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72-471: Lind argued for the health benefits of better ventilation aboard naval ships, the improved cleanliness of sailors' bodies, clothing and bedding, and below-deck fumigation with sulphur and arsenic . He also proposed that fresh water could be obtained by distilling sea water . His work advanced the practice of preventive medicine and improved nutrition . Lind was born in Edinburgh , Scotland, in 1716 into

144-748: A career with the British navy. His cousin was James Lind (1736–1812) . James rose to the rank of post-captain , and was notable for his role in the Battle of Vizagapatam in the Bay of Bengal in 1804, for which he was knighted. Lind died at Gosport in Hampshire in 1794. He was buried in St Mary's Parish Churchyard in Portchester . Lind's is one of twenty-three names on the Frieze of

216-465: A component of bad breath odor. Not all organic sulfur compounds smell unpleasant at all concentrations: the sulfur-containing monoterpenoid grapefruit mercaptan in small concentrations is the characteristic scent of grapefruit, but has a generic thiol odor at larger concentrations. Sulfur mustard , a potent vesicant , was used in World War ;I as a disabling agent. Sulfur–sulfur bonds are

288-426: A cure for scurvy, he was the first to study its effect by a systematic experiment in 1747. It was one of the first reported, controlled, clinical experiments in history, particularly because of its use of control groups . Lind thought that scurvy was due to putrefaction of the body that could be helped by acids , so he included an acidic dietary supplement in the experiment. This began after two months at sea when

360-460: A drink of barley water . The treatment of group five stopped after six days when they ran out of fruit, but by that time one sailor was fit for duty while the other had almost recovered. Apart from that, only group one showed any effect from its treatment. Shortly after this experiment, Lind retired from the Navy and practised privately as a physician. In 1753, he published A treatise of the scurvy , that

432-631: A family of merchants, then headed by his father, James Lind. He had an elder sister. He was educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh . In 1731 he began his medical studies as an apprentice of George Langlands, a fellow of the Incorporation of Surgeons which preceded the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh . In 1739, he entered the Navy as a surgeon's mate, serving in the Mediterranean , off

504-572: A major industrial product, especially in automobile tires. Because of the heat and sulfur, the process was named vulcanization , after the Roman god of the forge and volcanism . Being abundantly available in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times and is referred to in the Torah ( Genesis ). English translations of the Christian Bible commonly referred to burning sulfur as "brimstone", giving rise to

576-416: A structural component used to stiffen rubber, similar to the disulfide bridges that rigidify proteins (see biological below). In the most common type of industrial "curing" or hardening and strengthening of natural rubber , elemental sulfur is heated with the rubber to the point that chemical reactions form disulfide bridges between isoprene units of the polymer. This process, patented in 1843, made rubber

648-433: A tracer in hydrologic studies. Differences in the natural abundances can be used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the S of ecosystem components. Rocky Mountain lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric sources of sulfate have been found to have measurably different S values than lakes believed to be dominated by watershed sources of sulfate. The radioactive S is formed in cosmic ray spallation of

720-465: Is a common reagent in organic synthesis . Bromine also oxidizes sulfur to form sulfur dibromide and disulfur dibromide . Sulfur oxidizes cyanide and sulfite to give thiocyanate and thiosulfate , respectively. Sulfur reacts with many metals. Electropositive metals give polysulfide salts. Copper, zinc, and silver are attacked by sulfur; see tarnishing . Although many metal sulfides are known, most are prepared by high temperature reactions of

792-576: Is a disease caused by a vitamin C deficiency, but in Lind's day, the concept of vitamins was unknown. Vitamin C is necessary for healthy connective tissue . In 1740 the catastrophic result of then-Commodore George Anson 's circumnavigation attracted much attention in Europe; out of 1900 men, 1400 died, most of them allegedly from scurvy. According to Lind, scurvy caused more deaths in the British fleets than French and Spanish arms. Since antiquity in some parts of

