105-506: Jalauka (also known as Jaluka ) was, according to the 12th century Kashmiri chronicle, the Rajatarangini , a King of Kashmir, who cleared the valley of oppressing Mleccha . Jaluka was reputed to have been an active and vigorous king of Kashmir, who expelled certain intrusive foreigners, and conquered the plains as far as Kannauj . Jalauka was devoted to the worship of the Hindu god Shiva and
210-636: A territorial dispute : Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area, including the Saltoro Ridge passes, whilst Pakistan controls
315-409: A boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and continues into the 21st. Although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and China's official position has not changed following the communist revolution of 1949 that established the People's Republic of China. By the mid-1950s
420-642: A course through the entire Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan. Almost all the rivers originating in these region are part of the Indus river system. After reaching the end of the Great Himalayan range, the Indus turns a corner and flows southwest into the Punjab plains. The Jhelum and Chenab rivers also follow a course roughly parallel to this, and join the Indus river in southern Punjab plains in Pakistan. The geographical features of
525-535: A guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten for assistance, and the governor-general agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that
630-698: A part of Pakistan. In 1961, the Sino-Indian War , broke out between the Indian Republic and the newly established People's Republic of China , resulting in Aksai Chin coming under Chinese control. The Second Kashmir War (1965) was inconclusive with minor territorial changes in the region. The Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 during the Bangladesh Liberation War , lasted for only 13 days, and culminated in an Indian victory with minor territorial changes in
735-503: A part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in
840-519: A reference to the Sharada Peeth . The Ancient Greeks called the region Kasperia , which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus of Miletus ( apud Stephanus of Byzantium ) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy 's Kaspeiria . The earliest text which directly mentions the name Kashmir is in Ashtadhyayi written by
945-468: A stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire. The Kashmir region lies between latitudes 32° and 36° N , and longitudes 74° and 80° E . It has an area of 68,000 sq mi (180,000 km ). It is bordered to the north and east by China (Xinjiang and Tibet), to the northwest by Afghanistan (Wakhan Corridor), to the west by Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab) and to the south by India (Himachal Pradesh and Punjab). The topography of Kashmir
1050-634: A vassal of the Bengal Empire until 816 when the Gurjara Emperor Nagabhata II invaded the Kingdom of Kannauj and conquered it and made the city of Kannauj its capital. In 912, owing to an inner conflict, multiple feudatory kingdoms declared their independence — the Kingdom of Malwa , the Kingdom of Jejakabhukti , the Kingdom of Tripuri , the Kingdom of Sambhar (later the Kingdom of Ajmer) under
1155-528: Is 12,541,302; that of Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir is 4,045,366; and that of Gilgit-Baltistan is 1,492,924. Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture . Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate , it is suited for crops like asparagus , artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in
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#17328632372541260-801: Is an archaic spelling of modern Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way. Kashmir is called Cachemire in French, Cachemira in Spanish, Caxemira in Portuguese, Caixmir in Catalan, Casmiria in Latin, Cașmir in Romanian, and Cashmir in Occitan . In the Kashmiri language , Kashmir itself is known as Kasheer . The Government of India and Indian sources refer to
1365-511: Is dominated by oaks ( Quercus spp.) and Rhododendron spp. The Blue Pine (Finns excelsa) Zone with Cedrus deodara , Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana occur at elevations between 2,800 and 3,500 m. The Birch (Betula utilis) Zone has Herbaceous genera of Anemone , Geranium , Iris , Lloydia , Potentilla and Primula interspersed with dry dwarf alpine scrubs of Berberis , Cotoneaster , Juniperus and Rhododendron are prevalent in alpine grasslands at 3,500 m and above. Kashmir
1470-602: Is home to rare species of animals, many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves. The Dachigam National Park in the Valley holds the last viable population of Kashmir stag (Hangul) and the largest population of black bear in Asia. In Gilgit-Baltistan the Deosai National Park is designated to protect the largest population of Himalayan brown bears in the western Himalayas. Snow leopards are found in high density In
