The Buick V8 is a family of V8 engines produced by the Buick division of General Motors (GM) between 1953 and 1981. All were 90° water-cooled V8 OHV pushrod engines , and all were naturally aspirated except one turbocharged version of the 215.
116-580: The Pratt & Whitney J58 (company designation JT11D-20 ) is an American jet engine that powered the Lockheed A-12 , and subsequently the YF-12 and the SR-71 aircraft. It was an afterburning turbojet engine with a unique compressor bleed to the afterburner that gave increased thrust at high speeds. Because of the wide speed range of the aircraft, the engine needed two modes of operation to take it from stationary on
232-399: A convergent-divergent nozzle is needed on high-speed aircraft. The engine thrust is highest if the static pressure of the gas reaches the ambient value as it leaves the nozzle. This only happens if the nozzle exit area is the correct value for the nozzle pressure ratio (npr). Since the npr changes with engine thrust setting and flight speed this is seldom the case. Also at supersonic speeds
348-593: A new jet fuel with a low vapor pressure had to be developed. A chemical method for igniting the fuel, triethyl borane (TEB), was developed to match its low volatility. TEB spontaneously ignites in contact with air above −5 °C. The engine and afterburner were lit with TEB and the afterburner also had a catalytic igniter that glowed in the hot turbine exhaust. Each engine carried a nitrogen-pressurized sealed tank with 600 cm (21.1 imp fl oz; 20.3 US fl oz) of TEB, sufficient for at least 16 starts, restarts, or afterburner lights; this number
464-675: A rotating air compressor powered by a turbine , with the leftover power providing thrust through the propelling nozzle —this process is known as the Brayton thermodynamic cycle . Jet aircraft use such engines for long-distance travel. Early jet aircraft used turbojet engines that were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. Most modern subsonic jet aircraft use more complex high-bypass turbofan engines . They give higher speed and greater fuel efficiency than piston and propeller aeroengines over long distances. A few air-breathing engines made for high-speed applications (ramjets and scramjets ) use
580-465: A "small block" V8 in 1961 with a 4.24 in (107.7 mm) cylinder bore spacing; it was produced in four displacements, 215, 300, 340, and 350. This design also became the basis of a highly successful cast iron V6 engine , the Fireball . Design features include an external oil pump, a forward-mounted distributor, and an integrated aluminum timing cover which incorporates the oil pump mechanisms, leaving
696-672: A 4.125 by 3.4 inches (104.8 mm × 86.4 mm) (bore by stroke). The Special series cars came standard with the 250 hp (186 kW) two-barrel carburetor version, where all other models got the 300 hp (224 kW) four-barrel engine. The 364 was enlarged to 401 cu in (6.6 L) and produced from 1959 to 1966. Originally a 401, it was later redesignated a 400 to meet 1960s GM directives for maximum allowable engine displacements in mid-size cars . Bore and stroke were enlarged to 4.1875 by 3.64 inches (106.36 mm × 92.46 mm) respectively. The 401/400 became Buick's muscle car powerplant of choice, used in
812-590: A bore of 3.75 in (95.3 mm) and a stroke of 3.4 in (86.4 mm) for a displacement of 300-cubic-inch (4.9 L). It retained the aluminum cylinder heads, intake manifold, and accessories of the 215 for a dry weight of 405 lb (184 kg). The 300 was offered in two-barrel form, with 9.0:1 compression, making 210 hp (157 kW) at 4600 rpm and 310 lb⋅ft (420 N⋅m) at 2400 rpm, and four-barrel form, with 11.0:1 compression, making 250 hp (186 kW) at 4800 rpm and 355 lb⋅ft (481 N⋅m) at 3000 rpm. For 1965,
928-399: A central gas turbine which drives open-air contra-rotating propellers . Unlike turboprop engines, in which the propeller and the engine are considered two separate products, the propfan’s gas generator and its unshrouded propeller module are heavily integrated and are considered to be a single product. Additionally, the propfan’s short, heavily twisted variable pitch blades closely remember
1044-417: A change to an iron block. GM experimented with aluminum engines starting in the early 1950s, when Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA) was pushing all automakers to use more aluminum. An early-development supercharged version of the 215-cubic-inch (3.5 L) V8 was used in the 1951 Le Sabre concept car , and the 1953 Buick Roadmaster concept car. GM designated Buick as engine design leader, and work on
1160-513: A change which was mandated by GM in order to cope with the introduction of new federal laws which would require new cars to use low octane gasoline in an effort to reduce exhaust emissions . Then, starting in 1972, the horsepower rating on paper would be reduced again due to a shift from SAE gross to SAE net , down to approximately 250 hp (186 kW). Unleaded gasoline and catalytic converters came into play in 1975 for all US manufactured cars. Tightening emissions controls would cause
1276-408: A compressor ( axial , centrifugal , or both), mixing fuel with the compressed air, burning the mixture in the combustor , and then passing the hot, high pressure air through a turbine and a nozzle . The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing through it. The engine converts internal energy in the fuel to increased momentum of the gas flowing through
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#17328833731561392-462: A higher priority than fuel efficiency, fans tend to be smaller or absent. Because of these distinctions, turbofan engine designs are often categorized as low-bypass or high-bypass , depending upon the amount of air which bypasses the core of the engine. Low-bypass turbofans have a bypass ratio of around 2:1 or less. A propfan engine is a type of airbreathing jet engine which combines aspects of turboprop and turbofan . It’s design consists of
1508-406: A jet of water. The mechanical arrangement may be a ducted propeller with nozzle, or a centrifugal compressor and nozzle. The pump-jet must be driven by a separate engine such as a Diesel or gas turbine . All jet engines are reaction engines that generate thrust by emitting a jet of fluid rearwards at relatively high speed. The forces on the inside of the engine needed to create this jet give