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864-511: Is a soft, bright-yellow solid that is odorless. It melts at 115.21 °C (239.38 °F), and boils at 444.6 °C (832.3 °F). At 95.2 °C (203.4 °F), below its melting temperature, cyclo-octasulfur begins slowly changing from α-octasulfur to the β- polymorph . The structure of the S 8 ring is virtually unchanged by this phase transition, which affects the intermolecular interactions. Cooling molten sulfur freezes at 119.6 °C (247.3 °F), as it predominantly consists of

936-599: Is about 2 g/cm , depending on the allotrope; all of the stable allotropes are excellent electrical insulators. Sulfur sublimes more or less between 20 °C (68 °F) and 50 °C (122 °F). Sulfur is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide and, to a lesser extent, in other nonpolar organic solvents, such as benzene and toluene . Under normal conditions, sulfur hydrolyzes very slowly to mainly form hydrogen sulfide and sulfuric acid : The reaction involves adsorption of protons onto S 8 clusters, followed by disproportionation into

1008-451: Is also called brimstone , which means "burning stone". Almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas and petroleum . The greatest commercial use of the element is the production of sulfuric acid for sulfate and phosphate fertilizers , and other chemical processes. Sulfur is used in matches , insecticides , and fungicides . Many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and

1080-417: Is explained by its production in the so-called alpha-process (one of the main classes of nuclear fusion reactions) in exploding stars. Other stable sulfur isotopes are produced in the bypass processes related with Ar, and their composition depends on a type of a stellar explosion. For example, proportionally more S comes from novae than from supernovae . On the planet Earth the sulfur isotopic composition

1152-464: Is higher than the melting point of sulfur. Native sulfur is synthesized by anaerobic bacteria acting on sulfate minerals such as gypsum in salt domes . Significant deposits in salt domes occur along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico , and in evaporites in eastern Europe and western Asia. Native sulfur may be produced by geological processes alone. Fossil-based sulfur deposits from salt domes were once

1224-434: Is made from dried, sprouted cereal grains, including barley . The malt is run through a mill, cracking the husk and exposing the starch inside. The milled grain is then mashed by mixing it with hot water, and then steeped , a process that enables enzymes to convert the starch in the malt into sugars which dissolve in the water. Sometimes the mash is heated at set intervals to alter the enzyme activity. The temperature of

1296-573: Is mildly acidic: Hydrogen sulfide gas and the hydrosulfide anion are extremely toxic to mammals, due to their inhibition of the oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin and certain cytochromes in a manner analogous to cyanide and azide (see below, under precautions ). The two principal sulfur oxides are obtained by burning sulfur: Many other sulfur oxides are observed including the sulfur-rich oxides include sulfur monoxide , disulfur monoxide , disulfur dioxides, and higher oxides containing peroxo groups. Sulfur reacts with fluorine to give

1368-521: Is named after him. Sulphur This is an accepted version of this page Sulfur (also spelled sulphur in British English ) is a chemical element ; it has symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant , multivalent and nonmetallic . Under normal conditions , sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with the chemical formula S 8 . Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow, crystalline solid at room temperature . Sulfur

1440-399: Is produced by rapid cooling of molten sulfur—for example, by pouring it into cold water. X-ray crystallography studies show that the amorphous form may have a helical structure with eight atoms per turn. The long coiled polymeric molecules make the brownish substance elastic , and in bulk it has the feel of crude rubber. This form is metastable at room temperature and gradually reverts to

1512-557: Is the 10th most common element in the universe . Sulfur, usually as sulfide, is present in many types of meteorites . Ordinary chondrites contain on average 2.1% sulfur, and carbonaceous chondrites may contain as much as 6.6%. It is normally present as troilite (FeS), but there are exceptions, with carbonaceous chondrites containing free sulfur, sulfates and other sulfur compounds. The distinctive colors of Jupiter 's volcanic moon Io are attributed to various forms of molten, solid, and gaseous sulfur. In July 2024, elemental sulfur