1575-536: Is mostly mountainous. It is traversed mainly by the Western Himalayas . The Himalayas terminate in the western boundary of Kashmir at Nanga Parbat . Kashmir is traversed by three rivers namely Indus , Jhelum and Chenab . These river basins divide the region into three valleys separated by high mountain ranges. The Indus valley forms the north and north-eastern portion of the region which include bare and desolate areas of Baltistan and Ladakh. The upper portion of
1680-521: Is referred as a beauty spot of the medicinal and herbaceous flora in the Himalayas. There are hundreds of different species of wild flowers recorded in the alpine meadows of the region. The botanical garden and the tulip gardens of Srinagar built in the Zabarwans grow 300 breeds of flora and 60 varieties of tulips respectively. The later is considered as the largest Tulip Garden of Asia. Kashmir region
1785-403: Is the great Shakya . Further Kalhana mentioned that Ashoka ancestry belong to the lineage of Ikshuvaku Gandhara king Sakuni . Kashmir 34°30′N 76°30′E / 34.5°N 76.5°E / 34.5; 76.5 Kashmir ( / ˈ k æ ʃ m ɪər / KASH -meer or / k æ ʃ ˈ m ɪər / kash- MEER ) is the northernmost geographical region of
1890-802: The Bengal Empire under the House of Pala , and the Rashtrakuta Empire . In 785, Vatsaraja , the Gurjara Emperor invaded Kannauj, made Indrayudha, the King of Kannuj his vassal. In response to this, Dharmapala , the Emperor of Bengal invaded Kannauj and deposed Indrayudha and replaced him with Indrayudha's brother, Chakrayudha whom he made his vassal. This obviously led to war and the Gurjara Empire defeated Bengal and
1995-512: The Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh. By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet . India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian War of October 1962. The region is divided amongst three countries in
2100-522: The Hemis National Park in Ladakh. The region is home to musk deer , markhor , leopard cat , jungle cat , red fox , jackal , Himalayan wolf , serow , Himalayan yellow-throated marten , long-tailed marmot , Indian porcupine , Himalayan mouse-hare , langur and Himalayan weasel . At least 711 bird species are recorded in the valley alone with 31 classified as globally threatened species. In
2205-850: The Indian subcontinent . Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range . The term has since come to encompass a larger area that includes the India-administered territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh , the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan , and the Chinese-administered territories of Aksai Chin and
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#17328632372542310-551: The Indo-Greek Kingdom . After the death of Menander I in 130 BC, multiple Indo-Greek kingdoms ruled various territories in the region. Indo-Scythians, in modern-day Afghanistan, Balochistan and Sindh, warred with the Indo-Greeks eventually captured all of their strongholds except the one at Sagala. In middle Ganga plain, the Kingdom of Panchala regained its independence from the collapsing Magadhan Empire in 107 BC. In AD 10,
2415-771: The Indo-Scythian satrap of Mathura captured the last Indo-Greek stronghold at Sagala. In AD 19, the Governor of Sakastan in the Parthian Empire to the west declared independence and established the Indo-Parthian Kingdom. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was conquered by the Kushan Empire by the mid-first century and in the early second century conquered the Indo-Scythian kingdom of Mathura. The Kushan Empire expanded further into
2520-606: The Kashmir Valley . He became a wealthy and influential noble in the Sikh court. In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. According to The Imperial Gazetteer of India : Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence . Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to
2625-620: The Kingdom of Kannauj became independent from Magadha in the middle plains. The remaining eastern part of the Magadhan Empire collapsed and broke into multiple small kingdoms in the late sixth century. In 607, Harsha inherited both the Principality of Thanesar and the Kingdom of Kannauj and was declared the Emperor of Kannauj . He conquered vast territories in North India. The empire, however,
2730-603: The Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south. Capital towns of the region are Leh and Kargil . It is under Indian administration and was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until 2019. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent. Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). Geographically part of
2835-664: The Northern Areas , is a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram , the western Himalayas , the Pamir , and the Hindu Kush ranges. With its administrative centre in the town of Gilgit , the Northern Areas cover an area of 72,971 square kilometres (28,174 sq mi) and have an estimated population approaching 1 million (10 lakhs ). Ladakh is between
2940-546: The Partition of India in 1947, when the former princely state of the British Indian Empire became a disputed territory , now administered by three countries: China , India , and Pakistan . The word Kashmir is thought to have been derived from Sanskrit and was referred to as káśmīra . A popular local etymology of Kashmira is that it is land desiccated from water. An alternative etymology derives
