78-464: Treaty No. 9 (also known as The James Bay Treaty ) is a numbered treaty first signed in 1905–1906 between Anishinaabe ( Algonquin and Ojibwe ) and Omushkegowuk Cree communities and the Canadian Crown , which includes both the government of Canada and the government of the province of Ontario . It is commonly known as the "James Bay Treaty," since the eastern edge of the treaty territory
156-580: A combined area of 1,780,650.6 km (687,513.0 sq mi), consisting of 640,081.87 km (247,136.99 sq mi) in Alberta, 552,329.52 km (213,255.62 sq mi) in Manitoba, and 588,239.21 km (227,120.43 sq mi) in Saskatchewan. Some of the prairie region of Canada has seen rapid growth from a boom in oil production since the mid-20th century. According to StatsCanada,
234-768: A documentary series about the treaties and their impact on Canada's indigenous peoples. Canadian Prairies The Canadian Prairies (usually referred to as simply the Prairies in Canada) is a region in Western Canada . It includes the Canadian portion of the Great Plains and the Prairie provinces , namely Alberta , Saskatchewan , and Manitoba . These provinces are partially covered by grasslands , plains , and lowlands , mostly in
312-399: Is estimated that only 24% of the original mixed prairie grassland remains. Fescue prairie occurs in the moister regions, occupying the northern extent of the prairies in central and southwestern Alberta and west-central Saskatchewan. The southwestern Canadian prairies, supporting brown and black soil types, are semi-arid and highly prone to frequent and severe droughts. The zones around
390-646: Is not included in political use of the term. The prairies in Canada are a temperate grassland and shrubland biome within the prairie ecoregion of Canada that consists of northern mixed grasslands in Alberta, Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, as well as northern short grasslands in southeastern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan. The Prairies Ecozone of Canada includes the northern tall grasslands in southern Manitoba and Aspen parkland, which covers central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba. The Prairie starts from north of Edmonton and it covers
468-602: Is the shore of James Bay in Northern Ontario . By the early 1900s, both federal and provincial governments were interested in taking control of lands around the Hudson and James Bay watersheds in northern Ontario, traditionally home to Cree , Oji-Cree , and Ojibwe peoples. After nearly a year of delay from Ontario, in May 1905 both governments began negotiating the terms of the treaty's written document. Although ratification of
546-501: Is the subject of a 2014 documentary film by Alanis Obomsawin , entitled Trick or Treaty? Numbered Treaties The Numbered Treaties (or Post-Confederation Treaties ) are a series of eleven treaties signed between the First Nations , one of three groups of Indigenous Peoples in Canada , and the reigning monarch of Canada ( Victoria , Edward VII or George V ) from 1871 to 1921. These agreements were created to allow
624-680: The Constitution Act, 1867 ) established guidelines that would be later used to create the numbered treaties. The Royal Proclamation occurred in 1763, and is considered to be the foundation of treaty-making in Canada. This proclamation established a line between the Appalachian Mountains from Nova Scotia to the southern region of the Province of Georgia , and prevented settlement beyond that specific area by settlers. The proclamation also established protocols that needed to be acknowledged by
702-595: The Constitution Act, 1867 . These had no formal representation at the Assembly of First Nations , which had hitherto been assumed by the federal government to speak authoritatively on all matters involving "Indians". In 2012 the Idle No More movement and subsequent hunger strike by Attawapiskat First Nation Chief Theresa Spence brought the assertion that the treaties provide for direct Crown recourse back to public attention. Chief Spence demanded direct Crown attention to
780-665: The Conservative Party of Canada has widespread support throughout the region at both federal and provincial levels, the New Democratic Party holds seats at the provincial level in all three provinces, and takes turns with Conservatives or another right-wing party at provincial government. The NDP holds seats at the federal level in Alberta and Manitoba. The Liberal Party of Canada often holds seats in Alberta and Manitoba; it presently holds four federal seats in Winnipeg, while
858-626: The Government of Canada to pursue settlement and resource extraction in the affected regions, which includes the entirety of modern-day Alberta , Manitoba , and Saskatchewan , as well as parts of modern-day British Columbia , Ontario , the Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon . These treaties expanded the Dominion of Canada resulting in the displacement of Indigenous populations for large tracts of land in exchange for promises made to