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1584-410: Is the tenth most abundant element by mass in the universe and the fifth most common on Earth. Though sometimes found in pure, native form, sulfur on Earth usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals . Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, being mentioned for its uses in ancient India , ancient Greece , China , and ancient Egypt . Historically and in literature sulfur

1656-408: Is used as a reagent to make the polymer rayon and many organosulfur compounds. Unlike carbon monoxide , carbon monosulfide is stable only as an extremely dilute gas, found between solar systems. Organosulfur compounds are responsible for some of the unpleasant odors of decaying organic matter. They are widely known as the odorant in domestic natural gas, garlic odor, and skunk spray, as well as

1728-490: The Hershey-Chase experiment . Because of the weak beta activity of S, its compounds are relatively safe as long as they are not ingested or absorbed by the body. S is created inside massive stars, at a depth where the temperature exceeds 2.5×10  K, by the fusion of one nucleus of silicon plus one nucleus of helium. As this nuclear reaction is part of the alpha process that produces elements in abundance, sulfur

1800-567: The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine building in Keppel Street , London. Names were selected by a committee of unknown constitution who deemed them to be pioneers in public health and tropical medicine. At University of Edinburgh Medical School there is the James Lind commemorative plaque unveiled in 1953, funded by citrus growers of California and Arizona. The James Lind Alliance

1872-657: The Sick and Hurt Board whose numbers had recently been augmented by two practical naval surgeons who knew of Lind's experiments with citrus. The following year, the Admiralty accepted the Board's recommendation that lemon juice be issued routinely to the whole fleet. Another Scot, Archibald Menzies , brought citrus plants to Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii on the Vancouver Expedition , to help

1944-407: The brewing of beer or whisky . Wort contains the sugars , the most important being maltose and maltotriose , that will be fermented by the brewing yeast to produce alcohol . Wort also contains crucial amino acids to provide nitrogen to the yeast as well as more complex proteins contributing to beer head retention and flavour. The first step in wort production is to obtain malt , which

2016-408: The noble gases . Sulfur polycations, S 2+ 8 , S 2+ 4 and S 2+ 16 are produced when sulfur is reacted with oxidizing agents in a strongly acidic solution. The colored solutions produced by dissolving sulfur in oleum were first reported as early as 1804 by C. F. Bucholz, but the cause of the color and the structure of the polycations involved was only determined in

2088-473: The sulfate minerals , such as gypsum (calcium sulfate), alunite (potassium aluminium sulfate), and barite (barium sulfate). On Earth, just as upon Jupiter's moon Io, elemental sulfur occurs naturally in volcanic emissions, including emissions from hydrothermal vents . The main industrial source of sulfur has become petroleum and natural gas . Common oxidation states of sulfur range from −2 to +6. Sulfur forms stable compounds with all elements except

2160-412: The "science of chemicals" ( Sanskrit : रसशास्त्र , romanized :  rasaśāstra ), wrote extensively about the use of sulfur in alchemical operations with mercury, from the eighth century AD onwards. In the rasaśāstra tradition, sulfur is called "the smelly" ( गन्धक , gandhaka ). Wort Wort ( / ˈ w ɜːr t / ) is the liquid extracted from the mashing process during

2232-409: The (among others) protein keratin , found in outer skin, hair, and feathers. Sulfur is one of the core chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental macronutrient for all living organisms. Sulfur forms several polyatomic molecules. The best-known allotrope is octasulfur , cyclo-S 8 . The point group of cyclo-S 8 is D 4d and its dipole moment is 0 D. Octasulfur

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2304-414: The 2010s, it was thought that sulfate reduction could fractionate sulfur isotopes up to 46 permil and fractionation larger than 46 permil recorded in sediments must be due to disproportionation of sulfur compounds in the sediment. This view has changed since the 2010s as experiments showed that sulfate-reducing bacteria can fractionate to 66 permil. As substrates for disproportionation are limited by