3045-750: The Sikh Confederacy was established in the region. The remaining portion remained a part of the empire. During this period, the region and the empire was invaded by the Iranian Empire , followed by the Afghan Empire . The East India Company controlled the British territories within the Hindustani Empire and nominally functioned under the authority of the Shahenshah of Hindustan. It took over western parts of
3150-412: The State of Himachal Pradesh , State of Punjab , State of Rajasthan and State of Jammu and Kashmir were created. Delhi Province became a union territory. In 1966, Haryana was formed, and in 2000, Uttarakhand was formed. In 2019, the statehood of Jammu and Kashmir was terminated and the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh were created. The region consists of four main regions –
3255-609: The Tibetan Plateau , Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements. Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are
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3360-669: The Tibetan plateau . The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal and Uttarakhand are located in the Western Himalayas. The union-governed territory of Ladakh is the western part of the Tibetan plateau. The southern region is flat and consists of the middle portion of Indo-Gangetic plains and the Thar Desert . The states of Punjab and Haryana are located in the Trans-Gangetic plain along with
3465-682: The Trans-Karakoram Tract (a.k.a. the Shaksgam Valley), but the regions of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan are controlled by Pakistan while Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract are controlled by China. The region was a part of the Indus Valley civilisation until it decayed and following the Indo-Aryan migrations, the Kingdom of Kashmir in Kashmir region and other small kingdoms in
3570-675: The Trans-Karakoram Tract . In 1820, the Sikh Empire , under Ranjit Singh , annexed Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War , and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar , the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh , became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage ) of the British Crown , lasted until
3675-431: The Western Himalayas covering the states and territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand; the Trans-Gangetic plain covering the states of Punjab and Haryana; the Upper Gangetic plain covering the states of Uttar Pradesh and the National Capital Territory; and the Thar Desert covering the state of Rajasthan. The northern part is mountainous and includes the Western Himalayas and extends into
3780-455: The brahmin Kashmiri Pandits . To the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to that of Ladakh, but which practised Shia Islam . To the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency was an area of diverse, mostly Shia groups, and, to the west, Punch was populated mostly by Muslims of a different ethnicity than that of the Kashmir valley. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , in which Kashmir sided with
3885-405: The union territories of Chandigarh , Jammu and Kashmir , Ladakh , and the National Capital Territory of Delhi . Gujarat is occasionally included as well. The mountainous upper portion of Northwest India consists of the Western Himalayas , while the flat lower portion consists of the middle portion of the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Thar Desert . Northwest India borders Pakistan to
3990-401: The 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire , the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others). The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 60% of the population. In the Kashmir Valley,
4095-399: The Afghan Durrani Empire . In 1819, the Kashmir Valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of the Punjab , thus ending four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghan regime. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers. However,
4200-433: The Awadh province from the Nawab (governor) in 1783 and in 1803 became the official protectors of the Shahenshah. It made subsidiary military alliances with Rajput states in 1818. The same year the Nawab of Awadh declared his independence and established the Kingdom of Awadh , however it wasn't recognised widely, not even by the people of Awadh who continued to call him Nawab. In 1835, the East India Company stopped recognising
4305-451: The British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a former official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India through a district of the Punjab, but its population was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched
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4410-451: The British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown . In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu population of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%. That same year, Prem Nath Bazaz , a Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote: "The poverty of
