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65-576: James Sibbald was of an ancient family in the Mearns. His birth, about 1595, may be inferred from his being on ordination trials with the presbytery of Deer on 28 October 1613. He matriculated at Marischal College, Aberdeen in 1614. He graduated MA in 1618 and he became a regent , and prelected on philosophy . In 1626 he was admitted to the first charge in St. Nicholas' Church , Aberdeen . He graduated B.D. at Marischal College on 14 October 1630, and before 1637 received

130-652: A combination of gentamicin and a fluoroquinolone . The risk of death with treatment is about 10% while without it is about 70%. Globally, about 600 cases are reported a year. In 2017, the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Madagascar and Peru . In the United States, infections occasionally occur in rural areas, where the bacteria are believed to circulate among rodents . It has historically occurred in large outbreaks , with

195-427: A cough, pain in the chest, and haemoptysis. When a flea bites a human and contaminates the wound with regurgitated blood, the plague-causing bacteria are passed into the tissue. Y. pestis can reproduce inside cells, so even if phagocytosed , they can still survive. Once in the body, the bacteria can enter the lymphatic system , which drains interstitial fluid . Plague bacteria secrete several toxins , one of which

260-437: A different part of the body and causing associated symptoms. Pneumonic plague infects the lungs, causing shortness of breath, coughing and chest pain; bubonic plague affects the lymph nodes , making them swell; and septicemic plague infects the blood and can cause tissues to turn black and die . The bubonic and septicemic forms are generally spread by flea bites or handling an infected animal, whereas pneumonic plague

325-588: A merger, this church was later to become known as Greyfriars John Knox Church. The building is currently unused and is being offered for sale by the Church of Scotland for commercial or residential use. Notable alumni of Marischal College include: (See University of Aberdeen for eminent scientists, Fellows of the Royal Society, who have worked at Marishal College.) see https://www.abdn.ac.uk/alumni/blog/fellows-of-the-royal-society-from-the-university/ In 1860

390-436: A patient with pneumonic plague and were not wearing adequate personal protective equipment. Antimicrobial postexposure prophylaxis also can be considered for laboratory workers accidentally exposed to infectious materials and people who had close (<6 feet) or direct contact with infected animals, such as veterinary staff, pet owners, and hunters. Specific recommendations on pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis are available in

455-405: A person receives antibiotics before a sample is collected for laboratory testing, they may have a false negative culture and a positive PCR result. Blood tests to detect antibodies against Y. pestis can also be used to diagnose plague, however, this requires taking blood samples at different periods to detect differences between the acute and convalescent phases of F1 antibody titres. In 2020,

520-549: A rise in the rodent population. A 21st-century study of a 1665 outbreak of plague in the village of Eyam in England's Derbyshire Dales – which isolated itself during the outbreak, facilitating modern study – found that three-quarters of cases are likely to have been due to human-to-human transmission, especially within families, a much larger proportion than previously thought. Symptoms of plague are usually non-specific and to definitively diagnose plague, laboratory testing

585-486: A small armed force, for the service of the king. They were coldly received. Sibbald returned to Aberdeen in August, and resumed his ministry on 13 October, practically accepting the situation, but resolutely declining to subscribe the "national covenant." On 22 December he admonished his parishioners not to keep Christmas Day, this being forbidden by ecclesiastical authority (Act of Assembly, 10 December 1638). On 24 May 1640 he

650-568: A small entrance via an archway amidst unrelated housing on the west side. The building was substantially extended between 1893 and 1905 by Alexander Marshall Mackenzie , and with its new "granite cage" front, enclosing the quadrangle, it became the second-largest granite building in the world (exceeded only by the Escorial Palace near Madrid ). For many years, much of the building was derelict as university departments had moved to King's College or Foresterhill years or decades before. Up to 2009,

715-460: A study about rapid diagnostic tests that detect the F1 capsule antigen (F1RDT) by sampling sputum or bubo aspirate was released. Results show rapid diagnostic F1RDT test can be used for people who have suspected pneumonic and bubonic plague but cannot be used in asymptomatic people. F1RDT may be useful in providing a fast result for prompt treatment and fast public health response as studies suggest that F1RDT