2376-530: The 3rd century, the Chinese had discovered that sulfur could be extracted from pyrite . Chinese Daoists were interested in sulfur's flammability and its reactivity with certain metals, yet its earliest practical uses were found in traditional Chinese medicine . The Wujing Zongyao of 1044 AD described various formulas for Chinese black powder , which is a mixture of potassium nitrate ( KNO 3 ), charcoal , and sulfur. Indian alchemists, practitioners of

2448-504: The French. In the 18th century ships took along water, cordial and milk in casks. According to the Regulations and Instructions relating to His Majesty's Service at Sea , which had been published in 1733 by the Admiralty, sailors were entitled to a gallon of weak beer daily (5/6 of a British gallon, equivalent to the modern American gallon or slightly more than three and a half litres ). As

2520-457: The Navy re-supply in the Pacific. This was not the end of scurvy in the Navy, as lemon juice was at first in such short supply that it could only be used in home waters under the direction of surgeons, rather than as a preventative. Only after 1800 did the supply increase so that, at the insistence of Admiral Lord St Vincent , it began to be issued generally. Lind noticed that typhus disappeared from

2592-494: The activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in the time of formation of the sample, or suggest the main sources of sulfur in ecosystems. However, there are ongoing discussions over the real reason for the δ S shifts, biological activity or postdeposit alteration. For example, when sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may cause small differences in the δ S values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between minerals can be used to estimate

2664-436: The atmospheric Ar . This fact may be used to verify the presence of recent (up to 1 year) atmospheric sediments in various materials. This isotope may be obtained artificially by different ways. In practice, the reaction Cl + n → S + p is used by irradiating potassium chloride with neutrons. The isotope S is used in various sulfur-containing compounds as a radioactive tracer for many biological studies, for example,

2736-648: The basis for commercial production in the United States, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine. Such sources have become of secondary commercial importance, and most are no longer worked but commercial production is still carried out in the Osiek mine in Poland. Common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include the sulfide minerals , such as pyrite (iron sulfide), cinnabar (mercury sulfide), galena (lead sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide), and stibnite (antimony sulfide); and

2808-489: The beer had been boiled in the brewing process, it was reasonably free from bacteria and lasted for months, unlike water. In the Mediterranean , wine was also issued, often fortified with brandy . A frigate with 240 men, with stores for four months, carried more than one hundred tons of drinkable liquid. Water quality depended on its source, the condition of casks and for how long it had been kept. In normal times, sailors were not allowed to take any water away. When water

2880-406: The bittering. Then, the flavouring hops are added, typically 15 minutes from the end of the boil. The finishing hops are added last, toward the end of or after the boil . This extracts the oils, which provide flavour and aroma but evaporate quickly. In general, hops provide the most flavouring when boiled for approximately 15 minutes, and the most aroma when not boiled at all. At the end of boiling,

2952-546: The body, bad water, excessive work, and living in a damp atmosphere that prevented healthful perspiration. Thus, while he recognised the benefits of citrus fruit (although he weakened the effect by switching to a boiled concentrate or "rob", in which the boiling process destroys vitamin C), he never advocated citrus juice as a single solution. He believed that scurvy had multiple causes which therefore required multiple remedies. The medical establishment ashore continued to believe that scurvy

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3024-445: The case of most beer production, to extract the bittering, flavour and aroma from hops . In beer making, the wort is known as "sweet wort" until the hops have been added, after which it is called "hopped or bitter wort". The addition of hops is generally done in three parts at set times. The bittering hops, added first, are boiled in the wort for approximately one hour to one and a half hours. This long boil extracts resins, which provides

3096-696: The coast of West Africa and in the West Indies. By 1747 he had become surgeon of HMS  Salisbury in the Channel Fleet , and conducted his experiment on scurvy while that ship was patrolling the Bay of Biscay. Just after that patrol he left the Navy, wrote his MD thesis on venereal diseases and earned his degree from the University of Edinburgh Medical School , and was granted a licence to practise in Edinburgh. Scurvy