4515-419: The British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the Vale of Kashmir. Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it
4620-448: The Divine Mothers, in whose honour he and his queen, Isana-devi, erected many temples in places which can be identified.Ashoka’s death his mighty empire had fragmented into as many as four or five regional kingdoms each ruled by his sons or grandsons, among them Jalauka in Kashmir, who reversed his father’s policies in favour of Shaivism and led a successful campaign against the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom , themselves seeking to take advantage of
4725-403: The East India Company. The various alliances and treaties with various kingdoms and states (such as the Kingdom of Kashmir and Punjab and Rajput states) made by the East India Company were transferred to the British Crown as well. In 1876, Victoria was declared the Empress of India , and the Indian Empire was established consisting of British India and the various princely states . In 1947,
4830-413: The Gangetic plain and made the Kingdom of Panchala its tributary state for a brief period until early third century when it lost controlled over northwest India. By mid third century, the Kushan Empire had fallen under the control of the Second Persian Empire . Multiple kingdoms came up in northwest India. Some of these were the Yaudheya Confederation and the Arjunayana State . To the east still existed
4935-430: The Gangetic plains were established during the Vedic era. The surrounding region was part of the First Persian Empire until it was briefly conquered by the Macedonian Empire under Alexander the Great , following which the region was conquered by the Magadhan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya . In 185 BC, Demetrius I , the son of the King of Bactria , conquered the western part of the Magadhan Empire and established
5040-436: The Gurjara Emperor Vatsaraja occupied Kannauj. Rashtrakuta Emperor Dhruva defeated the Gurjara Empire and Vatsaraja fled his empire, while Dhruva returned to his empire. Bengal re-installed Chakrayudha as the King of Kannauj and its vassal. After the death of Dhruva in 793, the Rashtrakuta Empire fell into a war of succession. In the Gurjara Empire, the son of Vatsaraja, Nagabhata II , seeking revenge and taking advantage of
5145-440: The Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were " Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)." In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In
5250-439: The Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population ( i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)." In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641. Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of
5355-435: The House of Chauhan, and the Kingdom of Delhi under the House of Tomar . The Kingdom of Kannauj was revived by the House of Gahadavala in 1089 by ousting the Kingdom of Tripuri to its southern territories. The Kingdom of Amber and the Kingdom of Jaisalmer declared independence from the Kingdom of Sambhar in 1128 and 1156 respectively. The Kingdom of Sambhar conquered the Kingdom of Delhi in 1152. The Ghurid Empire conquered
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#17328632372545460-425: The Indian Empire was dissolved and British India was divided into the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan while the various princely states acceded to one of the two states. The First Kashmir War was fought between the Indian Union and Pakistan from 1947 to 1948 over the Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir , resulting in Gilgit-Baltistan in the northwestern part of the kingdom and an eastern strip becoming
5565-502: The Jammu province and Muzaffarabad falls within the reach of Indian monsoon. The Pir Panjal Range acts as an effective barrier and blocks these monsoon tracts from reaching the main Kashmir Valley and the Himalayan slopes. These areas of the region receive much of their precipitation from the wind currents of the Arabian Sea. The Himalayan slope and the Pir Panjal witness greatest snow melting from March until June. These variations in snow melt and rainfall have led to destructive inundations of
5670-469: The Jhelum valley forms the proper Vale of Kashmir surrounded by high mountain ranges. The Chenab valley forms the southern portion of the Kashmir region with its denuded hills towards the south. It includes almost all of the Jammu region . High altitude lakes are frequent at high elevations. Lower down in the Vale of Kashmir there are many freshwater lakes and large areas of swamplands which include Wular Lake , Dal Lake and Hokersar near Srinagar . To
5775-429: The Kashmir Valley to the Punjab of British India. For almost a century, until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry. Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of rights, the Muslim peasants had no political representation until the 1930s. Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh , who had ascended