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#1732880000656936-645: The Government of Ontario , written more than 100 years ago but rediscovered by historians at Queen's University Archives, supported oral histories passed down by Indigenous Elders that the agreements spoken by commissioners at the treaty signings did not reflect the written document. The unearthing of this additional primary source evidence triggered a legal challenge for mining access on First Nations land. MacMartin's diary suggested "First Nation leaders may have been misled by government negotiators as they were signing Treaty No. 9, says Murray Klippenstein, legal representative for Mushkegowuk Council ." The James Bay Treaty
1014-623: The Grand Council of the Crees position in a scholarly analysis of the Quebec sovereignty movement and its authority to withdraw from Confederation taking First Nations territory with it. Both his analysis and Palmater's emphasize the need for voluntary renegotiation of treaties between equal partners, and the impossibility of cutting off any avenue of appeal to the Crown. In 2024, APTN premiered Treaty Road ,
1092-525: The Hudson Bay , the shield is predominantly forested. Three main grassland types occur in the Canadian prairies: tallgrass prairie , mixed grass prairie , and fescue prairie (or using the WWF terminology, northern tall grasslands , northern mixed grasslands , and northern short grasslands ). Each has a unique geographic distribution and characteristic mix of plant species. All but a fraction of one per cent of
1170-618: The Hudson's Bay Company since 1670, which contained several trading post and some small settlements, such as the Red River Colony . During the first session of Parliament many called for the annexation of the territory and letters were sent to the British Monarchy suggesting that "it would promote the prosperity of the Canadian people, and conduce to the advantage of the whole Empire if the Dominion of Canada ... were extended westward to
1248-471: The Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations . They are often criticized and are a leading issue within the fight for First Nation rights. The Constitution Act, 1982 gave protection of First Nations and treaty rights under Section 35 . It states: "Aboriginal and treaty rights are hereby recognized and affirmed." This phrase was never fully defined. As a result, First Nations must attest their rights in court as
1326-646: The " territories ." The first Europeans to see the Prairies were fur traders and explorers from eastern Canada (mainly present-day Quebec ) and Great Britain via Hudson Bay . They gave rise to the Métis , working class "children of the fur trade." During their settlement by Europeans, the prairies were settled in distinct ethnic block settlements giving areas distinctively British , Ukrainian , German , French , or Scandinavian Canadian cultures. Farm family operations predominate, where families supplement their cash income with home-grown farm produce. Grain crops are
1404-568: The "prairie protest" movements. Radical solutions are sometimes considered sound in the more open western culture. Organized Farmer groups and politicized labour groups were a feature of the inter-war years. The One Big Union was founded on the Prairies; the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919 was the biggest general strike in Canadian history. The United Farmers of Alberta was the longest-lasting post-WWI Farmer government in Canada. Monetary reform (Social Credit) elected its first government in
1482-544: The 1880s. Canada's first rodeo, the Raymond Stampede , was established in 1902. These influences are also evident in the music of Canada's Prairie Provinces . This can be attributed partially to the massive influx of American settlers who began to migrate to Alberta (and to a lesser extent, Saskatchewan) in the late 1880s because of the lack of available land in the United States. The Prairie Provinces have given rise to
1560-682: The 1960s interpreted the treaties as being invalid because they were: As a result of the agency asserted during treaty negotiations and the active pursuit of treaty revisions by Indigenous leaders like Plains Cree chiefs Pitikwahanapiwiyin (also known as Pound Maker) and Mistahimaskwa (Big Bear), Crown officials acting to establish and maintain the Numbered Treaties had to resort to exploiting environmental conditions such as epidemics and hunger crises as well as utilizing underhanded tactics of arrest and incarceration of leaders in order to gain control over and coerce First Nations who continuously protested
1638-638: The 1970s. With Newfoundland and Manitoba as the only provinces yet to sign the Meech Lake Accord, First Nations groups in Manitoba mobilized and managed, with the legislative maneuvering of the then Chief of the Red Sucker Lake First Nation and member of the Manitoba Legislative Assembly Elijah Harper , to delay the ratification of the accord until the legislative session ended for the summer, essentially "killing"