3168-501: The composition of reaction products. While reaction between sulfur and oxygen under normal conditions gives sulfur dioxide (oxidation state +4), formation of sulfur trioxide (oxidation state +6) requires a temperature of 400–600 °C (750–1,100 °F) and presence of a catalyst. In reactions with elements of lesser electronegativity , it reacts as an oxidant and forms sulfides, where it has oxidation state −2. Sulfur reacts with nearly all other elements except noble gases, even with

3240-451: The crystalline molecular allotrope, which is no longer elastic. This process happens over a matter of hours to days, but can be rapidly catalyzed. Sulfur has 23 known isotopes , four of which are stable: S ( 94.99% ± 0.26% ), S ( 0.75% ± 0.02% ), S ( 4.25% ± 0.24% ), and S ( 0.01% ± 0.01% ). Other than S, with a half-life of 87 days, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur have half-lives less than 3 hours. The preponderance of S

3312-464: The elements. Geoscientists also study the isotopes of metal sulfides in rocks and sediment to study environmental conditions in the Earth's past. Some of the main classes of sulfur-containing organic compounds include the following: Compounds with carbon–sulfur multiple bonds are uncommon, an exception being carbon disulfide , a volatile colorless liquid that is structurally similar to carbon dioxide. It

3384-406: The highly reactive sulfur tetrafluoride and the highly inert sulfur hexafluoride . Whereas fluorine gives S(IV) and S(VI) compounds, chlorine gives S(II) and S(I) derivatives. Thus, sulfur dichloride , disulfur dichloride , and higher chlorosulfanes arise from the chlorination of sulfur. Sulfuryl chloride and chlorosulfuric acid are derivatives of sulfuric acid; thionyl chloride (SOCl 2 )

3456-594: The hot wort is quickly cooled (in homebrewing , often using an immersion chiller ) to a temperature favorable to the yeast . Once sufficiently cooled, the wort is transferred to a separate fermentation vessel, oxygenated, and then yeast is added, or "pitched", to begin the fermentation process. The adjunct grains that can be added to the mash include oats , wheat , corn (maize), rye , and rice . Adjunct grains may first need gelatinization and cooling. They are used to create varietal beers such as wheat beer and oatmeal stout , to create grain whisky , or to lighten

3528-484: The largest documented single crystal measuring 22 cm × 16 cm × 11 cm (8.7 in × 6.3 in × 4.3 in). Historically, Sicily was a major source of sulfur in the Industrial Revolution . Lakes of molten sulfur up to about 200 m (660 ft) in diameter have been found on the sea floor, associated with submarine volcanoes , at depths where the boiling point of water

3600-415: The late 1960s. S 2+ 8 is deep blue, S 2+ 4 is yellow and S 2+ 16 is red. Reduction of sulfur gives various polysulfides with the formula S x , many of which have been obtained in crystalline form. Illustrative is the production of sodium tetrasulfide : Some of these dianions dissociate to give radical anions , such as S − 3 gives the blue color of

3672-403: The mixture is usually increased to 78 °C (172 °F) for mashout . Lautering is the next step, which means the sugar-extracted grist or solids remaining in the mash are separated from the liquid wort. In homebrewing , the use of grain malt (including milling and mashing) can be skipped by adding malt extract to water to make wort. The mixture is then boiled to sanitize the wort and, in

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3744-573: The notoriously unreactive metal iridium (yielding iridium disulfide ). Some of those reactions require elevated temperatures. Sulfur forms over 30 solid allotropes , more than any other element. Besides S 8 , several other rings are known. Removing one atom from the crown gives S 7 , which is of a deeper yellow than S 8 . HPLC analysis of "elemental sulfur" reveals an equilibrium mixture of mainly S 8 , but with S 7 and small amounts of S 6 . Larger rings have been prepared, including S 12 and S 18 . Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur