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780-478: A tolerable state of repair. Throughout the 20th century, Marischall college housed all sciences and medicine. Since about 1960, the college housed the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Medical school. The building standing today, which replaced a number of older structures, was constructed between 1837 and 1844 by Aberdeen architect Archibald Simpson . This 1837 building formed a U-shaped quadrangle, with

845-477: Is a large granite building on Broad Street in the centre of Aberdeen in north-east Scotland , and since 2011 has been the headquarters of Aberdeen City Council . The building was constructed for and is on long-term lease from the University of Aberdeen , which still uses parts of the building to store its museum collections. Today, it provides corporate office space and public access to council services, adjacent to

910-404: Is generally spread between people through the air via infectious droplets. Diagnosis is typically by finding the bacterium in fluid from a lymph node, blood or sputum . Those at high risk may be vaccinated . Those exposed to a case of pneumonic plague may be treated with preventive medication. If infected, treatment is with antibiotics and supportive care . Typically antibiotics include

975-523: Is highly sensitive for both pneumonic and bubonic plague. However, when using the rapid test, both positive and negative results need to be confirmed to establish or reject the diagnosis of a confirmed case of plague and the test result needs to be interpreted within the epidemiological context as study findings indicate that although 40 out of 40 people who had the plague in a population of 1000 were correctly diagnosed, 317 people were diagnosed falsely as positive. Bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine developed

1040-410: Is known to cause beta-adrenergic blockade . Y. pestis spreads through the lymphatic vessels of the infected human until it reaches a lymph node , where it causes acute lymphadenitis . The swollen lymph nodes form the characteristic buboes associated with the disease, and autopsies of these buboes have revealed them to be mostly hemorrhagic or necrotic . If the lymph node is overwhelmed,

1105-414: Is not considered necessary as long as standard and droplet precautions can be maintained. In cases of surgical mask shortages, patient overcrowding, poor ventilation in hospital wards, or other crises, pre-exposure prophylaxis might be warranted if sufficient supplies of antimicrobials are available. Postexposure prophylaxis should be considered for people who had close (<6 feet), sustained contact with

1170-469: Is not possible (such as some disaster areas). A systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration found no studies of sufficient quality to make any statement on the efficacy of the vaccine. Diagnosing plague early leads to a decrease in transmission or spread of the disease. Pre-exposure prophylaxis for first responders and health care providers who will care for patients with pneumonic plague

1235-457: Is possible by any of the following means: Yersinia pestis circulates in animal reservoirs, particularly in rodents, in the natural foci of infection found on all continents except Australia. The natural foci of plague are situated in a broad belt in the tropical and sub-tropical latitudes and the warmer parts of the temperate latitudes around the globe, between the parallels 55° N and 40° S. Contrary to popular belief, rats did not directly start

1300-630: Is recorded to have died of such contamination while engaging in warfare against the Xiongnu. Plague victims were also reported to have been tossed by catapult into cities under siege. In 1347, the Genoese possession of Caffa , a great trade emporium on the Crimean peninsula , came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde under the command of Jani Beg . After a protracted siege during which

1365-410: Is required. Y. pestis can be identified through both a microscope and by culturing a sample and this is used as a reference standard to confirm that a person has a case of plague. The sample can be obtained from the blood, mucus ( sputum ), or aspirate extracted from inflamed lymph nodes ( buboes ). If a person is administered antibiotics before a sample is taken or if there is a delay in transporting

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1430-468: Is short, usually two to four days, but sometimes just a few hours. The initial signs are indistinguishable from several other respiratory illnesses; they include headache, weakness, and spitting or vomiting of blood. The course of the disease is rapid; unless diagnosed and treated soon enough, typically within a few hours, death may follow in one to six days; in untreated cases, mortality is nearly 100%. Transmission of Y. pestis to an uninfected individual