1624-426: A large number of different types of jet engines, all of which achieve forward thrust from the principle of jet propulsion . Commonly aircraft are propelled by airbreathing jet engines. Most airbreathing jet engines that are in use are turbofan jet engines, which give good efficiency at speeds just below the speed of sound. A turbojet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by compressing air with an inlet and
1740-728: A powerplant for the world's first jet- fighter aircraft , the Messerschmitt Me 262 (and later the world's first jet- bomber aircraft, the Arado Ar 234 ). A variety of reasons conspired to delay the engine's availability, causing the fighter to arrive too late to improve Germany's position in World War II , however this was the first jet engine to be used in service. Meanwhile, in Britain the Gloster E28/39 had its maiden flight on 15 May 1941 and
1856-613: A production unit commenced in 1956. Originally intended for 180-cubic-inch (2.9 L) displacement, Buick decided on a larger, 215-cubic-inch (3.5 L) size, deemed ideal for the new Y-body cars introduced for 1961, like the Skylark. Known as the Buick Fireball, the 215 had a bore and a stroke of 3.5 in × 2.8 in (88.9 mm × 71.1 mm), for an actual displacement of 215.51 cu in (3,532 cc). With its aluminum cylinder heads and cylinder block , at
1972-425: A ramjet, and none from the gas generator. Fuel for thrust could only be added in the afterburner, which became the only source of engine thrust. The speed at which the gas generator produced no thrust was raised from about Mach 2.5 to about Mach 3 by patented design changes. Beyond that speed, the gas generator would become a drag item with, at Mach 3.2, a pressure ratio of 0.9. Even minimum afterburner would not balance
2088-546: A stock-block 215-powered car in the 1962 Indianapolis 500 , the first stock-block engine since 1946 and the only non- Offenhauser -powered entry in the race. Rookie driver Dan Gurney qualified eighth and raced well for 92 laps before retiring with transmission problems. Surplus engine blocks of the Oldsmobile F85 version formed the basis of the Australian Formula One Repco V8 used by Brabham to win
2204-530: A strong thrust on the engine which pushes the craft forwards. Jet engines make their jet from propellant stored in tanks that are attached to the engine (as in a 'rocket') as well as in duct engines (those commonly used on aircraft) by ingesting an external fluid (very typically air) and expelling it at higher speed. A propelling nozzle produces a high velocity exhaust jet . Propelling nozzles turn internal and pressure energy into high velocity kinetic energy. The total pressure and temperature don't change through
2320-421: A supersonic afterburning engine or 2200 K with afterburner lit. The pressure entering the nozzle may vary from 1.5 times the pressure outside the nozzle, for a single stage fan, to 30 times for the fastest manned aircraft at Mach 3+. Convergent nozzles are only able to accelerate the gas up to local sonic (Mach 1) conditions. To reach high flight speeds, even greater exhaust velocities are required, and so
2436-479: A throttle push, or exhaust gas temperature uptrim, of 75 °F (42 °C). The increase was limited by the allowable reduction in life of the second-stage turbine blades (the life-limiting component) from 400 to 50 hours. The same thrust-enhancement studies used for this work also looked at an additional 5% thrust from additional afterburner fuel made possible with oxidizer injection ( nitrous oxide ). The nitrous oxide rate would have been limited by thermal choking of
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#17328833731562552-461: A two-stage axial compressor feeding a single-sided centrifugal compressor . Practical axial compressors were made possible by ideas from A.A.Griffith in a seminal paper in 1926 ("An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design"). Whittle would later concentrate on the simpler centrifugal compressor only. Whittle was unable to interest the government in his invention, and development continued at a slow pace. In Spain, pilot and engineer Virgilio Leret Ruiz
2668-444: Is a twin-spool engine, allowing only two different speeds for the turbines. Ram compression jet engines are airbreathing engines similar to gas turbine engines in so far as they both use the Brayton cycle . Gas turbine and ram compression engines differ, however, in how they compress the incoming airflow. Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only on air compressed in
2784-493: Is a type of reaction engine , discharging a fast-moving jet of heated gas (usually air) that generates thrust by jet propulsion . While this broad definition may include rocket , water jet , and hybrid propulsion, the term jet engine typically refers to an internal combustion air-breathing jet engine such as a turbojet , turbofan , ramjet , pulse jet , or scramjet . In general, jet engines are internal combustion engines . Air-breathing jet engines typically feature
2900-517: Is cooled with fuel flowing around it, and contains a disk that ruptures in case of overpressure, allowing TEB and nitrogen to discharge into the afterburner. One heat source required two-stage reduction. Before entering the fuel heat-sink system, the Environmental Control System (ECS) air leaving the engine compressor at 1,230 °F (666 °C) was so hot that ram air at 760 °F (404 °C) had to be used first. Fuel flowing from
3016-500: Is documented in the story of Ottoman soldier Lagâri Hasan Çelebi , who reportedly achieved flight using a cone-shaped rocket in 1633. The earliest attempts at airbreathing jet engines were hybrid designs in which an external power source first compressed air, which was then mixed with fuel and burned for jet thrust. The Italian Caproni Campini N.1 , and the Japanese Tsu-11 engine intended to power Ohka kamikaze planes towards
3132-400: Is the propellant flow in kg/s, A e {\displaystyle A_{e}} is the cross-sectional area at the exit of the exhaust nozzle, and p {\displaystyle p} is the atmospheric pressure. Combined-cycle engines simultaneously use two or more different principles of jet propulsion. A water jet, or pump-jet, is a marine propulsion system that uses
3248-566: Is used for launching satellites, space exploration and crewed access, and permitted landing on the Moon in 1969. Rocket engines are used for high altitude flights, or anywhere where very high accelerations are needed since rocket engines themselves have a very high thrust-to-weight ratio . However, the high exhaust speed and the heavier, oxidizer-rich propellant results in far more propellant use than turbofans. Even so, at extremely high speeds they become energy-efficient. An approximate equation for