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#17328800006561716-598: The Cabinet's attempt to remove federal government oversight of lands and waters and environmental issues that duplicated provincial oversight of the same. After an agreement by opposition parties was struck to end Chief Spence's hunger strike, the legal analysis that supported the principle of direct Crown recourse was adamantly supported by interim Liberal Party of Canada leader Bob Rae and others. Idle No More itself presented its legal analysis via Pamela Palmater . Her analysis resembled that of Matthew Coon Come , who summarized
1794-751: The Canadian Crown, to modify the treaties. In 2010, Canada signed the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples . In 2011 and again in 2012 the United Nations criticized the federal government over Attawapiskat . In 2012 in Daniels v. Canada the Federal Court of Canada ruled that 200,000 off-reserve First Nations people and 400,000 Métis were also "Indians" under s. 91(24) of
1872-416: The Canadian government for years before treaties were negotiated. A focus on materials needed for survival was placed when they did finally occur. Unlike previous treaties, which included both First Nations and European tradition, the numbered treaties were conducted in a purely British diplomatic manner. First Nations were given translators, either of European or Métis descent, who were to translate what
1950-399: The Canadian prairies are very important to study as these locations make up 80% of the country's agricultural production . On average, 454 mm of precipitation falls on the prairies each year. Out of the three prairie provinces, Saskatchewan obtains the least amount of precipitation annually (395 mm), with Manitoba receiving the most at 486 mm. Most rainfall typically happens in
2028-454: The Crown as Queen Mother it ensured the First Nations people were to always to be protected from danger by their parents and enjoy their freedom. As the numbered treaties negotiations came to an end, the language use was significant to First Nations people. To seal the numbered treaties references to the natural world like, "You will always be cared for, all the time, as long as the sun walks"
2106-459: The Dominion of Canada expand west and northward, but also First Nations could make the transition into a new economy. No longer would First Nations be dependent on a nomadic lifestyle, but rather begin to adapt and integrate into a western settlement society through farming and other entrepreneurial means. To treaty makers, the treaties were essentially a beneficial commercial exchange of both land and identity. Originally, First Nations people felt
2184-646: The First Nations people. The government of Canada replaced the British Crown as the leading authority, and gained control of 19th-century First Nations land transfers. Both the Royal Proclamation and the British North America Act impacted the procedures of governmental and First Nations negotiations. They set the stage for future negotiations that would occur, including the numbered treaties that would begin in 1871 with Treaty 1 . Negotiation of
2262-477: The First Nations who inhabited these lands prior to European contact had title to the land. In order to satisfy British Columbia's request and the growing need for land by eastern settlers and new immigrants, treaties had to be created with the First Nation people in the interior. Similarly, the later treaties of the turn of the century were not conducted until the land was useful for government purposes. When gold
2340-554: The Numbered Treaties began in 1871. The first seven affected those living on the prairies, while the remaining were negotiated at a later time between 1899 and 1921 and concerned those living further north. Each treaty delineates a tract of land which was thought to be the traditional territory of the First Nations signing that particular treaty. For Canada it was a necessary step before settlement and development could occur further westward. No two treaties were alike, as they were dependent upon specific geographic and social conditions within
2418-992: The agreement. Canada obtains : Land rights; promise of peace, law, and order, and restricted alcohol use on reserves Canada obtains : Land rights; promise of peace, law, and order, and restricted alcohol use on reserves Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing, and restricted alcohol use on reserves Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing, and restricted alcohol use on reserves . Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves ; and full control of schooling on reserves. Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves ; control of healthcare on reserves through
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2496-445: The agreements from the numbered treaties were dishonoured when their traditional forms of governance were removed and they became " wards of the state", and when Indian agents began to control the sale of their seeds and livestock. Further restrictions and policies were put in place that controlled First Nations' way of life beyond the original stipulations that were outlined in the numbered treaties. The American Indian Movement of
