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215-736: The war was further complicated by the involvement of Spain , the Dutch Republic , France , England , and the Protestant Union , making it closely tied to the Eighty Years' War , as well as part of the European wars of religion . It also corresponded to a Protestant uprising in the Free Imperial City of Aachen . It was finally settled by the Treaty of Xanten , whose provisions favored Spain, though

430-490: A cholera or dysentery outbreak. They were so weakened by the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on 26 June 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they burned the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof. Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–September 1578, probably from the same illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies, although there was suspicion he could have been poisoned by

645-571: A regency council, which included the late duke's wife, Antonia of Lorraine , and an imperial commissioner sent by Emperor Rudolf II. On 24 May, Rudolf II, who had the authority to dictate a final settlement over the succession, announced that the Aulic Council (the Imperial Court) was to provide a definite verdict within four weeks. Brandenburg and Neuburg, who viewed the regency as a direct attempt at undermining their claims, finally agreed to

860-611: A tributary of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal. The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed become the Sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the new Bendahara . In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by Francisco de Sande himself, acting as Capitán General , started its journey towards Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards and Mexicans, 1,500 Filipino natives and 300 Borneans. The campaign

1075-637: A Catholic, and the death of the popular Dutch resistance leader was expected to bring an end to the war. However it did not happen. In 1586, Queen Elizabeth I of England , supported the Protestant cause in the Netherlands and France. Sir Francis Drake launched attacks against Spanish merchants in the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean , along with a particularly aggressive attack on the port of Cádiz . Philip sent

1290-539: A Christian walled city over the burnt ruins of Muslim Maynila and made it as the new capital of the Spanish East Indies and renamed it Manila. Spaniards were few and life was difficult and they were often outnumbered by their Amerindian recruits and Filipino allies. They attempted to mobilize subordinated populations through the encomienda . Unlike in the Caribbean where the indigenous populations rapidly disappeared,

1505-520: A class of civil servants and a national militia founded, and several small districts were brought under the duke's authority. The result was a unity and order in the duchy which enabled Maximilian to play an important part in the Thirty Years' War ; during the earlier years of which he was so successful as to acquire the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity which had been enjoyed since 1356 by

1720-609: A defensive policy with the construction of a series of military forts ( presidios ) and peace agreements with some of the Muslim rulers of North Africa. In the first half of the 17th century, Spanish ships attacked the Anatolian coast, defeating larger Ottoman fleets at the Battle of Cape Celidonia and the Battle of Cape Corvo . Larache and La Mamora , on the Moroccan Atlantic coast, and

1935-518: A direct consequence of his unwillingness to offend the Emperor and perhaps have his capital sacked a second time. The Peace of Barcelona , signed between Charles and the pope in 1529, established a more cordial relationship between the two leaders that effectively made Charles the protector of the Catholic cause and recognized Charles as King of Italy in return for Imperial-Spanish intervention in overthrowing

2150-619: A granddaughter of William the Rich, and the most senior female descendent of William the Rich. However, Wolfgang Wilhelm of Neuburg , son of Phillip Ludwig , Count Palatine of Neuburg, held a claim through his mother, a direct daughter of William, hence he was the most senior male descendent. Neuburg was a relatively young state, established during the War of the Landshut Succession . It was small and weak, surrounded by stronger powers like Bavaria and

2365-494: A history of bad mutinies , and so Spinola was unwilling to take risks commanding an army without the proper funding. Thus, Albert was immobilized from pursuing any military action. When Henry requested military access through the Spanish Netherlands, Albert was compelled to allow Henry access through Luxembourg . Everything changed when Henry IV was assassinated on 14 May, ending whatever grand plans he may have had. Though

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2580-636: A later so-called Upper Palatinate. Thus, the electoral dignity for the line was passed onwards to the Palatinate. With the recognition of the limits of domination by the Bavarian Duke in the year 1275, Salzburg of Bavaria went into their final phase. When the Salzburg Archbishop issued its own country regulations in 1328, Salzburg become a largely independent state within the Holy Roman Empire. In

2795-729: A local aristocracy; strengthened the power of the ecclesiastical hierarchy; shored up religious orthodoxy by the establishment of the Inquisition in Lima and Mexico City (1571); and increased revenues from silver mines in Peru and in Mexico, discovered in the 1540s. Particularly important was the crown's appointment of two able viceroys, Don Francisco de Toledo as Viceroy of Peru (r. 1569–1581), and in New Spain , Martín Enríquez de Almanza (r. 1568–1580), who

3010-510: A military expedition to restore order. Alba launched an ensuing reign of terror. In 1568, William the Silent led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. This attempt is generally considered to signal the start of the Eighty Years' War that ended with the independence of the United Provinces . The Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from the Netherlands and particularly from

3225-493: A pro-Habsburg seizure of the duchies, just like he had hoped. Emperor Rudolf hurriedly intervened while the Protestant claimants of Neuburg and Brandenburg, also known as the possessors, ( German : possidierenden) had still not fully secured the duchies. He demanded the annulment of the Dortmund treaty and sent another Imperial Commissioner, Archduke Leopold V, Bishop of Passau and Strasbourg , to take charge. Johann von Rauschenberg,