5880-504: The Kashmir region differ considerably from one part to another. The lowest part of the region consists of the plains of Jammu at the southwestern corner, which continue into the plains of Punjab at an elevation of below 1000 feet. Mountains begin at 2000 feet, then raising to 3000–4000 feet in the "Outer Hills", a rugged country with ridges and long narrow valleys. Next within the tract lie the Middle Mountains which are 8000–10,000 feet in height with ramifying valleys. Adjacent to these hills are
5985-414: The Kashmir region. In late nineteenth century, the region had three provinces – North-Western Provinces , Chief Commissioner's Province of Oudh and the Province of the Punjab . To the extreme there was the Kingdom of Kashmir and Jammu , below that the Punjab States, and to its south, the Rajputana Agency . By 1945, the region had been slightly re-organised. The Punjab States Agency was created out of
6090-439: The Kingdom of Panchala. The Magadhan Empire was restored by Chandragupta I of the House of Gupta in AD 319. Large conquests were made to the empire under Samudragupta (reign. AD 335–375). Panchala was conquered by the Magadhan Empire in AD 350. The entire northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent except Kashmir was brought under Magadhan domination between AD 370 and 380 and was annexed between AD 400 and 405. However
6195-541: The Kingdom of Sambhar in 1192 and the Kingdom of Kannauj in 1197. However the empire collapsed in 1206 and the Indian territories were consolidated by his general Qutub-ud-din Aibak , who proclaimed himself the Sultan of Delhi in 1206. This region was the core of the Delhi Sultanate for the following centuries. The Delhi Sultanate defeated the invading Mongol Empire and saved India from the destruction that had met Central and Western Asia. In 1526, Babur , Emir of Kabul, defeated Ibrahim Lodhi , Sultan of Delhi and took over
6300-512: The Mauryan prince Kunala , arguing that "Jalauka" is an erroneous spelling caused by a typographical error in Brahmi script . In Rajatrangani Ashoka was a truthful and spotless king, and a follower of Buddha. He also maintained his Shavite belief . He worshiped Lord Shiva for a son so after his worship Jalauka was born from his queen. Ashoka also built many Stupas and a Shiva temple in Kashmir - सभायां विजयेशस्य समीपे च विनिर्ममे । शान्तावसादः प्रासादा अशोकेश्वर संज्ञिती ॥१०६॥ Translation :Near
6405-409: The Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee [Hindu] landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim masses." Under Hindu rule, Muslims faced hefty taxation and discrimination in the legal system, and were forced into labor without any wages. Conditions in the princely state caused a significant migration of people from
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#17328632372546510-409: The Phulai ( Acacia modesta ) and Olive (Olea cuspid ata) Zone. There occur semi-deciduous species of Shorea robusta , Acacia catechu , Dalbergia sissoo , Albizia lebbeck , Garuga pinnata , Terminalia bellirica and T. tomentosa and Pinus roxburghii are found at higher elevations. The temperate zone between (1,500–3,500 m) is referred as the Chir Pine (Finns longifolia). This zone
6615-405: The Punjab States, and the Chief Commissioner's Province of Delhi was created out of Punjab Province. The Oudh province and the North-Western provinces had been merged to form the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. After the dissolution of the Indian Empire and the partitioning of British India, the Dominion of India was created which included the Province of East Punjab and the United Provinces to
6720-531: The Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini during the 5th century BC. Pāṇini called the people of Kashmir Kashmirikas . Some other early references to Kashmir can also be found in Mahabharata in Sabha Parva and in puranas like Matsya Purana , Vayu Purana , Padma Purana and Vishnu Purana and Vishnudharmottara Purana . Huientsang , the Buddhist scholar and Chinese traveller, called Kashmir kia-shi-milo , while some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ki-pin (or Chipin or Jipin) and ache-pin . Cashmeer
6825-502: The Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive, protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore. The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws, which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter, closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the a dhan , the public Muslim call to prayer. Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of
6930-400: The abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated. Many Kashmiri peasants migrated to the plains of the Punjab. However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half
7035-418: The ancient era, it was part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom , followed by the Kushan Empire . The region was invaded and conquered by the Ghorid Empire in the twelfth century. In the eighteenth century, the region was invaded and ransacked by Afghanistan and Iran . In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the Punjab region was ruled by Sikh Misls . The Rajputs ruled the Thar region and occasionally