3816-407: The product of sulfate reduction , the isotopic effect of disproportionation should be less than 16 permil in most sedimentary settings. In forest ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering of ore minerals and evaporites contribute some sulfur. Sulfur with a distinctive isotopic composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched sulfur has been added as

3888-420: The reaction products. The second, fourth and sixth ionization energies of sulfur are 2252 kJ/mol, 4556 kJ/mol and 8495.8 kJ/mol, respectively. The composition of reaction products of sulfur with oxidants (and its oxidation state) depends on whether releasing of reaction energy overcomes these thresholds. Applying catalysts and/or supply of external energy may vary sulfur's oxidation state and

3960-484: The reason was unknown. On the insistence of senior officers, led by Rear Admiral Alan Gardner in 1794, lemon juice was issued on board the Suffolk on a twenty-three-week, non-stop voyage to India. The daily ration of two-thirds of an ounce mixed in grog contained just about the minimum daily intake of 10 mg vitamin C. There was no serious outbreak of scurvy. This resulted in widespread demand for lemon juice, backed by

4032-509: The rock lapis lazuli . This reaction highlights a distinctive property of sulfur: its ability to catenate (bind to itself by formation of chains). Protonation of these polysulfide anions produces the polysulfanes , H 2 S x , where x = 2, 3, and 4. Ultimately, reduction of sulfur produces sulfide salts: The interconversion of these species is exploited in the sodium–sulfur battery . Treatment of sulfur with hydrogen gives hydrogen sulfide . When dissolved in water, hydrogen sulfide

4104-414: The ship was afflicted with scurvy. He divided twelve scorbutic sailors into six groups of two. They all received the same diet, but in addition group one was given a quart of cider daily, group two twenty-five drops of elixir of vitriol (sulfuric acid), group three six spoonfuls of vinegar , group four half a pint of seawater, group five two oranges and one lemon , and the last group a spicy paste plus

4176-719: The smells of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, bad breath , grapefruit , and garlic are due to organosulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide gives the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes. Sulfur is an essential element for all life, almost always in the form of organosulfur compounds or metal sulfides. Amino acids (two proteinogenic : cysteine and methionine , and many other non-coded : cystine , taurine , etc.) and two vitamins ( biotin and thiamine ) are organosulfur compounds crucial for life. Many cofactors also contain sulfur, including glutathione , and iron–sulfur proteins . Disulfides , S–S bonds, confer mechanical strength and insolubility of

4248-465: The temperature of equilibration. The δ C and δ S of coexisting carbonate minerals and sulfides can be used to determine the pH and oxygen fugacity of the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation. Scientists measure the sulfur isotopes of minerals in rocks and sediments to study the redox conditions in past oceans. Sulfate-reducing bacteria in marine sediment fractionate sulfur isotopes as they take in sulfate and produce sulfide . Prior to

4320-505: The term " fire-and-brimstone " sermons , in which listeners are reminded of the fate of eternal damnation that await the unbelieving and unrepentant. It is from this part of the Bible that Hell is implied to "smell of sulfur" (likely due to its association with volcanic activity). According to the Ebers Papyrus , a sulfur ointment was used in ancient Egypt to treat granular eyelids. Sulfur

4392-403: The top floor of his hospital, where patients were bathed and given clean clothes and bedding. However, incidence was very high on the lower floors where such measures were not in place. Lind recommended that sailors be stripped, shaved, scrubbed, and issued clean clothes and bedding regularly. Thereafter, British seamen did not suffer from typhus, giving the British navy a significant advantage over

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4464-602: The trials on wort were published. In 1762 Lind's Essay on the most effectual means of preserving the health of seamen appeared. In it he recommended growing salad—i.e. watercress (43 mg vitamin C per 100 g)—on wet blankets. This was put into practice, and in the winter of 1775 the British Army in North America was supplied with mustard and cress seeds. However Lind, like most of the medical profession, believed that scurvy came from ill-digested and putrefying food within