2574-516: The allocation of ammunition and fishing twine, and the distribution of agricultural assistance. Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves ; ability to buy and sell Aboriginal land with permission; control of the allocation of ammunition and fishing twine, and the distribution of agricultural assistance. The Crown's intentions were based upon expansion and transition. The treaties allowed
2652-524: The area. One of the conditions to ensure British Columbia would join Confederation at the time was the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway to connect it to the rest of the nation. This major infrastructure project would have to go through the interior of the newly acquired land and through First Nation territory. Canadian law , as set out in the Royal Proclamation, recognized that
2730-564: The area; The long daylight hours in this region during the summer are an asset despite having an even shorter growing season than central Alberta. In fact, agriculture plays a major economic role in the Peace Region. In the Canadian 2021 Census , the Canadian prairie provinces had a population of 6,737,293 consisting of 4,262,635 in Alberta, 1,342,153 in Manitoba, and 1,132,505 in Saskatchewan, up 4.6% from 6,443,892 in 2016. The three provinces have
2808-404: The bill to ratify the accord, and with that, the Meech Lake Accord itself. Later, controversy occurred during the 1995 Quebec independence referendum, with differing points of view regarding the rights of provincial and indigenous nations to end or maintain their union with Canada, though it had never been in dispute that First Nations would have to voluntarily agree with their formal treaty partner,
2886-446: The broken promises, attacks on Indigenous autonomy, and theft of land surrounding the Crown's manipulations of agreed upon Treaty terms and language. In 1981, all provinces other than Quebec agreed to a constitutional amendment, which included a reiteration of the rights of the indigenous peoples of Canada as established by former treaties ( Chapter 35 ). Subsequent attempts ( Meech Lake Accord , Charlottetown Accord ) to try to appease
2964-544: The case in R v Sparrow . The relationship between The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples stretches back to the first contact between European colonialists and North American Indigenous peoples. Over centuries of interaction, treaties were established concerning the interaction between the monarch and Indigenous peoples. Both the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the British North America Act, 1867 (now
3042-424: The changing dynamics of the west including disease, famine, and conflict. First Nations people were being decimated by disease, specifically smallpox , and tuberculosis which had catastrophic ramifications for several groups. Tsuu T'ina for example were decimated by Old World disease. Their population fell from several thousand to only 300 to 400 remaining within the 1800s. They began to suffer from famine due to
3120-400: The cities of Regina and immediately east of Calgary are also very dry. Most heavy precipitation quickly dissipates by the time it passes Cheadle on its way heading east. In an average year, southern Saskatchewan receives between 30–51 cm (12–20 in) of precipitation, with the majority falling between April and June. Frost from October to April (and sometimes even early May) limits
3198-408: The economy took another turn with technological advancements that allowed for the discovery of uranium, oil, and potash. The Prairies are distinguished from the rest of Canada by cultural and political traits. The oldest influence on Prairie culture are the First Nations , who have inhabited this region for millennia. This region has the highest proportion of Indigenous people in Canada , outside of
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3276-412: The energy industry, causing the jobs supporting this industry to grow as well. It was through the steady economic growth that followed this explosion that the prairies region began to switch from an agriculture-based job sector to one with services included. In 2014, the global market for oil fell and led to a recession, impacting the economy dramatically. Alberta still has an oil-dominant economy even as
3354-449: The fur trading territory to house a new settler society . As stated in the written terms of the numbered treaties, the Crown desired "peace and goodwill" between First Nations and Her Majesty. In the view of the Crown, treaties were the agreement to trade First Nations territory for "bounty and benevolence". This language makes the First Nations wards of the state and under the government's protection. With these agreements, not only could
3432-592: The governing authority in regards to purchasing land from First Nations Peoples in North America and later Canada. The Royal Proclamation was created as a result of the assertion of British jurisdiction over First Nation territory. While the British laid claim over First Nation territory, uprisings from Pontiac , the Three Fires Confederacy , and other First Nations Peoples resulted in a period of violence between