7140-412: The area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which comprises Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh , while Pakistan controls a third of the region, divided into two provinces, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan . Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh are administered by India as union territories . They formed a single state until 5 August 2019, when the state was bifurcated and its limited autonomy
7245-568: The assembly hall of Vijayeshvara, the king Ashok built two Temples, which were called Ashokeshwara, free from any unrest.. शुष्क लेत्रवितस्तात्रौ तस्वार स्तूपमण्डलैः ॥१०२।। Translation : The king Ashoka adorned the dry and vacant land with stupas and mandalas. The Kalhana's Rajatarangini mentioned that Jalauka was very orthodox follower of Shaivism . He was intolerant toward Buddhism :- तत्कालप्रबलप्रेद्धबौद्धवादिसमूह जित् अवधूतोऽभवत्सिद्धस्तस्य ज्ञानोपदेशकृत् ॥११२॥ Translation :The teacher of victorious king Jalauka, defeated
7350-437: The authority of the Shahenshah of Hindustan, at that time Akbar II , and downgraded him to King of Delhi. The East India Company annexed parts of the Sikh Empire in 1846 and re-established the Kingdom of Kashmir , and conquered the entirety of the Sikh Empire in 1849. In 1856, it annexed the Kingdom of Awadh. In 1857, the troops of the Bengal Army under the East India Company mutinied and marched towards Delhi. The troops in
7455-460: The climatic conditions and the altitude. Kashmir forests range from the tropical deciduous forests in the foothills of Jammu and Muzafarabad , to the temperate forests throughout the Vale of Kashmir and to the alpine grasslands and high altitude meadows in Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh. The Kashmir region has four well defined zones of vegetation in the tree growth, due to the difference in elevation. The tropical forests up to 1500 m, are known as
7560-629: The company, the troops rebelled and acquired control, and joined the war nonetheless. However many of the larger states like Hyderabad, Mysore and Kashmir remained neutral. The United Kingdom got involved in this war after the East India Company suffered initial defeats. The war lasted until 1858 after which Britain proclaimed its victory. Bahadur Shah was exiled to Burma and the British Crown began directly ruling British territories in India and dissolved
7665-555: The exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150 thousand, to 190 thousand of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand (200,000), to a number as high as 300 thousand (300,000). People in Jammu speak Hindi, Punjabi and Dogri, the Kashmir Valley people speak Kashmiri, and people in the sparsely inhabited Ladakh speak Tibetan and Balti. The population of India-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh combined
7770-555: The first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism . During the 7th-14th centuries, the region was ruled by a series of Hindu dynasties, and Kashmir Shaivism arose. In 1320, Rinchan Shah became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Kashmir Sultanate . The region was part of the Mughal Empire from 1586 to 1751, and thereafter, until 1820, of
7875-413: The forts on their way also mutinied and joined them. They finally reached Delhi in 12 May, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah II the Shahenshah of Hindustan. The Shahenshah declared war against the East India Company and wrote letters to the various kingdoms and principalities of the erstwhile empire. Many declared their allegiance to the Shahenshah and supported the declaration of war. In many states that supported
7980-543: The intensity of the cold which keeps the perpetual snow on the mountains. Jammu Division, excluding the upper parts of the Chenab Valley, features a humid subtropical climate. The Vale of Kashmir has a moderate climate. The Astore Valley and some parts of Gilgit-Baltistan features a semi-Tibetan climate. While as the other parts of Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh have Tibetan climate which is considered as almost rainless climate. The southwestern Kashmir which includes much of
8085-621: The invasion of the Bactrian Greeks and the Kuśāņas with their foreign names, a name such as Jalauka became accepted without much questioning." — Romila Thapar (1963). Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas . Rajatarangini mentions that Jalauka's father and predecessor as Ashoka . अथाऽशोककुलोत्पन्नोयद्वाऽन्याभिजनोद्भवः । भूमि दामोदरो नाम जुगोप जगतीपतिः ।।१५३॥ Translation : Jalauka who born in
8190-489: The last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the Second World War, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%). The Kashmiri Pandits , the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5% of
8295-490: The lineage of Ashok, become the father of a son named Damodara. According to the dates given in that text, this Ashoka would have ruled in the 2nd millennium BCE, and was a member of a Mauryan Dynasty . Kalhana also states that this king appeased Bhutesha ( Shiva ) to obtain his son Jalauka. Multiple scholars identify Kalhana's Ashoka with the Mauryan emperor Ashoka , who had adopted Buddhism. Romila Thapar equates Jalauka to