3364-608: The 1966 Formula One world championship , although only the earliest engines had any Oldsmobile components. The majority of Repco RB620 engines were cast and built in-house at Repco. Rights to these engines were purchased by the British Rover Company and used in the 1967 Rover P5B that replaced the 3 L straight six Rover engined P5. Throughout the years, the Rover Company (which became part of British Leyland in 1968), and its successor companies constantly improved
3480-511: The 263 straight-eight and the only engine available in Buick's economy "Special" series vehicles. It was the smallest displacement Nailhead, sharing stroke and deck height with the 322, but having its own smaller bore 3.625 in (92.1 mm). The larger 322 cu in (5.3 L) was the original Nailhead, used by Buick from 1953 through 1956 in the Roadmaster, Super, and Century models, and
3596-867: The Gloster Meteor finally entered service with the RAF in July 1944. These were powered by turbojet engines from Power Jets Ltd., set up by Frank Whittle. The first two operational turbojet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 and then the Gloster Meteor entered service within three months of each other in 1944; the Me 262 in April and the Gloster Meteor in July. The Meteor only saw around 15 aircraft enter World War II action, while up to 1400 Me 262 were produced, with 300 entering combat, delivering
Pratt & Whitney J58 - Misplaced Pages Continue
3712-670: The Pratt & Whitney J75 , due to J58 development delays. Upon cancellation of the P6M, it was selected for the Convair Kingfish and for the Lockheed A-12 , YF-12A and SR-71 . Other sources link its origin to the USAF's requirement for a powerplant for the WS-110A, the future XB-70 Valkyrie . Analytical calculations of the performance of the original J58 showed three problems at Mach 2.5: "exhaust pressure
3828-702: The TF30 as installed in the F-111, used an airframe-mounted secondary nozzle with free-floating flaps similar to that used on the SR-71. J58 emissions were measured as part of the NASA Stratospheric Wake Experiment, which looked at the environmental impact of using afterburning jet engines for supersonic transports. An engine was tested in an altitude chamber at a maximum condition of full afterburning at Mach 3.0 and 19.8 km altitude. Alternative solutions to combat
3944-500: The aeolipile , a device described by Hero of Alexandria in 1st-century Egypt . This device directed steam power through two nozzles to cause a sphere to spin rapidly on its axis. It was seen as a curiosity. Meanwhile, practical applications of the turbine can be seen in the water wheel and the windmill . Historians have further traced the theoretical origin of the principles of jet engines to traditional Chinese firework and rocket propulsion systems. Such devices' use for flight
4060-434: The engine block 's bore spacing and external dimensions, not displacement ). All 1953–1966 Buick V8s and the 1967–1976 "big-block" engines shared a 4.75 in (121 mm) bore spacing. The small-block was produced from 1961 to 1981. Some Buick V8s, such as the 350, 400, and 455, have the same displacements as V8s of other GM divisions , but they are entirely different designs. Buick Nailhead V8s can be distinguished by
4176-655: The gasoline -fuelled HeS 3 of 5 kN (1,100 lbf), which was fitted to Heinkel's simple and compact He 178 airframe and flown by Erich Warsitz in the early morning of August 27, 1939, from Rostock -Marienehe aerodrome , an impressively short time for development. The He 178 was the world's first jet plane. Heinkel applied for a US patent covering the Aircraft Power Plant by Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain on May 31, 1939; patent number US2256198, with M Hahn referenced as inventor. Von Ohain's design, an axial-flow engine, as opposed to Whittle's centrifugal flow engine,
4292-402: The ram effect of the vehicle's speed instead of a mechanical compressor. The thrust of a typical jetliner engine went from 5,000 lbf (22 kN) ( de Havilland Ghost turbojet) in the 1950s to 115,000 lbf (510 kN) ( General Electric GE90 turbofan) in the 1990s, and their reliability went from 40 in-flight shutdowns per 100,000 engine flight hours to less than 1 per 100,000 in
4408-448: The "B-12000", referring to the 12,000 foot pounds generated by each piston. Second generation Nailheads were painted "Late" Buick Green, with the exception of those installed in the 1963 Riviera, which were silver, and the 1966 Riviera, which were red. Buick, like most of its competitors, continued to expand their V8 engine to larger displacements. The 364 cu in (6.0 L) was introduced in 1957 and produced through 1961, with
4524-459: The "Nailhead" for the unusual vertical alignment of its small-sized valves (Originally it was known to hot-rodders as the "nail valve", because the engine's small heads contained valves with long stems, which made them look like nails.) During this era, Buick ranked smoothness above most other marketing objectives, and the Dynaflow transmission's non-shifting design was demonstrably smoother than
4640-532: The 1950s, the jet engine was almost universal in combat aircraft, with the exception of cargo, liaison and other specialty types. By this point, some of the British designs were already cleared for civilian use, and had appeared on early models like the de Havilland Comet and Avro Canada Jetliner . By the 1960s, all large civilian aircraft were also jet powered, leaving the piston engine in low-cost niche roles such as cargo flights. The efficiency of turbojet engines
4756-473: The 215/300's) meant the intake manifold was of a new design to bolt to the otherwise interchangeable cylinder heads. It was offered with two- or four-barrel carburetion, the two-barrel with a 9.0:1 compression rated at 220 hp (164 kW) at 4,000 rpm and 340 lb⋅ft (461 N⋅m) at 2,400 rpm, and the four barrel with 10.25:1 compression, rated at 260 hp (194 kW) at 4,000 rpm and 375 lb⋅ft (508 N⋅m) at 2,800 rpm. It
Pratt & Whitney J58 - Misplaced Pages Continue
4872-470: The 300 V8 (and the 225) were still painted Buick Late Green. The Apollo 5000 GT sports car, (also sold as the Vetta Ventura) used this engine. In 1966, the 300's stroke was increased to 3.85 in (97.8 mm) in a raised block to create the 340 (340 cu in (5.6 L)) as a replacement for the four-barrel-carbureted 300. The taller deck (raised by 0.5625 in (14.3 mm) compared to