3510-402: The government of Quebec with certain constitutional provisions, such as the recognition of Quebec as a "distinct society" failed in part due to First Nations opposition. Many aboriginal leaders saw this renegotiation as an opportune time to enshrine the increased rights and powers and recognition that they had been campaigning for since the process of patriating the Canadian constitution began in
3588-616: The government was more concerned with changing the various First Nations groups, rather than negotiating and collaborating with them. Some of the most prominent effects of the numbered treaties for First Nations groups included limited funds for education, supplies (such as fishing net twine) and minimal allocation of land as First Nations reserves. Upon signing the treaties, Canada obtained control of most aspects of society, especially in schooling, resource extraction, land use and implementation of laws for various social issues (such as alcohol policies). The Dominion Government also violated many of
3666-491: The growing season for certain crops. The eastern section of the Canadian prairies in Manitoba is well watered with several large lakes such as Lake Winnipeg and several large rivers. The area also gets reasonable amounts of precipitation. The middle sections of Alberta and Saskatchewan are also wetter than the south and have better farmland, despite having a shorter frost-free season. The areas around Edmonton and Saskatoon are especially notable as good farmland. Both lie in
3744-476: The implementation of the treaties. Education was crucial to the First Nations because their cultural way of life was diminishing around them quite rapidly. They believed that the promise of education would not only help curb the loss of culture but also ensure their children's future success in a new developed West. In the northern regions of this land that was not covered by any treaty, the First Nations were suffering from similar issues, but had to continue to lobby
3822-422: The indigenous people of the area. These terms were dependent on individual negotiations and so specific terms differed with each treaty. These treaties came in two waves—Numbers 1 through 7 from 1871 to 1877 and Numbers 8 through 11 from 1899 to 1921. In the first wave, the treaties were key in advancing European settlement across the Prairie regions as well as the development of the Canadian Pacific Railway . In
3900-400: The main cash crop, but mixed farming had natural advantages in the wooded areas of the parkland and boreal forest to the north. Local conditions attrracted particular ethnicities. Those of Ukrainians and Polish heritage were drawn to the parkland of east north-central Alberta. Southern Alberta is renowned for its cowboy culture, which developed when real open range ranching was practiced in
3978-803: The medicine chest initiative. Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves . Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves ; ability to buy and sell Aboriginal land with their consent. Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves ; full control funds for education. Canada obtains : Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves ; control of
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#17328800006564056-510: The near extinction of the buffalo. Active participation in selling pemmican and hide in the fur trade, in addition to hunting for personal sustenance, meant that those living on the plains lacked a vital food source to maintain their livelihood. They were eager to receive food aid and other assistance from the government, which they believed would be offered following the implementation of treaties. Some First Nation groups also sought to ensure some form of education would be provided to them through
4134-545: The north only when potential development could be supported in the region. For political and economic reasoning, the Government of Canada hastily put treaties into place without regards to First Nation well-being. With Treaties 1–7, there was some resistance from members of the First Nations to the treaty process and growing anxiety that it would allow a flood of settlers, but many saw it as a way to secure much needed assistance. The First Nations at this time were suffering due to
4212-502: The northern area of the Palliser's Triangle, and are within aspen parkland a transitional prairie ecozone. Further north, the area becomes too cold for most agriculture besides wild rice operations and sheep raising, and it is dominated by boreal forest . The Peace Region in northwestern Alberta is an exception, however. It lies north of the 55th Parallel and is warm and dry enough to support extensive farming. Aspen parkland covers
4290-428: The prairie provinces had a population of 6,443,892 in 2016. In 2021, the population had grown by 4.5% to 6,737,293. In the mid 20th century, the economy of the prairies exploded, due to the oil boom, and introduced a growth of jobs. The primary industries are agriculture and services. Agriculture consisting of livestock (cattle and sheep), cultivating crops (oats, canola, wheat, barley), and production of oil. Due to