3440-513: A provisional settlement, with mediation from Maurice of Hesse-Kassel. When Joachim Ernst , a representative of Johann Sigismund, passed by Kassel on his way to Jülich, Maurice convinced him to negotiate with Wolfgang Wilhelm. On 10 June 1609, they met in Dortmund and signed the Treaty of Dortmund (1609) , rejecting all other claimants, and establishing a provisional government together with the local estates. Wolfgang Wilhelm and Joachim Ernst entered

3655-496: A role for Spain as protector of the Catholic Habsburg cause in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1526, Charles married Infanta Isabella , the sister of John III of Portugal . In 1556 he abdicated from his positions, giving his Spanish empire to his only surviving son, Philip II of Spain , and the Holy Roman Empire to his brother, Ferdinand . Charles retired to the monastery of Yuste ( Extremadura , Spain), and died in 1558. Spain

3870-617: A secret subsidy, but it was not enough and Leopold decided to make a secret visit Albert on 29 October. Leopold requested 24,000 ducats , which he believed would be enough to last until the Spring of 1610. he also requested permission to raise soldiers in the Spanish Netherlands. However, all of this failed. Leopold would request money from Albert several more times but each time Albert stated that his own affairs would not allow him to provide aid. In December, Leopold asked for 10,000 florins from another Habsburg Archduke, Archduke Ferdinand . His letter

4085-574: A united Protestant cause was required to keep the Habsburgs away. A large number of Protestant princes would also support this sentiment. Frederick IV, Elector Palatine and head of the Protestant Union, wished for a peaceful settlement. Johann of Nassau-Siegen shared the same thoughts and told Maurice as such. Henry IV of France also tried to garner support from other Protestant princes, namely Wurttemberg . Maurice agreed, but despite his efforts, it

4300-405: Is often credited with a major transformation in crown rule in Peru. Toledo formalized the labor draft of Andean commoners, the mit'a , to guarantee a labor supply for both the silver mine at Potosí and the mercury mine at Huancavelica . He established administrative districts of corregimiento , and resettled native Andeans in reducciones to better rule them. Under Toledo, the last stronghold of

4515-458: The Archbishopric of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this dignity remained in the possession of the family for more than 200 years. In 1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian I . Maximilian I found the duchy encumbered with debt and filled with disorder, but ten years of his vigorous rule effected a remarkable change. The finances and the judicial system were reorganised,

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4730-642: The Army of Flanders , under command of the famed general Ambrogio Spinola . Thus, he could've played a role in helping his cousin, Archduke Leopold, who had recently occupied Jülich. However, a series of events prevented Albert from doing so. Despite being a sovereign ruler over his domains in the Spanish Netherlands, Albert was dependent on Spanish financial and military support. Thus, he was forced to write to Spain, asking for instructions on what to do. His letters had arrived on 14 April 1609, but no response came back from Spain until July. By then, too many things had changed;

4945-723: The Aztecs and thousands of indigenous Mexican warriors, conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521. Following the pattern established in Spain during the Reconquista and in the Caribbean, the first European settlements in the Americas, conquerors divided up the indigenous population in private holdings encomiendas and exploited their labor. With Americas colonization, Spain gained vast new indigenous populations to convert to Christianity and rule as vassals of

5160-860: The Bishop of Würzburg acquired the diocese of Bamberg and thus became the Duke of Franconia . The Hohenstaufen Frederick I Barbarossa attempted reconciliation with the Welfs and, in 1156, gave back the Duchy of Bavaria to the Welf Henry the Lion ; however, the East Mark remained in Babenberg hands, and it was thus elevated to the Duchy of Austria as compensation for the loss of Bavaria. The elevation of

5375-573: The Diocese of Würzburg in 742. In the adjacent Alamannic ( Swabian ) lands west of the Lech river, Augsburg was a bishop's seat. When Boniface established the Diocese of Passau in 739, he could already build on local Early Christian traditions. In the south, Saint Rupert had founded in 696 the Diocese of Salzburg , probably after he had baptized Duke Theodo of Bavaria at his court in Regensburg, becoming

5590-554: The Duchy of Styria in 1180 under Margrave Ottokar IV —the younger tribal duchy came to an end. From 1180 to 1918, the Wittelsbachs were the rulers of Bavaria, as dukes, later as electors and kings. When Count Palatine Otto VI. of Wittelsbach became Otto I, Duke of Bavaria in 1180, the Wittelsbach treasury was rather low. In the following years it was significantly augmented by purchase, marriage, and inheritance. Newly acquired land

5805-428: The Dutch Republic had been successful. Emboldened by these alliances, Brandenburg was unwilling to accept a compromise deal from Neuburg, instead claiming the entirety of the duchies for themselves. Despite the matter being a contest over a relatively small amount of land, the succession quickly grew to be an international issue. The Dutch Republic, fiercely anti-Habsburg, did a not want a pro-Habsburg figure to inherit