4988-425: The 300 switched to cast-iron heads, raising dry weight to 467 lb (212 kg), still quite light for a V8 engine of its era. The four-barrel option was cancelled for 1966, and the 300 was replaced entirely by the 350 in 1968. In 1964, while nearly all Buick engines were painted "Buick Late Green", the 300 V8s were painted silver instead. In 1966 Buick engines switched to "Buick Late Red", but until 1967 at least,
5104-454: The 350 in comparison to other GM V8s are Buick's "deep-skirt" engine block construction, the use of cast iron with increased nickel content, under-square cylinder bore sizing, 3 in (76.2 mm) crankshaft main journals, and 6.385 in (162.2 mm) connecting rods. Of all the GM "350s", the Buick has the longest piston stroke. This design characteristic made the engine significantly wider than
5220-512: The British embassy in Madrid a few years later by his wife, Carlota O'Neill , upon her release from prison. In 1935, Hans von Ohain started work on a similar design to Whittle's in Germany, both compressor and turbine being radial, on opposite sides of the same disc, initially unaware of Whittle's work. Von Ohain's first device was strictly experimental and could run only under external power, but he
5336-457: The Buick blocks were of a substantially different proprietary company design. The Buick 350 featured the same 3.8 in (96.5 mm) bore as the 231 cu in (3.8 L) version of the Buick 90° V6 and retained the 3.85 in (97.8 mm) stroke of the previous 340 cu in (5.6 L) V8. The exact displacement is 349.31 cu in (5,724 cc). The major differences of
5452-542: The Buick had a 37-cc wedge combustion chamber and used "dished head" pistons. Altering the compression ratio on the Oldsmobile 215 required changing the heads, but on a Buick 215, only the pistons were changed, which was less expensive and simpler. Casting-sealing technology was not advanced enough at that time, and hidden porosity problems caused serious oil leaks, producing an abnormally high scrap ratio. The factory had to make extensive use of air gauging for leak checks, and
5568-413: The Buick, Oldsmobile developed its own all-aluminum 215 , the "Rockette V8", to install in its F-85 Cutlass Y-body. Its angled valve covers were designed by Oldsmobile engineers to look like a traditional Olds V8. Olds also released a turbocharged version, the 215 hp (160 kW) Turbo-Rocket , in its 1962–63 Oldsmobile Jetfire. Together with Chevrolet's turbocharged 1962 Corvair Spyder, these were
5684-519: The MG RV8 in the 1990s, Triumph TR8 , and various sports sedans and sports cars by the MG Rover Group and specialist manufacturers such as TVR . The engine remains well-supported by enthusiast clubs, specialist parts suppliers, and by shops that specialize in conversions and tuning. In 1964, Buick replaced the 215 with an iron-block engine of very similar architecture. The new "small block" engine had
5800-477: The Nailhead V8s used a camshaft with greater lift and duration. The small-diameter intake runners allowed these engines to develop high torque , with many exceeding 1 ft-lb/cu in (exceptional for the time). First-generation Nailheads were painted "Late" Buick Green (also called Apple Green, used from 1953 to 1965). The 264 cu in (4.3 L) produced in 1954 and 1955 was a direct replacement for
5916-649: The Nailhead, it began as an option on the 1963 Riviera, and was later available on the Wildcat and Electra models. The 1964 and 1966 Rivieras used the 425 engine as standard equipment. Mounted on a trolley, Buick 425s were also used as starter motors for the SR-71 Blackbird supersonic jet. Four-barrel carburetion was standard on the basic 425, called the Wildcat 465 for the torque (as measured in lb-ft) it developed. The Super Wildcat ( Regular Production Option {RPO}-coded Y48)
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#17328833731566032-526: The Pratt & Whitney J57 and J75 models. There is also a derivative of the P&;W JT8D low-bypass turbofan that creates up to 35,000 horsepower (HP) . Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine cores, with turboshaft and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are typically used to power helicopters and some propeller-driven aircraft. There are
6148-509: The Special in 1956. It has a bore and stroke of 4 in × 3.2 in (101.6 mm × 81.3 mm). The 322 was also used in the 1956 through 1957 10,000-Series conventional-cab Chevrolet heavy duty trucks labeled as the Loadmaster . Buick's second variation of the "Nailhead" was produced from 1957–1966. The "Fireball" name was dropped after 1957, but the 364 was very briefly called
6264-580: The Super Wildcat 465 with factory-installed dual four-barrel Carter AFB carburetors as an "MZ" option. Only 179 of the 1966 Riviera GS cars were built with the MZ package. Buick introduced its "Big Block" V8 in 1967 to replace the largest displacement Nailheads. It retained the 4.75 in (120.7 mm) cylinder bore spacing and was produced in three displacements: 400, 430, and 455 cubic inches. Production continued through 1976. The 400-cubic-inch (6.6 L)
6380-491: The adverse effects of high inlet temperature on the aerodynamic performance of the compressor were rejected by the Pratt & Whitney patentee, Robert Abernethy. One of those solutions was used in a contemporary installation. The GE YJ93/ XB-70 used a variable-stator compressor to avoid front-stage stall and rear-stage choking. Another possible solution, pre-compressor cooling, was used on the MiG-25's R-15 engines. Water/methanol
6496-426: The afterburner duct being cooled with too-hot turbine exhaust gas. U.S. patent 3,344,606 describes the changes to the engine that extended the engine's capability to Mach 3.2. They included diverting 20% of the compressor entry air after the 4th compressor stage directly to the afterburner through six external tubes. This allowed the compressor to work properly with adequate surge margin and increased airflow into
6612-542: The company's Skylark Gran Sport , Buick Sport Wagon and Buick Wildcat models, among others. The engine was variously designated the Wildcat 375, Wildcat 410, and Wildcat 445 depending on the torque each version produced. The Wildcat 410 was the two-barrel carbureted engine, standard on the 1962-63 LeSabre . The Wildcat 375 was a no-cost option for the 1962-63 LeSabre that used a lower compression ratio to run on lower- octane fuel. The various Wildcat engines had decals on their air cleaners indicating their version; however,