4368-585: The precipitation pattern of the region . The majority of the prairie provinces experience snowy, fully humid continental climates with cool summers, also known as class Dfc on the Köppen climate scale. The southernmost regions of the prairies tend to experience fully humid continental climates with warm summers, Dfb. A trifling section surrounding the Alberta-Saskatchewan border has been classified as Bsk, semi-cold and arid climate . Precipitation events in
4446-410: The production of oil, the service industry expanded in order to provide for the employees of the oil companies extracting the oil. In the 1950s-1970s, the explosion of oil production increased the worth of Alberta, allowing it to become the "nation's richest province" and Canada one of the top petroleum exporters in the world. Edmonton and Calgary drew in a larger population with the increase in jobs in
4524-643: The region. Although the Prairie Provinces region is named for the prairies located within Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, the physical geography of the three provinces is quite diverse, consisting of portions of the Canadian Shield , the Western Cordillera and the Canadian Interior Plains . The plains comprise both prairies and forests while, with the exception of freshwater along
4602-630: The second wave, resource extraction was the main motive for government officials. During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights. The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the Indian reserve . Today, these agreements are upheld by the Government of Canada, administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by
4680-592: The shore of the Pacific Ocean". In the following years, negotiations took place to acquire full control of the region with the creation of the Rupert's Land Act of 1868 and the North-Western Territory Transfer Act of 1870. Even though the government acquired the land from the Hudson's Bay Company , they failed to have full control and use of the land; this transfer solely provided sovereignty over
4758-531: The signing stipulating that nothing but the truth was to be spoken during negotiations. Many First Nations groups felt the numbered treaties signed by the Dominion Government and their First Nations chiefs between 1877 and 1921 were rushed and disorganized, limiting to the Indigenous way of life and ultimately had poor results due to unfulfilled promises. Because of the treaties, Canada was seen as an oppressive colonizer at this time, most prominently because
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#17328800006564836-517: The southern regions. The northernmost reaches of the Canadian Prairies are less dense in population, marked by forests and more variable topography . If the region is defined to include areas only covered by prairie land, the corresponding region is known as the Interior Plains . Physical or ecological aspects of the Canadian Prairies extend to northeastern British Columbia , but that area
4914-485: The stipulations of this agreement was that First Nations People were to be informed and attend the public assembly regarding the purchase of lands. When the British North America Act 1867 was enacted, a division of power was established between the Dominion government and its provinces that separated First Nation Peoples and settlers. The federal government retained responsibility for providing health care, education, property rights and creating other laws that would affect
4992-402: The summer months such as June and July. With the high humidity of the prairies, tornadoes are likely to occur—marking central Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba as high probability areas. Approximately 72% of tornadoes in Canada are seen across the prairies due to the capability of summer thunderstorm precipitation to mechanically mix with the air adjacent to the relatively flat surface of
5070-400: The surrender clause in the treaty text at the negotiations for Treaty 6 , leading to miscommunication between the two groups. Evidence can also be found amongst the few written documents of the time by First Nations chiefs; during Treaty 3 negotiations, Chief Powasson took detailed notes during the negotiations, which shows the differences in understanding of what was being offered during
5148-426: The talks because of the language barrier. The use of specific wording during the negotiations and within the treaties are also points of contention. The language used by the commissioners during the numbered treaties negotiations addressed First Nations tradition by giving them entitlement of children and the Crown was identified as Queen Mother. When the commissioner recognized First Nations peoples as children and
5226-554: The tallgrass prairie has been converted to cropland. What remains occurs on the 6,000 km (2,300 sq mi) plain centred in the Red River Valley in Manitoba. Mixed prairie is more common and is part of the dry interior plains that extend from Canada south to the U.S. state of Texas . More than half of the remaining native grassland in the Canadian prairies is mixed. Though widespread in southern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta, because of extensive cattle grazing, it