6020-762: The Elector of Saxony Maurice . In response, Charles invaded Germany at the head of a mixed Dutch-Spanish army, hoping to restore the Imperial authority. The Emperor personally inflicted a decisive defeat on the Protestants at the historic Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. In 1555, Charles signed the Peace of Augsburg with the Protestant states and restored stability in Germany on his principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion"). Charles's involvement in Germany would establish

6235-679: The Electoral Palatinate . Thus, acquiring the Jülich succession was a major goal of Neuburg. Not only would it provide more land for Neuburg, but the territories in question were rich and could help the economy of Neuburg as well. As Neuburg had benefited from aligning with the Emperor in the past, despite their Lutheran religious status, Wolfgang Wilhelm had personally travelled to Prague to gain Imperial support. Neuburg also attempted to contact France and England . However, all of this failed. The Electorate of Brandenburg, also officially Lutheran,

6450-549: The Habsburg territories in Germany , and was duly elected as Holy Roman Emperor that year. His mother Joanna remained titular queen of Castile until her death in 1555, but due to her mental health and worries of her being proposed as an alternative monarch by opposition (as happened in the Revolt of the Comuneros ), Charles kept her imprisoned. At that point, Emperor and King Charles was

6665-486: The Holy League against France, seeing a chance at taking both Naples (to which he held a dynastic claim) and Navarre, which was claimed through his marriage to Germaine of Foix . The war was less of a success than that against Venice, and in 1516 France agreed to a truce that left Milan under French control and recognized Spanish hegemony in northern Navarre. Ferdinand would die later that year. Ferdinand's death led to

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6880-593: The Holy Roman Emperors were again strongly opposed by Bavaria, especially by the ducal House of Welf . In the final conflict between the Welf and Hohenstaufen dynasties, Duke Henry the Lion was banned and deprived of his Bavarian and Saxon fiefs by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa . Frederick passed Bavaria over to the House of Wittelsbach , which held it until 1918. The Bavarian dukes were raised to prince-electors during

7095-612: The Iberian Peninsula , including in the Americas and Asia. Habsburg Spain was a composite monarchy and a personal union . The Habsburg Spanish monarchs of this period are Charles I , Philip II , Philip III , Philip IV and Charles II . In this period the Spanish Empire was at the zenith of its influence and power. Spain, or "the Spains", referring to Spanish territories across different continents in this period, initially covered

7310-613: The Lombards . The conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by Charlemagne entailed the fall of Tassilo, who was deposed in 788. From that point, Bavaria was administered by Frankish prefects , first of whom was Gerold , who governed Bavaria from 788 to 799. By establishing direct rule over Bavaria, the Franks provoked the neighbouring Avars . At that time, the eastern Bavarian border, towards the Avars,

7525-595: The Marcha Orientalis under the Babenbergs to a Dukedom established it as the nucleus of the later state of Austria (Ostarrichi). Henry the Lion founded numerous cities, including Munich in 1158. Through his strong position as ruler of the two duchies of Saxony and Bavaria, he came into conflict with Frederick I Barbarossa. With the banishment of Henry the Lion and the separation of the March of Styria from Bavaria—raised to

7740-778: The Ottonian descendants of Henry I, a cadet branch of the Saxon royal dynasty, the conflict of the Bavarian dukes with the German (from 962: Imperial ) court continued: in 976, Emperor Otto II deposed his rebellious cousin Duke Henry II of Bavaria and established the Duchy of Carinthia on former Bavarian territory granted to the former Luitpolding Count palatine Henry III , who also became Margrave of Verona. Though Henry II reconciled with Emperor Otto's widow Theophanu in 985 and regained his duchy,

7955-611: The Pannonian basin to northern Italy in 568 and the succession of the Avars , as well as with the settlement of West Slavic Czechs on the adjacent territory beyond the Bohemian Forest at about the same time. At around 743, the Bavarian duke Odilo vassalised the Slavic princes of Carantania (roughly corresponding with the later March of Carinthia ), who had asked him for protection against

8170-449: The Philippines and other possessions in Southeast Asia. The period of Spanish history has also been referred to as the " Age of Expansion ". The Habsburg name was not continuously used by the family members, since they often emphasized their more prestigious princely titles. The dynasty was thus long known as the "House of Austria". Complementary, in some circumstances the family members were identified by their place of birth. Charles V

8385-440: The Pope four times, but each time he was rebuffed. Leopold's appeal to the Spanish Habsburgs also fell on deaf ears. Leopold claimed that the mission would be easy and require only a few resources, as an Imperial Ban , he thought, would scare all opposition into submission. The Spanish Council did not agree. On 12 September, Phillip III ordered Archduke Albert to provide no military aid. Albert did provide 8,000 Rijkdaalder as

8600-474: The Saxon Rebellion of 1073. Henry entrusted Bavaria to Welf , a scion of the Veronese margravial House of Este and progenitor of the Welf dynasty , which intermittently ruled the duchy for the next 110 years. Only with the establishment of Welf rule as dukes from 1070 by Henry IV was there a re-emergence of the Bavarian dukes. This period is characterized by the Investiture Controversy between Emperor and Pope, which strengthened Welf rule through siding with