1495-517: The Democratic Republic of the Congo , Madagascar and Peru . It has historically occurred in large outbreaks , with the best known being the Black Death in the 14th century which resulted in more than 50 million dead. In recent years, cases have been distributed between small seasonal outbreaks which occur primarily in Madagascar, and sporadic outbreaks or isolated cases in endemic areas. In 2022

1560-517: The Tokyo tribunal by Douglas MacArthur but 12 of them were prosecuted in the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials in 1949 during which some admitted having spread bubonic plague within a 36-kilometre (22 mi) radius around the city of Changde . Ishii innovated bombs containing live mice and fleas, with very small explosive loads, to deliver the weaponized microbes, overcoming the problem of

1625-574: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2021. The plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995. Further outbreaks in Madagascar were reported in November 2014 and October 2017. Globally about 600 cases are reported a year. In 2017, the countries with the most cases include

1690-609: The Commissioners, 1838. 1837–38. Vol. XXXIII, 75p. [123] Chairman: Lord John Cunninghame. The commissioners were in favour of a merger of the two colleges despite opposition from Kings College. They considered the unification as essential for the educational system of Northern Scotland although they disagreed with the proposed method of merger laid down by the last commission. The buildings of Marischal College were in very bad repair but new ones were under construction. Additions had been made in 1827 to Kings College buildings which were in

1755-555: The Council to replace the ageing St. Nicholas House across the street. The University leased the Marischal College site to Aberdeen City Council for 175 years in exchange for £4.7 million. Work began in 2009 and the newly refurbished Marischal College was opened in summer 2011. The internal spaces were completely demolished and replaced with a new internal structure which matched the existing walls and windows. The renovations restored

1820-532: The Mongol army was reportedly withering from the disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants. This event might have led to the transfer of the Black Death via their ships into the south of Europe , possibly explaining its rapid spread. During World War II , the Japanese Army developed weaponized plague, based on

1885-516: The Town House, the city's historic seat of local government. It is the second largest granite building in the world. The construction of the modern college building began in 1835, following the demolition of previous buildings on the site, and was completed in its present form in the early 1900s. Formerly the seat of the Marischal College and University of Aberdeen founded in 1593, the building

1950-473: The ancient church had been of one opinion. The harmonising attempt was approved by Robert Baillie , D.D.; by Samuel Rutherford it was denounced as a design for "reconciliation with popery". On the arrival in Aberdeen (20 July 1638) of the deputation, charged with the task of procuring adhesion to the " national covenant " of 28 February (drafted by Alexander Henderson , (1583?–1646)), the same six doctors, with

2015-527: The bacterium, developing strains resistant to antibiotics, combining the bacterium with other diseases (such as diphtheria ), and genetic engineering. Scientists who worked in USSR bio-weapons programs have stated that the Soviet effort was formidable and that large stocks of weaponised plague bacteria were produced. Information on many of the Soviet and US projects is largely unavailable. Aerosolized pneumonic plague remains

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2080-639: The best known being the Black Death in the 14th century, which resulted in more than 50 million deaths in Europe. There are several different clinical manifestations of plague. The most common form is bubonic plague, followed by septicemic and pneumonic plague. Other clinical manifestations include plague meningitis, plague pharyngitis, and ocular plague. General symptoms of plague include fever, chills, headaches, and nausea. Many people experience swelling in their lymph nodes if they have bubonic plague. For those with pneumonic plague, symptoms may (or may not) include

2145-412: The body and possibly ischemic necrosis (tissue death due to lack of circulation/perfusion to that tissue) from the clots. DIC results in depletion of the body's clotting resources so that it can no longer control bleeding. Consequently, there is bleeding into the skin and other organs, which can cause red and/or black patchy rash and hemoptysis/hematemesis (coughing up/ vomiting of blood). There are bumps on