5304-428: The territory being addressed. After confederation, the newly formed Dominion of Canada looked to expand its borders from sea to sea. There was a fear amongst the population that rapid expansion from the United States would leave the country cornered with limited arable land, lack of opportunity for economic growth, and resource extraction. To the west of Ontario was Rupert's Land , fur trading territory operated by
5382-615: The three provinces in a southward-slanting line east to the Manitoba– Minnesota border. Alberta has the most land classified as prairie, while Manitoba has the least, as the boreal forest begins more southerly in Manitoba than in Alberta. The core climate of the Canadian prairie region is defined as a semi- arid climate and is often based upon the Köppen climate classification system. This type of classification encompasses five main climate types, with several categoric subtypes based on
5460-403: The traditional oil wells dry up; there are oil sands further north (i.e. Fort McMurray ) that continue to provide jobs to extract, drill and refine the oil. Saskatchewan, in particular, in the early 20th century grew economically due to the Canadian agricultural boom and produce large crops of wheat. It is said to have a "one-crop economy" due to such dependency on this crop alone, but after 1945
5538-403: The treaties had the potential to satisfy the needs of their communities and foster mutual respect and understanding between themselves, the Crown, and all people of Canada. Throughout the signing of the treaties, First Nations believed that their agreement was everlasting, and had many reasons for believing so. For example, during the signing of Treaty 6 , a pipe ceremony was conducted before
5616-712: The treaty required the agreement of Indigenous peoples living in the territory, none of the Omushkegowuk and the Anishinaabe communities expected to sign were involved in creating the terms of the written document, nor were the terms permitted to change during the treaty expedition. One First Nations community in the bordering Abitibi region of northwestern Quebec is included in this treaty. Further adhesions involving Ojibwe and Swampy Cree communities were signed in 1929 and 1937. Winisk signing The personal diaries of Daniel G. MacMartin , treaty commissioner for
5694-453: The treaty terms; in restructuring and mandating education through the creation of residential schools , the government breached the treaty agreements around the question of education. Many First Nations were allocated less reserve lands than they were supposed to according to the Treaty, which resulted in many indigenous land claims based on treaty rights entitlements. Also, First Nations felt
5772-460: The two peoples as the British attempted to maintain their claim and the Indigenous peoples fought to dislodge British troops from their land. As a result of these uprisings, the intention of the Royal Proclamation was to prevent future disputes. The Royal Proclamation stated that the only authoritative government that was able to purchase land from First Nations People was the British Crown . One of
5850-421: The world in Alberta in 1932. Preston Manning's Reform Party, 1987 to 2000, had its strongest support among Prairie voters. These political movements (both of the left and right) tend to feed off of well established feelings of Western alienation , and each one represents a distinct challenge to the perceived Central Canadian elite. The Prairies continue to have a wide range of political representation. While
5928-585: Was being said during the discussions. What can be seen here is a significant difference between the written documents used by government officials of the time, and the oral traditions used by the First Nations communities throughout the negotiation process. This reality is proven through diaries like those of the Indian commissioner, Duncan Campbell Scott , who wrote a detailed account of negotiating Treaty 9 through Treaty 11 . There are also claims from First Nations people that Alexander Morris failed to mention
6006-565: Was discovered in the Klondike in the 1890s, Treaty 8 was established in the hopes of quelling tensions and conflicts between First Nations of the northern reaches and miners and traders. Despite the fact that First Nations people of the Mackenzie River Valley were in economic need well before the 1920s, it was not until an abundance of oil was found that treaties needed to be implemented. The Government of Canada lobbied for treaties in
6084-519: Was used to appeal to the First Nations people. These treaty presentation copies are held in the Bruce Peel Special Collections at University of Alberta Library . Each is printed on parchment with text in black and red and a blue and red border. In the table below is information about each numbered treaty including its signing date, its location, the major signers, those affected, and a brief summary of what each group received following
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