8815-460: The Spanish Armada to attack England. Numbering 130 ships and 30,000 men, it was led by Alonso de Guzmán y Sotomayor, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia . The Armada's goal was to ferry the Army of Flanders from the Netherlands to invade England. After three days of fighting with the English fleet, the Armada withdrew and was forced to make the journey around the coast of Scotland and Ireland, many ships being wrecked by storms. Spain had invested itself in

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9030-538: The Spanish Main , a severe setback in which the English suffered heavy losses in men and ships. With the conquest and settlement of the Philippines , the Spanish Empire reached its greatest extent. In 1564, Miguel López de Legazpi was commissioned by the viceroy of New Spain (Mexico), Don Luís de Velasco , to lead an expedition in the Pacific Ocean to find the Spice Islands , where earlier explorers Ferdinand Magellan and Ruy López de Villalobos had landed in 1521 and 1543, respectively. The westward sailing to reach

9245-411: The Spanish Road and a booming economy, which was fueled by refugees fleeing the lands that were being ravaged by the Eighty Years' War . The immediate cause of war was the death of John William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg on 25 March 1609, who was affected by serious mental illness , and left no heirs to succeed him. Part of the succession dispute came from laws that had been established by William

9460-404: The Sultanate of Aceh . In 1593, the governor-general of the Philippines, Luis Pérez Dasmariñas , set out to conquer Cambodia , igniting the Cambodian–Spanish War . Some 120 Spaniards, Japanese, and Filipinos, sailing aboard three junks, launched an expedition to Cambodia. After an altercation between the Spanish expedition members and some Chinese merchants at the port left a few Chinese dead,

9675-414: The Thirty Years' War in 1623, and to kings by Napoleon in 1806. The duchy chaired the bench of the secular princes to the Reichstag of the Empire. The medieval Bavarian stem duchy covered present-day Southeastern Germany and most parts of Austria along the Danube river, up to the Hungarian border which then ran along the Leitha tributary in the east. It included the Altbayern regions of

9890-404: The Tondo Conspiracy of 1587–1588 failed. a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Christian-captain, Gayo, and Brunei's Sultan, would have restored the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo). Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled to Guam or Guerrero, Mexico. The Spanish then conducted

10105-403: The Upper Palatinate ) up to the Enns in the east and southward across the Brenner Pass to the Upper Adige in present-day South Tyrol . The first documented duke was Garibald I , a scion of the Frankish Agilolfings , who ruled from 555 onward as a largely independent Merovingian vassal. On the eastern border, changes occurred with the departure of the West Germanic Lombard tribes from

10320-399: The War of the League of Cognac . In 1527, due to Charles' inability to pay them sufficiently, his armies in Northern Italy mutinied and sacked Rome itself for loot, forcing Clement, and succeeding popes, to be considerably more prudent in their dealings with secular authorities. In 1533, Clement's refusal to annul Henry VIII of England 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon (Charles' aunt) was

10535-403: The river Enns and the Vienna Woods , represented a significant gain for the security of Bavaria. At first, that territory was placed under the jurisdiction of the Bavarian prefect Gerold (d. 799), and subsequently organized as a frontier unit, that became known as the (Bavarian) Eastern March ( Latin : marcha orientalis ). It provided safety for Bavaria's eastern borders, securing as well

10750-422: The "Apostle of Bavaria". In 798, Pope Leo III created the Bavarian ecclesiastical province with Salzburg as metropolitan seat and Regensburg , Passau, Freising, and Säben (later Brixen) as suffragan dioceses. With the rise of the Frankish Empire under the Carolingian dynasty , the autonomy of the Bavarian dukes, previously enjoyed under the Merovingians, was reduced and subsequently terminated. In 716,

10965-480: The 14th and 15th centuries, upper and lower Bavaria were repeatedly subdivided. Four Duchies existed after the division of 1392: Bavaria-Straubing , Bavaria-Landshut , Bavaria-Ingolstadt and Bavaria-Munich . These dukes often waged war against each other. Duke Albrecht IV of Bavaria-Munich united Bavaria in 1503 through war and primogeniture . However, the originally Bavarian offices Kufstein , Kitzbühel and Rattenberg in Tirol were lost in 1504. In spite of

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11180-415: The 1530s. The Spanish Empire abroad became the source of Spanish wealth and power in Europe. But as precious metal shipments rapidly expanded late in the century it contributed to the general inflation that was affecting the whole of Europe. Instead of fueling the Spanish economy, American silver made the country increasingly dependent on foreign sources of raw materials and manufactured goods. In 1557, Spain

11395-411: The Avarian territory beyond the river Enns , and started to advance along the river Danube , divided in two columns, but found no active resistance, and soon reached the region of Vienna Woods , at the very gates of the Pannonian Plain . No decisive battles were fought, since the Avars had fled before the advancing Frankish army. Frankish acquisition of new eastern regions, particularly those between

11610-431: The Bad assumed the ducal title, becoming the first Duke of Bavaria from the Luitpolding dynasty . However, the Austrian march remained occupied by the Hungarians and the Pannonian lands were irrecoverably lost. Nevertheless, the self-confidence of the Bavarian dukes was an ongoing matter of dispute in the newly established Kingdom of Germany : Duke Arnulf's son Eberhard was deposed by King Otto I of Germany in 938; he