6728-440: The compressor. Some of the increased flow left the compressor after the 4th stage as bypass to the afterburner, and some left the last compressor stage through the previously choked area. The increased airflow gave more thrust. The inlet guide vanes were modified with trailing-edge flaps to reduce blade flutter and prevent blade fatigue failures. The afterburner was cooled by the bleed air that was 400 °F (220 °C) cooler than
6844-706: The divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag. Whitford gives the F-16 as an example. Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71. The nozzle size, together with the area of the turbine nozzles, determines the operating pressure of the compressor. This overview highlights where energy losses occur in complete jet aircraft powerplants or engine installations. Buick V8 engine The Buick V8 family can be divided into two sizes, big-blocks and small-blocks ( block size classification refers to
6960-409: The drag. The effect was described qualitatively by Lockheed inlet designer David Campbell "..with minimum afterburner the engine would be dragging on the engine mounts at high Mach numbers." The second problem (the compressor deep in surge) was caused by the compressor trying to operate at too-low a corrected speed in an area of its compressor map known as "off-design". The third problem was caused by
7076-510: The ducted fan blades of turbofan engines. Propfans are designed to offer the speed and performance of turbofan engines with fuel efficiency of turboprops. However, due to low fuel costs and high cabin noise, early propfan projects were abandoned. Very few aircraft have flown with propfans, with the Antonov An-70 being the first and only aircraft to fly while being powered solely by propfan engines. The term Advanced technology engine refers to
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#17328833731567192-405: The end of World War II were unsuccessful. Even before the start of World War II, engineers were beginning to realize that engines driving propellers were approaching limits due to issues related to propeller efficiency, which declined as blade tips approached the speed of sound . If aircraft performance were to increase beyond such a barrier, a different propulsion mechanism was necessary. This
7308-545: The engine but also surrounding the casings where the controls, accessories, electrical wiring and fuel and oil tubes were located. Two starting methods were used during the life of the A-12, YF-12 and SR-71 aircraft: an AG330 starter cart with two Buick V8 engines driving a common output shaft, or compressed air driving a small starter adapter. The air-start method superseded the cumbersome "Buicks" when better compressed air supplies became available. Any aircraft flying at three times
7424-584: The engine making it much stronger and more reliable. Capacities ranged from 3.5 to 5.0 L (215 to 307 cu in). This engine was used for V8 versions of the MGB GT known as the GTV8 . Rover also used the engine in the 1970 Range Rover . Morgan used the Rover version in its Plus 8 . American 215s have also been engine swapped into countless other platforms, especially Chevrolet Vegas and later British cars including
7540-437: The engine to drop in power still further, a little at a time, through 1976. The 455 was one of the first "thin-wall casting" engine blocks at GM, and because of this advance in production technology, it weighs significantly less than other engines of comparable size (for example, 150 lb (68 kg) less than a Chevrolet 454 and only 25 lb (11 kg) more than a Chevrolet 350 ). Applications: Buick introduced
7656-424: The engine with acceptable pressure loss and distortion. It had to do this in all flight conditions. The ejector, or secondary, nozzle performed the reverse function of the inlet accelerating the turbine exhaust from about Mach 1.0, as it left the primary nozzle, back up to Mach 3. Mach 3 exhaust velocity is higher than Mach 3 flight velocity due to the much-higher temperature in the exhaust. The nacelle airflow from
7772-650: The engine, producing thrust. All the air entering the compressor is passed through the combustor, and turbine, unlike the turbofan engine described below. Turbofans differ from turbojets in that they have an additional fan at the front of the engine, which accelerates air in a duct bypassing the core gas turbine engine. Turbofans are the dominant engine type for medium and long-range airliners . Turbofans are usually more efficient than turbojets at subsonic speeds, but at high speeds their large frontal area generates more drag . Therefore, in supersonic flight, and in military and other aircraft where other considerations have
7888-543: The first turbochargers ever offered in passenger cars. Produced on a separate assembly line, the Olds 215 was somewhat heavier at 350 lb (160 kg). Intended to alleviate a head-warping problem on high-compression versions, Oldsmobile added a sixth head bolt on the intake manifold side. This meant that the five-bolt Buick heads would fit on Oldsmobile blocks, but not vice versa. The Oldsmobile used wedge-shaped/quench combustion chambers/pistons that allowed larger valves, while
8004-463: The first ground attacks and air combat victories of jet planes. Following the end of the war the German jet aircraft and jet engines were extensively studied by the victorious allies and contributed to work on early Soviet and US jet fighters. The legacy of the axial-flow engine is seen in the fact that practically all jet engines on fixed-wing aircraft have had some inspiration from this design. By
8120-712: The form of rocket engines they power model rocketry , spaceflight , and military missiles . Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly drag racers , with the all-time record held by a rocket car . A turbofan powered car, ThrustSSC , currently holds the land speed record . Jet engine designs are frequently modified for non-aircraft applications, as industrial gas turbines or marine powerplants . These are used in electrical power generation, for powering water, natural gas, or oil pumps, and providing propulsion for ships and locomotives. Industrial gas turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horsepower. Many of these engines are derived from older military turbojets such as
8236-522: The four-barrel edition of the 1966-67 small-block Buick 340 V8 was also labeled Wildcat 375 on its air cleaner, but was not a Nailhead. The Wildcat 445, with a single four-barrel carburetor, was the standard engine in the Invicta , 1959-1966 Electra , 1962–1966 Buick Wildcat , 1963 Riviera , and 1965 Riviera (the 1964 and 1966 Riviera models used the 425 with a single four-barrel carburetor, labeled Wildcat 465, as standard equipment). In an effort to overcome