4536-539: The world, and since the 17th century in England, it had been known that citrus fruit had an antiscorbutic effect. John Woodall (1570–1643), an English military surgeon of the British East India Company recommended them but their use did not become widespread. John Fryer (1650–1733) too noted in 1698 the value of citrus fruits in curing sailors of scurvy. Although Lind was not the first to suggest citrus as

4608-419: The β-S 8 molecules. Between its melting and boiling temperatures, octasulfur changes its allotrope again, turning from β-octasulfur to γ-sulfur, again accompanied by a lower density but increased viscosity due to the formation of polymers . At higher temperatures, the viscosity decreases as depolymerization occurs. Molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above 200 °C (392 °F). The density of sulfur

4680-404: Was a disease of putrefaction, curable by the administration of elixir of vitriol, infusions of wort and other remedies designed to 'ginger up' the system. It could not account for the effect of citrus fruits and so dismissed the evidence of them as unproven and anecdotal. In the Navy however, experience had convinced many officers and surgeons that citrus juices provided the answer to scurvy, even if

4752-615: Was accidentally discovered to exist on Mars after the Curiosity rover drove over and crushed a rock, revealing sulfur crystals inside it. Sulfur is the fifth most common element by mass in the Earth. Elemental sulfur can be found near hot springs and volcanic regions in many parts of the world, especially along the Pacific Ring of Fire ; such volcanic deposits are mined in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan. These deposits are polycrystalline, with

4824-549: Was determined by the Sun. Though it was assumed that the distribution of different sulfur isotopes would be more or less equal, it has been found that proportions of the two most abundant sulfur isotopes S and S varies in different samples. Assaying of the isotope ratio ( δ S ) in the samples suggests their chemical history, and with support of other methods, it allows to age-date the samples, estimate temperature of equilibrium between ore and water, determine pH and oxygen fugacity , identify

4896-477: Was mostly ignored. In 1758, he was appointed chief physician of the Royal Naval Hospital Haslar at Gosport . When James Cook went on his first voyage he carried wort (0.1 mg vitamin C per 100 g), sauerkraut (10–15 mg per 100 g) and a syrup, or "rob", of oranges and lemons (the juice contains 40–60 mg of vitamin C per 100 g) as antiscorbutics, but only the results of

4968-573: Was production of fresh water by distillation possible on a useful scale. Lind's final work was published in 1768; the Essay on Diseases Incidental to Europeans in Hot Climates, with the Method of Preventing their fatal Consequences. It was a work on the symptoms and treatments of tropical disease, but was not specific to naval medicine and served more as a general text for doctors and British emigrants. The Essay

5040-407: Was scarce, it was rationed and rain collected with spread sails. Fresh water was also obtained when possible en voyage , but watering places were often marshy, and in the tropics infested with malaria . In 1759, Lind discovered that steam from heated salt water was fresh. He proposed to use solar energy for the distillation of water. But only when a new type of cooking stove was introduced in 1810

5112-567: Was used as a medical text in Britain for fifty years following publication. Seven editions were printed, including two after Lind's death. Lind married Isabella Dickie and had two sons, John and James. In 1773 he was living on Princes Street in a brand-new house facing Edinburgh Castle . John FRSE (1751–1794), his elder son, studied medicine at St Andrews University and graduated in 1777, then succeeded his father as chief physician at Haslar Hospital in 1783. James (1765–1823), also embarked on

5184-622: Was used for fumigation in preclassical Greece ; this is mentioned in the Odyssey . Pliny the Elder discusses sulfur in book 35 of his Natural History , saying that its best-known source is the island of Melos . He mentions its use for fumigation, medicine, and bleaching cloth. A natural form of sulfur known as shiliuhuang ( 石硫黄 ) was known in China since the 6th century BC and found in Hanzhong . By

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