2210-465: The breeding and release of large numbers of fleas. During the Japanese occupation of Manchuria , Unit 731 deliberately infected Chinese , Korean and Manchurian civilians and prisoners of war with the plague bacterium. These subjects, termed "maruta" or "logs", were then studied by dissection , others by vivisection while still conscious. Members of the unit such as Shiro Ishii were exonerated from

2275-630: The building opened to the public in June 2011. The university has retained the Mitchell Hall and a number of other significant parts of the building for its own use, in addition to its museum stores (formerly the Marischal Museum ). "Marischal College and University of Aberdeen" was the formal name of the former university which occupied the present Marischal College site then in New Aberdeen . The College

2340-527: The city erected outside Marischal College a statue of King Robert the Bruce on horseback, holding up a charter. Outside the College there is a large modern fountain, known as the "dancing fountain" for its alternating patterns. The fountain was briefly shut in 2019 due to high levels of bromine, but has since been turned back on. Amongst the buildings demolished to make way for the new frontage of Marischal College at

2405-484: The clinical guidelines on treatment and prophylaxis of plague published in 2021. If diagnosed in time, the various forms of plague are usually highly responsive to antibiotic therapy. The antibiotics often used are streptomycin , chloramphenicol and tetracycline . Amongst the newer generation of antibiotics, gentamicin and doxycycline have proven effective in monotherapeutic treatment of plague. Guidelines on treatment and prophylaxis of plague were published by

2470-515: The college merged with King's College, Aberdeen to create the University of Aberdeen . 57°08′58″N 2°05′47″W  /  57.1495°N 2.0964°W  / 57.1495; -2.0964 Plague (disease) This is an accepted version of this page Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis . Symptoms include fever , weakness and headache . Usually this begins one to seven days after exposure. There are three forms of plague, each affecting

2535-662: The degree of D.D. from the two universities of Marischal College and King's College. His first appearance in ecclesiastical politics is in connection with the unifying schemes of John Durie (1596–1680). By advice of Archbishop Spotiswood, Durie had written to Aberdeen divines, seeking their opinion on the points of dispute between the Lutherans and the Reformed . On 20 February 1637 Sibbald and five other Aberdeen doctors , headed by John Forbes (1593–1648), gave it as their judgment that Lutherans and Reformed agreed in those points on which

2600-509: The explosive killing the infected animal and insect by the use of a ceramic, rather than metal, casing for the warhead. While no records survive of the actual usage of the ceramic shells, prototypes exist and are believed to have been used in experiments during WWII. After World War II, both the United States and the Soviet Union developed means of weaponising pneumonic plague. Experiments included various delivery methods, vacuum drying, sizing

2665-631: The first plague vaccine in 1897. He conducted a massive inoculation program in British India , and it is estimated that 26 million doses of Haffkine's anti-plague vaccine were sent out from Bombay between 1897 and 1925, reducing the plague mortality by 50–85%. Since human plague is rare in most parts of the world as of 2023, routine vaccination is not needed other than for those at particularly high risk of exposure, nor for people living in areas with enzootic plague, meaning it occurs at regular, predictable rates in populations and specific areas, such as

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2730-463: The flea, sticking together to form a plug that blocks its stomach and causes it to starve. The flea then bites a host and continues to feed, even though it cannot quell its hunger, and consequently, the flea vomits blood tainted with the bacteria back into the bite wound. The bubonic plague bacterium then infects a new person and the flea eventually dies from starvation. Serious outbreaks of plague are usually started by other disease outbreaks in rodents or

2795-430: The granite exterior, ornamentation and detailing, and provided new public space for citizens accessing council services and offices for council workers. The Council Chamber and democratic processes continue to be located at the Town House next door. The university retained the north wing comprising the Mitchell Hall, debating chamber and associated rooms, although as of May 2012 these are not yet open for use. In Spring 2011,

2860-422: The infection can pass into the bloodstream, causing secondary septicemic plague and if the lungs are seeded, it can cause secondary pneumonic plague . Lymphatics ultimately drain into the bloodstream, so the plague bacteria may enter the blood and travel to almost any part of the body. In septicemic plague, bacterial endotoxins cause disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), causing tiny clots throughout