8400-452: The lofty Great Himalayan ranges (14000–15000 feet) which divide the drainage of the Chenab and Jehlum from that of the Indus. Beyond this range lies a wide tract of mountainous country of 17000–22000 feet in Ladakh and Baltistan . Kashmir has a different climate for every region owing to the great variation in altitude. The temperatures ranges from the tropical heat of the Punjab summer to
8505-600: The lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 101,338 km (39,127 sq mi) of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls 85,846 km (33,145 sq mi), and the People's Republic of China controls the remaining 37,555 km (14,500 sq mi). Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie south and west of the Pir Panjal range , and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. These are populous regions. Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as
8610-540: The main valley. One instance of such Kashmir flood of a larger proportion is recorded in the 12th-century book Rajatarangini . A single cloudburst in July 1935 caused the upper Jehlum river level to rise 11 feet. The 2014 Kashmir floods inundated the Kashmir city of Srinagar and submerged hundreds of other villages. Kashmir has a recorded forest area of 20,230 square kilometres (7,810 sq mi) along with some national parks and reserves . The forests vary according to
8715-517: The name from the name of the Vedic sage Kashyapa who is believed to have settled people in this land. Accordingly, Kashmir would be derived from either kashyapa-mir (Kashyapa's Lake) or kashyapa-meru (Kashyapa's Mountain). The word has been referenced to in a Hindu scripture mantra worshipping the Hindu goddess Sharada and is mentioned to have resided in the land of kashmira , or which might have been
8820-583: The north and northeast, beyond the Great Himalayas, the region is traversed by the Karakoram mountains. To the northwest lies the Hindu Kush mountain range. The upper Indus River separates the Himalayas from the Karakoram. The Karakoram is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km (47 mi) and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km (39 mi) rank as
8925-792: The north west. Jammu and Kashmir, the Punjab States Agency (except Bahawalpur) and the Rajputana Agency joined the Union of India. Following this, the Patiala and East Punjab States Union , the Rajasthan Union and Province of Himachal Pradesh were created. After India became a republic in 1950, all provinces were declared States of the Indian Union. United Provinces became the State of Uttar Pradesh and
9030-493: The opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars. In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured, and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999 . India has control of about half
9135-462: The population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valley to other parts of India in the 1950s, underwent a complete exodus in the 1990s due to the Kashmir insurgency . According to a number of authors, approximately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population of 140,000 left the valley during that decade. Other authors have suggested a higher figure for
9240-668: The power of the Magadhan Empire was to last not for many years longer. The First Hunnic War (496–515), between the Alcon Huns and the Magadhan Empire led to conquest of western Magadhan Empire by the Huns. The Kingdom of Malwa which had been a feudatory of the Magadhan Empire defeated and conquered much of the Hunic kingdom in 528. However, Malwa collapsed in 550 and the Principality of Thanesar became an independent state in upper gangetic plain. In 556,
9345-503: The power vacuum in north-west India to reclaim Taxila . The story of Jalauka, notwithstanding the topographical details, is essentially legendary, and no independent corroboration of the Kashmir tradition has been discovered. "In the Brahmi script of the Aśokan period, the name Kunala would be written thus, [REDACTED] and the name Jalauka thus, [REDACTED] . It is possible that after
9450-490: The powerful and arrogant group of Buddhists, became an accomplished sage, a teacher of knowledge. The Kalhana's Rajatarangini provide information about the clan of Jalauka - महाशाक्यः स नृपतिर्न शक्यो बाधितुं त्वया। तस्मिन्दृष्टे तु कल्याणि भविता ते तमःक्षयः ॥१४१॥ Translation : The great king Jalauka was not possible to be defeated by you, O Bhadra, the excited monks had thought to send me to your destruction. The Bodhisattvas summoned me. Thus, O Kashyani, this king
9555-621: The produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh Empire. During this time Kashmir shawls became known worldwide, attracting many buyers, especially in the West. The state of Jammu , which had been on the ascendant after the decline of the Mughal Empire, came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770. Further in 1808, it
9660-596: The succession crisis in the Rashtrakuta Empire, invaded Kannauj and defeated Dharmapala and made Chakrayudha his vassal. Before he could invade Bengal however, the new Rashtrakuta Emperor Govinda III invaded Kannauj and defeated the Gurjara armies, and Nagabhatta retreated back to his empire. Dharmapala and Chakrayudha acknowledged Govinda III as their overlords to earn his friendship after which Govinda went back and Kannauj came back under Bengal rule in 800. Kannauj remained