11825-474: The Carolingians had incorporated the Franconian lands in the north, formerly held by the Dukes of Thuringia , whereby the bishops of Würzburg gained a dominant position. In the west, the Carolingian mayor of the palace Carloman had suppressed the last Alamannic revolt at the 746 Blood court at Cannstatt . The last tribal stem duchy to be incorporated was Bavaria in 788, after Duke Tassilo III had tried in vain to maintain his independence through an alliance with

12040-437: The Catholic League after accepting the new convert to Catholicism, Henry IV, as the rightful French king. Meanwhile, Castile was ravaged by a plague that had arrived by ship from the north, losing half a million people. Yet as the 17th century began, and despite her travails, Spain was still unquestionably the dominant power. The first years of his reign, from 1556 to 1566, Philip II was concerned principally with Muslim allies of

12255-586: The Catholic armies retreated into walled towns. Nonetheless, the Strasbourg army was prevented from joining Archduke Leopold. Similarly, the Passau army was also neutralized, as they had no money or weapons, the latter of which were seized by the Palatinate. At the end of April, a small Dutch force numbering 1,500 cavalry and 800 infantry was dispatched to the duchies, under the command of Dutch Stadtholder Maurice of Nassau's brother, Frederick Henry . Despite France having originally promised around 10,000 men, King Henry soon began to levy 20,000 instead, far more than

12470-507: The Dutch Republic, and Denmark . Though most of the princes in the Union had already agreed to support the possessors, the cities had not, and were not eager to support the Protestant cause. It took another month for the Union to agree upon details. Eventually, it was agreed that the possessors would prepare 5,000 infantry and 1,300 cavalry, and the Union would add 4,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. King Henry promised to provide 8,000 infantry, along with 2,000 cavalry and artillery. Henry ratified

12685-471: The Dutch and the English to provide aid. Hence, the Dutch were in a difficult situation. They did not want to support the Protestants and ruin their truce with Spain, but they also did not want to abandon France, who had been a staunch ally in the Eighty Years' War thus far. Though hesitant, eventually the Dutch agreed to join Henry in the case of war. King James I of England was much more willing to provide aid. At first, James did not seem very interested in

12900-400: The Dutch destroyed the dykes that held back the North Sea from the low-lying provinces. In 1576, faced with the costs of his 80,000-man army of occupation in the Netherlands and the massive fleet that had won at Lepanto, Philip was forced to accept bankruptcy . The army in the Netherlands mutinied not long after, seizing Antwerp and looting the southern Netherlands, prompting several cities in

13115-400: The Dutch provinces Holland , Zeeland and Friesland and the Hainaut (1345) were, however, lost under his successors. In 1369, Tyrol fell through the Treaty of Schärding to the Habsburgs. The Luxemburgish rider followed in 1373 and the Dutch counties fell to Burgundy in 1436. In the 1329 Treaty of Pavia , Emperor Louis divided ownership in a Palatine region, with the Rhine Palatinate, and

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13330-563: The Dutch to reorganize their defenses. The Spanish Armada suffered defeat at the hands of the English in 1588 and the situation in the Netherlands became increasingly difficult to manage. Maurice of Nassau , William's son, recaptured Deventer , Groningen , Nijmegen and Zutphen . The Spanish were on the defensive, mainly because they had wasted too much resources on the attempted invasion of England and on expeditions in northern France. In 1595, Henry IV of France declared war on Spain, further reducing its ability to launch offensive warfare on

13545-462: The Dutch to stay out of the affair, and he also tried to get aid from Archduke Albert and the Elector of Cologne , Ernst of Bavaria . Leopold specifically asked Elector Ernst to personally talk in Jülich. Elector Ernst believed that a personal visit could potentially cause even more tension in the Empire. Unsure on how to proceed, the he decided to contact the Elector of Mainz , Johann Schweikhard von Kronberg . Elector Johann agreed with Ernst. When

13760-447: The Electors of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier met at the end of August to discuss possibly joining Catholic League, the Elector of Mainz mentioned potentially funding Leopold's cause. Maximilian of Bavaria , head of the Catholic League , refused to help, as he wanted to keep the Catholic League out of the crisis. In the end, Elector Ernst also decided to focus more on mediating a peace rather than providing aid to Leopold. Leopold also contacted

13975-458: The French army was too big to be focused on just Jülich. Coupling this with Henry's plans to march his army by land and Henry's infatuation with the Princess of Condé, the Spanish Council was convinced that a French invasion of the Spanish Netherlands was imminent. On 3 March, Archduke Albert began fortifying the Spanish Netherlands. Regardless of whatever defenses he had set up, Albert was in no position to challenge France. The Army of Flanders had

14190-481: The French army's march was delayed until late July. Meanwhile, the Anglo-Dutch army led by Stadtholder Maurice of Nassau had already arrived met with Christian of Anhalt's army on 29 July, just outside Jülich. The Protestant army surrounded the city, beginning the Siege of Jülich . On 10 August, the bombardment began. The French army arrived on 19 August. With the Protestant army numbering over 30,000 troops, Jülich's defenders had little hope of winning. On 1 September,