2925-572: The only parts of the college building chiefly used by the university were the Mitchell Hall (for graduations, concerts and other events), the Marischal Museum, and the Anatomy department, which was used for 1st year medical students until March 2009. It was also home to the University's debating chamber. In 2006 plans were announced for the renovation of the college as new administrative headquarters for

2990-436: The person's sample to a laboratory and/or a poorly stored sample, there is a possibility for false negative results. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may also be used to diagnose plague, by detecting the presence of bacterial genes such as the pla gene (plasmogen activator) and caf1 gene, (F1 capsule antigen). PCR testing requires a very small sample and is effective for both alive and dead bacteria. For this reason, if

3055-616: The possible origin of all modern strands of Yersinia pestis DNA was found in human remains in three graves located in Kyrgyzstan , dated to 1338 and 1339. The siege of Caffa in Crimea in 1346, is known to have been the first plague outbreak with following strands, later to spread over Europe. Sequencing DNA compared to other ancient and modern strands paints a family tree of the bacteria. Bacteria today affecting marmots in Kyrgyzstan, are closest to

3120-495: The post- Reformation Kirk . Its Greek motto translates as "virtue is self-sufficient". The College was constructed on the site of a medieval Franciscan friary, disused after the Reformation. This building was later replaced by a William Adam -designed building in the mid-18th century; however, this, together with the friary remains, were demolished entirely for the construction of the present building between 1835 and 1906, as

3185-481: The regeneration of all baptised infants; and while admitting the pope to be antichrist, he "knew not whether a greater antichrist would arise after him." His books and papers were seized, but returned to him. In October he again sailed for England , but returned to Aberdeen at the beginning of 1641, having received no encouragement from the king. He made his way to Ireland, and obtained some ministerial charge in Dublin . He

3250-745: The scaffold in Palace Yard , Westminster (9 March 1649), on the ground that the divines then in attendance are described as presbyterians . But this term is not inapplicable to Sibbald, a Scottish churchman, strongly attached to primitive doctrine, but accepting the ecclesiastical arrangements made by lawful authority. Ten years after leaving Aberdeen he died in Dublin of the plague , in 1647. He married Elizabeth Nicolson, and had issue. The Scottish parliament on 21 June 1661 granted £200 to his widow and children. Marischal College, Aberdeen Marischal College ( / ˈ m ɑː r ʃ l / MAR -shəl )

3315-506: The skin that look somewhat like insect bites; these are usually red, and sometimes white in the centre. Untreated, the septicemic plague is usually fatal. Early treatment with antibiotics reduces the mortality rate to between 4 and 15 per cent. The pneumonic form of plague arises from infection of the lungs . It causes coughing and thereby produces airborne droplets that contain bacterial cells and are likely to infect anyone inhaling them. The incubation period for pneumonic plague

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3380-400: The spread of the bubonic plague. It is mainly a disease in the fleas ( Xenopsylla cheopis ) that infested the rats, making the rats themselves the first victims of the plague. Rodent-borne infection in a human occurs when a person is bitten by a flea that has been infected by biting a rodent that itself has been infected by the bite of a flea carrying the disease. The bacteria multiply inside

3445-512: The strand found in the graves, suggesting this is also the location where plague transferred from animals to humans. The plague has a long history as a biological weapon . Historical accounts from ancient China and medieval Europe details the use of infected animal carcasses, such as cows or horses, and human carcasses, by the Xiongnu / Huns , Mongols , Turks and other groups, to contaminate enemy water supplies. Han dynasty general Huo Qubing

3510-512: The temporising adhesion of William Guild , presented further "demands," questioning the lawfulness of the covenant. Answers, replies, further answers and "duplies," brought the negotiation to a deadlock. Sibbald had been elected to the general assembly which opened at Glasgow on 21 November. He did not attend. On 28 March 1639, four days before the reduction of Aberdeen by the covenanting forces under Montrose , he sailed for Berwick with Robert Baron (1593?–1639), other leaders of his party, and