9765-611: The sultanate. Following this, he defeated the Rajput Confederation and proclaimed himself the King of Hindustan and founded the House of Babur ( Mughal dynasty ). In 1556, Akbar the Great was crowned Emperor of Hindustan amid a civil war against the House of Sur in the Hindustani Empire. He annexed the Kingdom of Kashmir in 1586 and brought the Rajput kingdoms under his suzerainty. In the eighteenth century, Punjab region broke free, and
9870-902: The territories of Chandigarh and National Capital Territory, and the state of Uttar Pradesh is located in the Upper Gangetic plain or the Doab region. The state of Rajasthan extends across the Thar Desert and a small part of the Gangetic plain. The languages spoken in this region belongs to the Indo-Aryan language family of the Indo-European languages . The languages belong to six main branches: Dardic languages , Pahari languages , North Western Indo-Aryan languages , Rajasthani languages and Central Indo-Aryan languages . Kashmiri and Dogri of Pahari languages
9975-431: The territory under Pakistan control as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" ("POK"). The Government of Pakistan and Pakistani sources refer to the portion of Kashmir administered by India as "Indian-occupied Kashmir" ("IOK") or "Indian-held Kashmir" (IHK); The terms "Pakistan-administered Kashmir" and "India-administered Kashmir" are often used by neutral sources for the parts of the Kashmir region controlled by each country. In
10080-544: The throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan . According to Burton Stein 's History of India , Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as Hyderabad ; it had been created rather off-handedly by
10185-429: The upper plains from the mediaeval era till the formation of the Indian Union (1947). The Kingdom of Kashmir existed from the ancient era until its conquest in 1586 by Akbar the Great , Emperor of Hindustan . It was re-instated in 1849 and existed till its accession to the Indian Union in 1947. The Kashmir region is disputed between China , India , and Pakistan . India claims the entirety of Kashmir , including
10290-557: The valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches , and cherries. The chief trees are deodar , firs and pines , chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut , apple, cherry. Northwestern Indian subcontinent Northwest India is a loosely defined region of India consisting of north-western states of the Republic of India . It generally includes the states of Haryana , Himachal Pradesh , Punjab , Rajasthan Uttarakhand , and often Uttar Pradesh , along with
10395-497: The west, and the Tibet Autonomous Region and Xinjiang of China to the northeast. Before the Partition of India , the term "Northwest India" included the entirety of Punjab , Sindh and North West Frontier Province , in addition to the territory of modern-day India west of the 77th meridian east and north of the 24th parallel north . Since the ancient period, the region has been subject to foreign invasions. In
10500-404: The world's second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. Karakoram has four eight-thousander mountain peaks with K2 , the second highest peak in the world at 8,611 m (28,251 ft). The Indus River system forms the drainage basin of the Kashmir region. The river enters the region in Ladakh at its southeastern corner from the Tibetan Plateau , and flows northwest to run
10605-421: Was first called) combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism ; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. In the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Muslim —mostly Sunni , however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority,
10710-522: Was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh, then a youngster in the House of Jammu, enrolled in the Sikh troops and, by distinguishing himself in campaigns, gradually rose in power and influence. In 1822, he was anointed as the Raja of Jammu. Along with his able general Zorawar Singh Kahluria , he conquered and subdued Rajouri (1821), Kishtwar (1821), Suru valley and Kargil (1835), Ladakh (1834–1840), and Baltistan (1840), thereby surrounding
10815-571: Was revoked. According to Encyclopædia Britannica : Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character,
10920-545: Was short-lived and collapsed in 647. The rump state of Kannauj was ruled by Arunasva . Between 725 and 770, Kingdom of Kannauj was ruled by the House of Varman . In 770, Bhoja, King of Kannauj was deposed by Vajrayudha founding the House of Ayudha . This triggered Kannauj Wars (770–854) for the control over the Kingdom of Kannauj between three great powers — the Gurjara Empire under the Rajput Pratihara dynasty ,
11025-447: Was sparsely populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in India-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked. The eastern region of the former princely state of Kashmir is also involved in
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