8352-461: The four-barrel-equipped engine's compression ratio was increased to 10.25:1 and horsepower to 190 hp (142 kW) at 4,800 rpm and 235 lb⋅ft (319 N⋅m) at 3,000 rpm. The two-barrel engine was unchanged. For 1963, the four-barrel was bumped to 11.0:1 compression and an even 200 hp (149 kW) at 5,000 rpm and 240 lb⋅ft (325 N⋅m) at 3,200 rpm, 0.93 hp (0.7 kW)/cu in. The higher output "Power Pack"
8468-403: The front of the engine, as opposed to the 401/400 nailhead, which had its near the firewall. The 430-cubic-inch (7.0 L) was only produced from 1967 until 1969. This engine had a bore and a stroke of 4.1875 in × 3.9 in (106.36 mm × 99.06 mm). The 430 four-barrel engine was rated at 360 hp (268 kW) and 475 lb⋅ft (644 N⋅m) of torque. This engine
8584-584: The fuel with a green flash. In some conditions, however, the TEB flow was obstructed by coking deposits on the injector nozzle, hindering restart attempts. Refilling the TEB tank was a perilous task; the maintenance crew wore silver fire suits. Conversely, the JP-7 fueling was so safe that some aircraft maintenance was permitted during filling. The chemical ignition was chosen instead of a conventional igniter for reliability reasons, and to reduce mechanical complexity. The TEB tank
8700-480: The ground to 2,000 mph (3,200 km/h) at altitude. It was a conventional afterburning turbojet for take-off and acceleration to Mach 2 and then used permanent compressor bleed to the afterburner above Mach 2. The way the engine worked at cruise led it to be described as "acting like a turboramjet ". It has also been described as a turboramjet based on incorrect statements describing the turbomachinery as being completely bypassed. The engine performance that met
8816-490: The inlet or diffuser. A ram engine thus requires a substantial initial forward airspeed before it can function. Ramjets are considered the simplest type of air breathing jet engine because they have no moving parts in the engine proper, only in the accessories. Scramjets differ mainly in the fact that the air does not slow to subsonic speeds. Rather, they use supersonic combustion. They are efficient at even higher speed. Very few have been built or flown. The rocket engine uses
8932-549: The intake controlled the expansion of the hot engine exhaust in the ejector nozzle. This air flowed around the engine and served also to cool the hot external parts of the engine and to purge any combustible mixtures in the event of a fuel or oil leak in the nacelle. Data from Aircraft engines of the World 1966/67, The Engines of Pratt & Whitney: A Technical History, Military Turbojet/Turbofan Specifications, Comparable engines Related lists Jet engine A jet engine
9048-458: The late 1990s. This, combined with greatly decreased fuel consumption, permitted routine transatlantic flight by twin-engined airliners by the turn of the century, where previously a similar journey would have required multiple fuel stops. The principle of the jet engine is not new; however, the technical advances necessary to make the idea work did not come to fruition until the 20th century. A rudimentary demonstration of jet power dates back to
9164-414: The mechanical properties, and surface coatings had to be developed to protect components. Premature cracking of turbine vanes and blades made from conventionally cast (i.e. equiaxed) Mar-M200, the strongest cast nickel-base alloy, was avoided by the development of directionally solidified parts cast in the same material. Directionally solidified Mar-M200 became the strongest cast turbine material to date and
9280-495: The mission requirements for the CIA and USAF over many years was later enhanced slightly for NASA experimental work (carrying external payloads on the top of the aircraft), which required more thrust to deal with higher aircraft drag. The J58, company designation JT11, had its origins in the larger JT9 (J91) engine. It was a 3/4 scale JT9 with a mass flow of 300 lb/s (140 kg/s), down from 400 lb/s (180 kg/s). The JT11
9396-433: The modern generation of jet engines. The principle is that a turbine engine will function more efficiently if the various sets of turbines can revolve at their individual optimum speeds, instead of at the same speed. The true advanced technology engine has a triple spool, meaning that instead of having a single drive shaft, there are three, in order that the three sets of blades may revolve at different speeds. An interim state
9512-394: The net thrust of a rocket engine is: Where F N {\displaystyle F_{N}} is the net thrust, I sp,vac {\displaystyle I_{\text{sp,vac}}} is the specific impulse , g 0 {\displaystyle g_{0}} is a standard gravity , m ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
9628-404: The nozzle but their static values drop as the gas speeds up. The velocity of the air entering the nozzle is low, about Mach 0.4, a prerequisite for minimizing pressure losses in the duct leading to the nozzle. The temperature entering the nozzle may be as low as sea level ambient for a fan nozzle in the cold air at cruise altitudes. It may be as high as the 1000 Kelvin exhaust gas temperature for
9744-519: The nozzle. As of 2021, the J58 is the only known aircraft engine designed to operate continuously at maximum afterburning at high Mach number cruise. J58 experience was used extensively in the JTF17 engine proposal for a Mach 2.7 SST, due to significant flight time at Mach 2.7 and above. It was also used for subsequent engines developed by Pratt & Whitney, both commercial and military. The next afterburning engine,
9860-508: The oil filter exposed to oncoming air for added cooling. With the exception of the silver 1964 300, Buick small-blocks were painted "Late" Buick Green through 1966. Buick engines were painted red from 1967-1974, medium metallic blue from 1975-1977, and light blue from 1978-1982. The small-block was originally produced as an industry-first all-aluminum engine. Alas, after 3 years of production, persisting cylinder liner issues, trumped with new and cheaper thin-wall iron casting techniques, pushed
9976-489: The other rough shifting automatics then available. With the Dynaflow, a high torque engine was needed to provide adequate acceleration, so that's what the Nailhead was designed to deliver. Both the intake and exhaust valves were on the intake manifold side of a " pent-roof combustion chamber ". To offset restrictive port diameters and the smaller-sized valves [1.75 in (44 mm) intake, 1.25 in (32 mm) exhaust],