14405-494: The French king converted to Catholicism in 1593. In addition to this, the French also owed the Germans money which had not been paid back. There were also rumors that the Henry IV wanted the Imperial throne. John Frederick, Duke of Wurttemberg , had previously cautioned the Protestant Union about the risks of allying with outside powers, especially France. John Frederick supported his claim by stating that: Wolfgang Wilhelm and Ernst also failed to cooperate with each other, even after

14620-412: The French king his plans, detailing the size of the Protestant army, which numbered 8,000 infantry and 2,000 horse (half of this number were from Wolfgang's and Ernst's levies, whereas the other half came from the Protestant Union). In just three days, Henry responded, generously offering the same number of soldiers as the Protestants had raised. Henry also agreed to send an ambassador to the next meeting of

14835-403: The French, and efforts in Germany to undermine the League had been rebuffed. Francis's defeat in 1544 led to the annulment of the alliance with the Protestants, and Charles took advantage of the opportunity. He first tried the path of negotiation at the Council of Trent in 1545, but the Protestant leadership, feeling betrayed by the stance taken by the Catholics at the council, went to war, led by

15050-424: The German princes and advised Henry to wait until the Protestants formally asked for aid. Villeroy believed that "all that [Henry IV] can gain from this [war] is the glory of having protected a just cause; counterbalanced with that are the perils, expenses and fatigues of a long war. After a long peace... this glory would be dearly bought." It was Sully that was the most supportive of war. He believed that not helping

15265-438: The Habsburg crown. The success of colonization all around his empire improved his financial position, enabling him to show greater aggression towards his enemies. The English Armada of 1589 failed to liberate Portugal. Philip established the Council of Portugal , on the pattern of the royal councils ; the Council of Castile , Council of Aragon , and Council of the Indies , that oversaw particular jurisdictions, but all under

15480-435: The Habsburgs had made their own, at times impaled with the arms of the Duchy of Burgundy (ancient), as seen on the arms of John of Austria. Calling this era "Habsburg", is, to some extent, a convenience for historians. The marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 resulted in the union of the two main crowns, Castile and Aragon, which eventually led to the de facto unification of Spain after

15695-513: The Inca state was destroyed and the last Inca emperor, Túpac Amaru , was executed. Silver from Potosí flowed to coffers in Spain and paid for Spain's wars in Europe. In New Spain, Viceroy Enríquez organized the defense of the northern frontier against nomadic and bellicose indigenous groups, who attacked the transport lines of silver from the northern mines. In the religious sphere, the crown sought to bring

15910-682: The Indies, particularly by Sir Francis Drake and his cousin John Hawkins . In 1568, the Spanish defeated Hawkins' fleet at the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa in present-day Mexico. In 1585, Drake sailed for the West Indies and sacked Santo Domingo , captured Cartagena de Indias , and St. Augustine in Florida . Both Drake and Hawkins died of disease during the disastrous 1595–96 expedition against Puerto Rico ( Battle of San Juan ), Panama , and other targets in

16125-696: The Indies. Transpacific explorations had resulted in Spain claiming the Philippines and the establishment of Spanish settlements and trade with New Spain. The viceroyalty of New Spain was given jurisdiction over the Philippines, which became the entrepôt for Asian trade. Philip's succession to the crown of Portugal in 1580 complicated the situation on the ground in the Indies between Spanish and Portuguese settlers, although Brazil and Spanish America were administered through separate councils in Spain. Spain dealt with English encroachment on Spain's maritime control in

16340-699: The Islamic nations of the Sultanate of Sulu and Kingdom of Maynila. They fought against the Sultanate of Brunei and its allies, the Bruneian puppet-states of Maynila and Sulu, which had dynastic links with Brunei. The Spanish, its Mexican recruits and Filipino allies assaulted Brunei and seized its capital, Kota Batu . This was achieved partly as a result of the assistance of two noblemen , Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to Manila to offer Brunei as

16555-638: The Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista , a centuries-long campaign to retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland which was invaded by the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate . The Spanish expeditions into the Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-Islamic world conflict that included a rivalry with the Ottoman Caliphate , which had a center of operations at its nearby vassal,

16770-591: The Netherlands and invaded France in 1590. Faced with wars against England, France, and the Netherlands, the Spanish government found that neither the New World silver nor steadily increasing taxes were enough to cover their expenses, and went bankrupt again in 1596. To bring finances into order, military campaigns were reduced and the over-stretched forces went into a largely defensive mode. In 1598, shortly before his death, Philip II made peace with France , withdrawing his forces from French territory and stopping payments to

16985-569: The Netherlands and particularly from the vital port of Antwerp , were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces. During the initial phase of the war, the revolt was largely unsuccessful. Spain regained control over most of the rebelling provinces. This period is known as the " Spanish Fury " due to the high number of massacres, instances of mass looting, and total destruction of multiple cities between 1572 and 1579. In January 1579, Friesland , Gelderland , Groningen , Holland , Overijssel , Utrecht and Zeeland formed

