving in 1862 to start his own practice. In January 1863, he

8736-446: The party of "Rum, Romanism , and Rebellion". The Democrats spread the word of this implied anti-Catholic insult on the eve of the election. They also blistered Blaine for attending a banquet with some of New York City's wealthiest men. After the votes were counted, Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by 1,200 votes. While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-quarter of

8848-447: The people. The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow-citizens in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens

8960-559: The railroads when they were failing and had made the system solvent again. Cleveland believed that altering Gould's franchise would violate the Contract Clause of the federal Constitution . Despite the initial popularity of the fare-reduction bill, the newspapers praised Cleveland's veto. Theodore Roosevelt , then a member of the Assembly , had reluctantly voted for the bill with the intention of holding railroad barons accountable. After

9072-487: The rate for a bushel of wheat by rail dropped from 14.70¢ in 1893 to 12.88¢. This rate continued to decrease, reaching a terminal rate in 1901 of 9.92¢ and never reached 12 cents between 1898 and 1910. Between 1893 and 1894, average shipping rates by lake or canal per wheat bushel decreased by almost 2 cents, from 6.33¢ to 4.44¢. Rates on the transatlantic crossing from New York City to Liverpool also decreased, from 2 and 3/8 pence to 1 and 15/16 pence, but this reflected

9184-525: The re-election of Thomas F. Grady , their point man in the State Senate. Cleveland also steadfastly opposed other Tammany nominees, as well as bills passed as a result of their deal-making. The loss of Tammany's support was offset by the support of Theodore Roosevelt and other reform-minded Republicans, who helped Cleveland pass several laws to reform municipal governments. Cleveland closely worked with Roosevelt, who served as assembly minority leader in 1883;

9296-412: The return of Chinese immigrants who left the United States. The Scott Act easily passed both houses of Congress, and Cleveland signed it into law on October 1, 1888. Cleveland viewed Native Americans as wards of the state , saying in his first inaugural address that "[t]his guardianship involves, on our part, efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights." He encouraged

9408-856: The return of approximately 81,000,000 acres (330,000 km ). Cleveland was the first Democratic president subject to the Tenure of Office Act which originated in 1867; the act purported to require the Senate to approve the dismissal of any presidential appointee who was originally subject to its advice and consent. Cleveland objected to the act in principle and his steadfast refusal to abide by it prompted its fall into disfavor and led to its ultimate repeal in 1887. As Congress and its Republican-led Senate sent Cleveland legislation he opposed, he often resorted to using his veto power. He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans, believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by

9520-588: The same time that the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the Greenback-Labor party , led by ex-Democrat Benjamin Butler. In general, Cleveland abided by the precedent of minimizing presidential campaign travel and speechmaking; Blaine became one of the first to break with that tradition. The campaign focused on the candidates' moral standards, as each side cast aspersions on their opponents. Cleveland's supporters rehashed

9632-468: The tariff was that of most Democrats: that the tariff ought to be reduced. Republicans generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries. American tariffs had been high since the Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus. In 1886, a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated in the House. The tariff issue was emphasized in

9744-454: The top of Buffalo's legal community. Up to that point, Cleveland's political career had been honorable and unexceptional. As biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "Probably no man in the country, on March 4, 1881, had less thought than this limited, simple, sturdy attorney of Buffalo that four years later he would be standing in Washington and taking the oath as President of the United States." It

9856-424: The total railroad mileage in the U.S. was 176,803.6 miles. In 1894 and 1895, railroads only expanded 4,196.4 miles, although 100,000 miles of rail was added from 1878 to 1896. In 1893, the year following the panic, one fourth of all rail mileage went into receivership. The U.S. Census placed this value at close to $ 1.8 billion (not adjusted for inflation), the largest amount recorded between 1876 and 1910. This

9968-533: The tribal governments and allowed individual Indians to sell land and keep the money. In the month before Cleveland's 1885 inauguration, President Arthur opened four million acres of Winnebago and Crow Creek Indian lands in the Dakota Territory to white settlement by executive order. Tens of thousands of settlers gathered at the border of these lands and prepared to take possession of them. Cleveland believed Arthur's order to be in violation of treaties with

10080-431: The tribes, and rescinded it on April 17 of that year, ordering the settlers out of the territory. Cleveland sent in eighteen companies of Army troops to enforce the treaties and ordered General Philip Sheridan , at the time Commanding General of the U.S. Army, to investigate the matter. Cleveland was 47 years old when he entered the White House as a bachelor. His sister Rose Cleveland joined him, acting as hostess for

10192-451: The veto, Roosevelt and other legislators reversed their position, and Cleveland's veto was sustained. Cleveland's defiance of political corruption won him popular acclaim. Yet it also brought the enmity of New York City's influential Tammany Hall organization and its boss, John Kelly . Tammany Hall and Kelly had disapproved of Cleveland's nomination for governor, and their resistance intensified after Cleveland openly opposed and prevented

10304-529: The votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate. Party leaders approached Cleveland, who agreed to run for Mayor of Buffalo provided the party's slate of candidates for other offices was to his liking. More notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket and he accepted the nomination. Cleveland was elected mayor that November with 15,120 votes, while his Republican opponent Milton Earl Beebe received 11,528 votes. He took office on January 2, 1882. Cleveland's term as mayor

10416-474: The war. As a lawyer, Cleveland became known for his single-minded concentration and dedication to hard work. In 1866, he successfully defended some participants in the Fenian raid , working on a pro bono basis (free of charge). In 1868, Cleveland attracted professional attention for his winning defense of a libel suit against the editor of Buffalo's Commercial Advertiser . During this time, Cleveland assumed