10092-514: The others — essentially the same as the Buick big-blocks, which have the shortest stroke of the GM big-blocks. The engine garnered a reputation as rugged and durable, and some of its design characteristics are found in other Buick-designed GM engines, such as the 231 cu in (3.8 L) V6 and its 3800 descendants. The 350 was used by Kaiser-Jeep and AMC Jeep in the Jeep Gladiator and Wagoneer models from 1968–71; in these applications,
10208-472: The required properties for J58 turbine discs. Astroloy , the strongest known nickel-base superalloy in the Western world at that time, was used instead. Waspaloy was also used initially for the diffuser case, the part that joins the compressor to the combustor and that contains the highest pressure in the engine. Diffuser case weld cracking led to the introduction of Inconel 718 for this part. The afterburner liner
10324-442: The restrictive exhaust-port design of the Nailhead, Buick drag racing enthusiasts in the 1960s adapted superchargers with a custom camshaft to feed intake air in through the exhaust ports; the larger intake ports became the exhaust outlets. The 425 cu in (7.0 L) was produced from 1963 to 1966. Its bore and stroke measured 4.3125 by 3.64 inches (109.54 mm × 92.46 mm). The largest-displacement version of
10440-424: The same basic physical principles of thrust as a form of reaction engine , but is distinct from the jet engine in that it does not require atmospheric air to provide oxygen; the rocket carries all components of the reaction mass. However some definitions treat it as a form of jet propulsion . Because rockets do not breathe air, this allows them to operate at arbitrary altitudes and in space. This type of engine
10556-408: The speed of sound is in a severe thermal environment, both from frictional heating and stagnation ram rise. The fuel was the only heat sink available to the aircraft and after absorbing 40,000 Btu/min (700 kW), keeping everything cool enough from the crew to the exhaust nozzle area indicator, it was supplied to the fuel nozzles at 600 °F (316 °C). To cope with these high temperatures,
10672-531: The state of the art in compressors. Alan Arnold Griffith published An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design in 1926 leading to experimental work at the RAE . In 1928, RAF College Cranwell cadet Frank Whittle formally submitted his ideas for a turbojet to his superiors. In October 1929, he developed his ideas further. On 16 January 1930, in England, Whittle submitted his first patent (granted in 1932). The patent showed
10788-508: The tanks to the engines was used to cool the air conditioning systems, aircraft hydraulic fluid , engine oil , accessory drive system oil, the TEB tank and afterburner nozzle actuator control lines. The development of the J58 involved some of the most challenging metallurgical development problems experienced by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft so far, with components operating at unprecedented temperatures and levels of stress and durability. New manufacturing techniques as well as new alloys improved
10904-403: The time it was the lightest mass-production V8 in the world, with a dry weight of only 318 lb (144 kg). Measuring 28 in (71 cm) long, 26 in (66 cm) wide, and 27 in (69 cm) high (same as the small-block Chevy ), it became standard equipment in the 1961 Buick Special . At introduction, Buick's 215 was rated 150 hp (112 kW) at 4400 rpm. This
11020-456: The top surfaces of their valve covers being horizontal ( parallel to the ground). Later Buick small and big block V8s have a front-mounted distributor tilted to the drivers side (like Cadillacs ), but siamesed center exhaust ports (unlike Cadillacs). Buick's first generation V8 was offered from 1953 through 1956; it replaced the Buick straight-eight . While officially called the "Fireball V8" by Buick, it became known by enthusiasts as
11136-508: The turbine exhaust gas. Not all the oxygen in the bleed air was available for combustion, as most of the bleed air was directed into the cooling shroud before entering the afterburner cavity for reheating. The improved afterburner cooling allowed a higher flame temperature, which gave more thrust. The engine was completely redesigned, except for the compressor and turbine aerodynamic definitions, so that it would be reliable running for prolonged periods at unprecedented temperatures, not only inside
11252-600: Was able to demonstrate the basic concept. Ohain was then introduced to Ernst Heinkel , one of the larger aircraft industrialists of the day, who immediately saw the promise of the design. Heinkel had recently purchased the Hirth engine company, and Ohain and his master machinist Max Hahn were set up there as a new division of the Hirth company. They had their first HeS 1 centrifugal engine running by September 1937. Unlike Whittle's design, Ohain used hydrogen as fuel, supplied under external pressure. Their subsequent designs culminated in
11368-399: Was available on the 1964 Riviera as a factory option (2,122 produced), 1964 Electras (any model, production numbers unknown), 1965 Riviera Gran Sport and 1966 Wildcat GS, which included two four-barrel carburetors and matching intake manifold . Coded "MW", these parts were delivered in the car's trunk for dealer installation. Toward the end of the 1966 model year, around May 1966, Buick offered
11484-406: Was built in 1903 by Norwegian engineer Ægidius Elling . Such engines did not reach manufacture due to issues of safety, reliability, weight and, especially, sustained operation. The first patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft was filed in 1921 by Maxime Guillaume . His engine was an axial-flow turbojet, but was never constructed, as it would have required considerable advances over
11600-412: Was equal to the inlet pressure, the compressor was deep in surge, and there was no cool air to the afterburner liner that would therefore melt". The first problem was caused by excessive compressor delivery temperatures, which did not allow enough energy to be added in the engine combustor to provide any thrust from the gas generator. All the thrust-producing pressure in the jet-pipe came from ram, as with
11716-461: Was equipped with higher lift camshaft .0.518" intake/ 0.523" exhaust with increased duration 305/310 and required 99 research octane fuel. Pontiac used the Buick version of the 215 in its Y-body cars, the Tempest and LeMans . At that time the engine was closely associated with the Buick brand, and Pontiac sold few cars with it, using it only in 1961 and 1962. Although sharing basic architecture with