17200-667: The Netherlands and the Ottoman Empire at the same time, and the stalemate in the Mediterranean continued until Spain agreed to a truce in 1580. The time for rejoicing in Madrid was short-lived. In 1566, Calvinist -led riots in the Habsburg Netherlands (roughly equal to modern-day Netherlands and Belgium, inherited by Philip from Charles and his Burgundian forebears) prompted Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba to conduct

17415-583: The North African coast in 1563, but were repulsed. In 1565, the Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta , which laid siege to several forts on the island. A Spanish relief force from Sicily drove the Ottomans (exhausted from a long siege) away from the island. The death of Suleiman the Magnificent the following year and his succession by his less capable son Selim II emboldened Philip, who resolved to carry

17630-504: The Ottoman naval threat against European territory, particularly in the western Mediterranean, and the loss of experienced sailors was to be a major handicap in facing Christian fleets. Yet the Turks succeeded in rebuilding their navy in a year, using it handily to consolidate Ottoman dominance over most of the Mediterranean's African coast and eastern islands. Philip lacked the resources to fight both

17845-534: The Peninsula, Ferdinand adopted a more aggressive policy than he had as Isabella's husband, going on to crystallize his long-running designs over Navarre into a full-blown invasion led initially by a Castilian military expedition, and supported later by Aragonese troops (1512). He also attempted to enlarge Spain's sphere of influence in Italy, strengthening it against France. As ruler of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in

18060-612: The Philippine archipelago. The Spanish were joined by the newly Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans of the Kedatuan of Madja-as who were Animists and Rajahnate of Cebu who were Hindus, plus the Rajahnate of Butuan (who were from northern Mindanao and were Hindus with a Buddhist Monarchy), as well as the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan who were also Animists and had previously waged war against

18275-498: The Philippines' link to the larger Spanish Empire. Spanish colonization began in earnest when López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first settlements in Cebu . Beginning with just five ships and five hundred men accompanied by Augustinian friars, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers, he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations for

18490-481: The Pope, neither of which Condé believed France was ready for. Nonetheless, the pro-War party won out, and la Châtre was given orders to march on Jülich, but due to Condé, his expedition was delayed until late July. The death of Henry IV had also inspired confidence in the Spanish government, which suddenly became interested in the Jülich affair. The new Queen-Regent, Marie de' Medici, was seen as sympathetic to Spain. Moreso,

18705-564: The Portuguese king Sebastian launched a crusade against the Saadi Sultanate of Morocco. The expedition ended in disaster and Sebastian's disappearance at the Battle of the Three Kings . His aged uncle Henry ruled until he died in 1580. Although Philip had long prepared for the takeover of Portugal, he still found it necessary to launch a military occupation led by the Duke of Alba. Philip took

18920-628: The Portuguese throne: "I inherited, I bought, I conquered," a variation on Julius Caesar and Veni, Vidi, Vici . Spanish forces led by Admiral Álvaro de Bazán captured the Azores Islands in 1583, completing the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire. Thus, Philip added to his possessions a vast colonial empire in Africa, Brazil , and the East Indies , seeing a flood of new revenues coming to

19135-535: The Prince of Condé (and the Princess) fled to Brussels in the Spanish Netherlands. King Henry was furious, and believed that the Prince was conspiring against him, so he threatened to raise an army of 60,000 to capture him. It is possible that Henry agreed to Christian of Anhalt's terms so that he could threaten the Spanish Netherlands into returning the Prince (and the Princess), as it was possible that Spain would intervene in

19350-482: The Protestant Union at Schwäbisch Hall , scheduled for 10 January. On 25 January 1610, Christian left Paris, pleased with the outcome of the negotiations. Henry's generous response may have been related to recent developments involving Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency , Princess of Condé . Henry had grown infatuated with the Princess, much to the chagrin of her husband, Henry II, Prince of Condé . On 28 November 1609,

19565-588: The Protestant Union went far over budget. Habsburg Spain Habsburg Spain refers to Spain and the Hispanic Monarchy , also known as the Catholic Monarchy, in the period from 1516 to 1700 when it was ruled by kings from the House of Habsburg . It had territories around the world, including modern-day Spain , a piece of south-eastern France , eventually Portugal and many other lands outside

19780-503: The Protestant army was used to defend princes that neighbored Leopold's bishoprics. Another part was dispatched to attack Leopold's forces before they were ready. On 13 March, Protestant Count Otto von Solms–Braunfels invaded Strasbourg with 2,000 troops. The Catholics simply retreated into walled towns such as Saverne and waited until the ill–disciplined invaders ran out of money and retreated. A second attempt would be made later under Ernst and George Frederick of Baden, but like with before,

19995-563: The Protestant claimants. There were several reasons for doing so. First, the duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg lay along the Rhine , and allowing it to fall to the Spanish or some other Habsburg sympathizer could be politically and economically crippling for the Protestant princes. In addition, there was the need to maintain the reputation of the Protestant Union. If the Union did not help fellow Protestants, its prestige could be permanently marred. In September,

20210-496: The Protestant plan was before he would specify the details of his aid. In the meantime, Henry called for the raising of levies in northeastern France and worked to move French regiments in the Netherlands to the borders Jülich. Despite France's desire to help the Protestants, neither Neuburg nor Brandenburg cooperated to the extent that Henry wanted. Feelings between Henry IV and the German Protestants had been sour ever since