3575-462: The turn of the 20th century, was the Greyfriars collegiate church , built in 1532 and incorporated as part of the College in 1593. Following a dispute regarding the conservation of this church, a new church building was constructed within the Marischal College complex. It is incorporated into the College frontage, which includes the southern tower, notable for being surmounted with a spire. Following

3640-420: The university began to move to King's College or Foresterhill (for students of medicine) and by the early 21st century a new purpose for Marischal College was required. After a number of unsuccessful proposals, the majority of the building was leased to Aberdeen City Council to be restored and refurbished as office accommodation. The extensive renovation was completed on schedule and significantly under budget and

3705-524: The western United States. It is not even indicated for most travellers to countries with known recent reported cases, particularly if their travel is limited to urban areas with modern hotels. The United States CDC thus only recommends vaccination for (1) all laboratory and field personnel who are working with Y. pestis organisms resistant to antimicrobials: (2) people engaged in aerosol experiments with Y. pestis ; and (3) people engaged in field operations in areas with enzootic plague where preventing exposure

3770-654: Was Adolf Hitler 's favourite building in the United Kingdom and that he would have liked to use it as a residence if the outcome of the Second World War had been different. The University of Aberdeen was created after the merger of Marischal College and King's College, Aberdeen in 1860 under the terms of the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858 . The following extract refers to this merger: Universities of Kings College and Marischal College, Aberdeen. First Report of

3835-423: Was built in the early 20th century. It is named after Dr Charles Mitchell, an alumnus of the university and a Tyneside shipbuilder. A large stained-glass window dominates the hall, executed by TR Spence of London and representing the university's history. The building was commended by poet John Betjeman following a visit to Aberdeen in 1947: There is an urban legend of unknown origin that Marischal College

3900-425: Was founded in 1593 by George Keith, 5th Earl Marischal of Scotland . The original charter of the university was lost by the early 18th century, but two near-contemporary copies exist – one of which was accepted by the courts in 1756 as being authentic. In this charter, Marischal College is described variously as a gymnasium , collegium (college), academia (academy) and universitas (university). Marischal

3965-529: Was probably the "Ja. Sybold" who joined (August 1646) in the address to Ormonde, thanking him for "the free exercise of the true reformed religion according to the liturgy and canons of the church," and who signed (9 July 1647) the "declaration" maintaining that the directory was without royal authority, and seeking permission "to use the Book of Common Prayer ." Grub doubts whether he was the Dr. Sibbald who attended Hamilton on

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4030-420: Was retained by the unified University of Aberdeen , which was created in 1860 by the merger of Marischal College and King's College . The buildings of Marischal College continued to be used for academic purposes until the mid-20th century and less and less until the early 2000s. During this period they were frequently rebuilt and expanded upon. In the mid-to-late 20th century, teaching and academic activities at

4095-414: Was silenced by commission of assembly; on 7 July he was suspended till the meeting of assembly. On 6 August he was deposed by the general assembly meeting at Aberdeen. In addition to his refusal of the covenant, he was charged with Arminianism and with doctrines tending to popery, a charge partly grounded on his circulation of the (unpublished) writings of William Forbes . Under examination, he maintained

4160-573: Was the Longacre home of Bishop John Skinner , site of the 1784 consecration of Samuel Seabury , now marked by a plaque on the east wall of the College's quadrangle. James Clerk Maxwell FRS, FRSE (1831–1879), described as "the most famous and influential professor Aberdeen has ever had" was appointed as Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1856 and continued in that post until the merger of Marischal College with King's College. The Mitchell Hall, where University of Aberdeen graduations previously took place,

4225-481: Was the second of Scotland's post-medieval "civic universities", following the University of Edinburgh , created without Papal bull and with a more modern structure and a greater resemblance to the Protestant arts colleges of continental Europe. As such, both Edinburgh and Marischal came to be known as the "Town Colleges" of their respective cities. The university was founded with the expressed aim of training clergy for

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