10528-416: The woman who asserted he had fathered her son Oscar Folsom Cleveland and he assumed responsibility. Shortly before the 1884 election , the Republican media published an affidavit from Halpin in which she stated that until she met Cleveland, her "life was pure and spotless", and "there is not, and never was, a doubt as to the paternity of our child, and the attempt of Grover Cleveland, or his friends, to couple

10640-476: Was "immoral" and for allegedly acting cruelly by not raising the child himself. In the 1870s, the municipal government in Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt, with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils of political office. When the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians for the 1881 election, Democrats saw an opportunity to gain

10752-464: Was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He refused to promote the previous administration's Nicaragua canal treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations. Cleveland's Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, negotiated with Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in the waters off Canada, and struck

10864-472: Was a formidable policymaker but also garnered criticism. He intervened in the 1894 Pullman Strike to keep the railroads moving, angering Illinois Democrats and labor unions nationwide; his support of the gold standard and opposition to free silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democrats. Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters— depressions and strikes —in his second term. By

10976-415: Was a retention of the status quo , and a postponement of the resolution of the free-silver issue. Another contentious financial issue at the time was the protective tariff . These tariffs had been implemented as a temporary measure during the civil war to protect American industrial interests but remained in place after the war. While it had not been a central point in his campaign, Cleveland's opinion on

11088-577: Was an economic depression in the United States . It began in February 1893 and officially ended eight months later, but the effects from it continued to be felt until 1897. It was the most serious economic depression in history until the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Panic of 1893 deeply affected every sector of the economy and produced political upheaval that led to the political realignment and

11200-558: Was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County, New York . With the American Civil War raging, Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863 , requiring able-bodied men to serve in the army if called upon, or else to hire a substitute. Cleveland chose the latter course, paying $ 150, equivalent to $ 3,712 in 2023, to George Benninsky, a thirty-two-year-old Polish immigrant, to serve in his place. Benninsky survived

11312-403: Was aware of graft in the sheriff's office during his tenure and chose not to confront it. A notable incident of his term took place on September 6, 1872, when Patrick Morrissey was executed. He had been convicted of murdering his mother. As sheriff, Cleveland was responsible for either personally carrying out the execution or paying a deputy $ 10 to perform the task. In spite of reservations about

11424-574: Was born on March 18, 1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey , to Ann (née Neal) and Richard Falley Cleveland . Cleveland's father was a Congregational and Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut . His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller. On his father's side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland , England, in 1635. His father's maternal grandfather , Richard Falley Jr. , fought at

11536-419: Was doing his job well, and would not appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service. He also used his appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees, as many departments had become bloated with political time-servers. Later in his term, as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the spoils, Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats; this

11648-543: Was during this period that Cleveland began courting a widow, Maria Halpin . She later accused him of raping her. It is unclear if Halpin was actually raped by Cleveland as some early reports stated or if their relationship was consensual. In March 1876, Cleveland accused Halpin of being an alcoholic and had her child removed from her custody. The child was taken to the Protestant Orphan Asylum, and Cleveland paid for his stay there. Cleveland had Halpin admitted to

11760-567: Was especially the case with policymaking positions. While some of his decisions were influenced by party concerns, more of Cleveland's appointments were decided by merit alone than was the case in his predecessors' administrations. Cleveland also reformed other parts of the government. In 1887, he signed an act creating the Interstate Commerce Commission . He and Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney undertook to modernize

11872-457: Was further weakened when the Conkling faction and President Chester Arthur refused to give Blaine their strong support. Democratic party leaders believed the Republicans' choice gave them an opportunity to win the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found. Among the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front-runner, having been the party's nominee in

11984-449: Was inaugurated. Angered Westerners and Southerners advocated for cheap money to help their poorer constituents. In reply, one of the foremost silverites, Richard P. Bland , introduced a bill in 1886 that would require the government to coin unlimited amounts of silver, inflating the then-deflating currency. While Bland's bill was defeated, so was a bill the administration favored that would repeal any silver coinage requirement. The result

12096-576: Was over $ 1 billion (also not adjusted for inflation) more than the next largest amount, in 1884. In 1894, the U.S. Army intervened during a strike in Chicago to prevent property damage. The Pullman Strike began at the Pullman Company in Chicago after Pullman refused to either lower rent in the company town or raise wages for its workers due to increased economic pressure from the Panic of 1893. Since

12208-457: Was required by the 1878 Bland–Allison Act (driving up the price of silver and pleasing silver miners). People attempted to redeem silver notes for gold. Ultimately, the statutory limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached and U.S. notes could no longer be redeemed for gold. Investments during the time of the panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high-interest payments. Rumors regarding financial distress at

12320-673: Was spent fighting the entrenched interests of the party machines. Among the acts that established his reputation was a veto of the street-cleaning bill passed by the Common Council . The street-cleaning contract had been the subject of competitive bidding, and the Council selected the highest bidder at $ 422,000, rather than the lowest at $ 100,000 less, because of the political connections of the bidder. While this sort of bipartisan graft had previously been tolerated in Buffalo, Mayor Cleveland would have none of it. His veto message said, "I regard it as

12432-399: Was successfully adopted. For this, and other actions safeguarding public funds, Cleveland began to gain a reputation beyond Erie County as a leader willing to purge government corruption. New York Democratic party officials started to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor. Daniel Manning , a party insider who admired Cleveland's record, was instrumental in his candidacy. With

12544-564: Was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation's gold supply. Cleveland and Treasury Secretary Daniel Manning stood firmly on the side of the gold standard, and tried to reduce the amount of silver that the government was required to coin under the Bland–Allison Act of 1878. Cleveland unsuccessfully appealed to Congress to repeal this law before he

#759240