11832-571: Was eventually adopted by most manufacturers by the 1950s. Austrian Anselm Franz of Junkers ' engine division ( Junkers Motoren or "Jumo") introduced the axial-flow compressor in their jet engine. Jumo was assigned the next engine number in the RLM 109-0xx numbering sequence for gas turbine aircraft powerplants, "004", and the result was the Jumo 004 engine. After many lesser technical difficulties were solved, mass production of this engine started in 1944 as
11948-574: Was granted a patent for a jet engine design in March 1935. Republican president Manuel Azaña arranged for initial construction at the Hispano-Suiza aircraft factory in Madrid in 1936, but Leret was executed months later by Francoist Moroccan troops after unsuccessfully defending his seaplane base on the first days of the Spanish Civil War . His plans, hidden from Francoists, were secretly given to
12064-651: Was injected from a spray mast in front of the compressor to lower the intake temperature for short durations at maximum speed. Pre-compressor cooling was also proposed for a Mach 3 reconnaissance Phantom and the Mach 3+ F-106 RASCAL project. The propulsion system consisted of the intake , engine, nacelle or secondary airflow and ejector nozzle ( propelling nozzle ). The propulsive thrust distribution between these components changed with flight speed: at Mach 2.2 inlet 13% – engine 73% – ejector 14%; at Mach 3.0+ inlet 54% – engine 17.6% – ejector 28.4%. The intake had to supply air to
12180-457: Was introduced in production engines. Single-crystal turbine blades cast in Mar-M200, giving further improvement of high temperature resistance, would also be developed through testing in J58 engines. Waspaloy was the most widely used alloy in the engine, from critical high-energy rotating compressor discs to components made from sheet. Although used for turbine discs in other engines, it did not have
12296-409: Was one of the limiting factors of SR-71 endurance, as after each air refueling the afterburners had to be reignited. When the pilot moved the throttle from cut-off to idle position, fuel flowed into the engine, and shortly afterwards an approx. 50 cm (1.8 imp fl oz; 1.7 US fl oz) shot of TEB was injected into the combustion chamber, where it spontaneously ignited and lit
12412-452: Was only produced through 1967, being replaced by the new small block 350 cu in (5.7 L) in 1968. Buick adopted the popular 350 cu in (5.7 L) size in 1968 for their final family of V8 engines, the 350 , which was produced through 1980. Although it shared the displacement of the other GM small blocks, including the Chevrolet 350 , Oldsmobile 350 , and Pontiac 350 ,
12528-399: Was produced from 1967-1969. This engine has a bore and a stroke of 4.04 in × 3.9 in (102.6 mm × 99.1 mm). It was the only large V8 engine available for the intermediate-sized A-body Buicks due to the GM cubic inch limit restriction in effect through 1970. Most parts except the pistons interchange with the 430 and 455. This 400 engine had the distributor towards
12644-504: Was proposed to the US Navy under their designation J58. It was also proposed for various Navy and Air Force aircraft, e.g. Convair F-106 , North American F-108 , Convair B-58C , Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III , and North American A3J Vigilante , but none of these applications followed. The J58 began development for the US Navy to power the planned Martin P6M jet flying boat. The P6M started out using Allison J71-A-4 engines and then switched to
12760-554: Was raised soon after introduction to 155 hp (116 kW) at 4,600 rpm. 220 lb⋅ft (298 N⋅m) of torque was produced at 2,400 rpm with a Rochester 2GC (2 Jet) two-barrel carburetor and 8.8:1 compression ratio . A mid-year introduction was the Buick Special Skylark version, which had 10.0:1 compression and a four-barrel carburetor, raising output to 185 hp (138 kW) at 4,800 rpm and 230 lb⋅ft (312 N⋅m) at 2,800 rpm. For 1962,
12876-433: Was rated at 350 hp (261 kW), while the 455 Stage 1 equipped with a single 4-barrel Rochester Quadrajet carburetor was rated at 360 hp (268 kW) at 4600 rpm. The regular 455 produced a rated 510 lb⋅ft (691 N⋅m) of torque at 2,800 rpm, more than any other muscle car engine. The horsepower was somewhat reduced in 1971 mainly due to the reduction in cylinder compression ratio ,
12992-480: Was sprayed with ceramic thermal barrier coating that, together with the cooling air from the compressor, allowed continuous use of the afterburner with flame temperatures up to 3,200 °F (1,760 °C). NASA was loaned 2 SR-71 aircraft for research work. One was modified to flight-test a Linear Aerospike rocket engine and was fitted with thrust-enhanced J58 engines. Engine thrust was increased by 5% to offset increased aircraft drag. The increased thrust came from
13108-427: Was still rather worse than piston engines, but by the 1970s, with the advent of high-bypass turbofan jet engines (an innovation not foreseen by the early commentators such as Edgar Buckingham , at high speeds and high altitudes that seemed absurd to them), fuel efficiency was about the same as the best piston and propeller engines. Jet engines power jet aircraft , cruise missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles . In
13224-409: Was the motivation behind the development of the gas turbine engine, the most common form of jet engine. The key to a practical jet engine was the gas turbine , extracting power from the engine itself to drive the compressor . The gas turbine was not a new idea: the patent for a stationary turbine was granted to John Barber in England in 1791. The first gas turbine to successfully run self-sustaining
13340-459: Was unable to detect leaks on blocks that were as much as 95% complete. This raised the cost of complete engines to more than that of a comparable all cast-iron engine, so aluminum blocks were cancelled after the 1963 model year. Another problem was clogged radiators from antifreeze mixtures incompatible with aluminum. The 215's very high power-to-weight ratio made it immediately interesting for automobile and boat racing. Mickey Thompson entered
13456-400: Was used in large B- , C- and E-body Buicks. Most parts except the pistons interchange with the 400 and 455. Applications: The 400-based 455 cu in (7.5 L) was produced from 1970–1976, with a bore x stroke of 4.31 in × 3.9 in (109.5 mm × 99.1 mm). Most parts (except pistons and heads) interchange between the 400 and the 430. The base model
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