20425-468: The Protestant princes had only asked France for money, which seemed like a rebuff of the troops that Henry had mobilized for their cause. However, by the end of October, Henry still supported the Protestant cause and declared his support for the Brandenburg and Neuburg claims. However, he did not outline the details of his support, still waiting for the Protestants to provide a solid plan. The Dutch Republic

20640-453: The Protestants seize the duchies or break the 12 year truce to take them. In the end, Spain's orders for Albert was to simply wait until the Emperor made a decision. Emperor Rudolf II was also unable to directly intervene. Rebellious protestants in his Bohemian territories needed to be dealt with, and he was also involved in the Brother's Quarrel . Thus, the Emperor had done nothing except declare

20855-578: The Protestants would harm France's international reputation, and that letting the Habsburgs dominate in Jülich would worsen the Dutch Republic's position (a major French ally at this time). As Minister of Finance , Sully had improved the French economy, so France seemed ready for war. By the evening of 29 July, the King decided that he would fight on the side of the Protestant princes, but he wanted to know exactly what

21070-569: The Rich, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg and father of John William. William had established two major laws, the Privilegium Unionis and Priviligium Successionis , the privileges of Union and Succession respectively. The Privilegium Unionis had declared that the Duchies of Jülich , Cleves , and Berg , which had recently been united in 1521, would continue to be inherited as one, rather than be divided. The Priviligium Successionis declared that in

21285-622: The Spanish Council of State , headed by the Duke of Lerma , also seemed uninterested in the whole ordeal. The Spanish Council had received news from the Spanish Netherlands, some of which illustrating the strategic importance of the duchies. According to the Spanish ambassador in Brussels, the duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg were necessary in weakening the Dutch cause and strengthening the Spanish cause. He also stated that Phillip had no choice other than let

21500-481: The Spanish Council decided that instead of acting neutral in the case of French intervention, Spain should oppose the possessors to counter the Dutch. Regardless, when Spain discovered that France maintained their agreement to send a small army to aid the possessors, they decided to remain out of the war. The actions of the Habsburgs and Catholics in 1610 can be summarized as follows: "Spain had opted to avoid war and

21715-596: The Spanish army was soundly defeated at the Battle of Ceresole , in Savoy Henry fared better, and France was forced to accept terms. The Austrians, led by Charles's younger brother Ferdinand , continued to fight the Ottomans in the east. With France defeated, Charles went to take care of an older problem: the Schmalkaldic League. Perhaps more important to the strategy of the Spanish king, the League had allied itself with

21930-492: The Spanish that an ensuing war would be fought in northern Italy , not Germany. Thus, the Spanish Council authorized the transfer of funds to establishing defenses in Milan . There was also concerns about Henry IV's alleged plans to "recover" the Princess of Condé. Since February, Archduke Leopold had been recruiting levies in his Prince-Bishopric of Strasbourg and his Prince-Bishopric of Passau . Concerned of Leopold's army, part of

22145-464: The Spanish were forced to confront the newly declared king, Anacaparan, burning much of his capital while defeating him. In 1599, Malay Muslim merchants defeated and massacred almost the entire contingent of Spanish troops in Cambodia, putting an end to Spanish plans to conquer it. Another expedition, one to conquer Mindanao, was also lacking in success. In 1603, during a Chinese rebellion , Pérez Dasmariñas

22360-528: The Treaty of Dortmund had been signed, and most of the estates had consented to the rule of the possessors. Without any instructions from the Spanish king, Albert was unable to intervene. Though the aforementioned delay in the correspondence between King Phillip III and Archduke Albert can be somewhat attributed to the distance (the Spanish capital of Madrid is over 1500 kilometers away from Albert's seat in Brussels ),

22575-454: The Treaty of Dortmund void and send the aforementioned Archduke Leopold to occupy the lands. Two days after Archduke Leopold seized Jülich, a French diplomat told the Archduke that "my King will also become involved." Word reached Paris on 29 July, and Henry IV called his chief advisors ( Villeroy , Sully , Sillery , and Jeannin ) for advise on what to do. Villeroy and Sillery both distrusted

22790-469: The Turks, based in Tripoli and Algiers , the bases from which North African (Muslim) forces under the corsair Dragut preyed upon Christian shipping. In 1560, a Spanish-led Christian fleet was sent to recapture Tripoli ( captured by Spain in 1510), but the fleet was destroyed by the Ottomans at the Battle of Djerba . The Ottomans attempted to seize the Spanish military-bases of Oran and Mers El Kébir on

23005-610: The United Provinces which became the Dutch Netherlands of today. Meanwhile, Spain sent Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma with 20,000 well-trained troops into the Netherlands. Groningen, Breda , Kampen , Dunkirk , Antwerp, and Brussels, among others, were put to siege. Farnese eventually secured the Southern provinces for Spain. After the Spanish capture of Maastricht in 1579, the Dutch began to turn on William of Orange. William

23220-489: The United Provinces. Philip had been forced to declare bankruptcy in 1557, 1560, 1576 and 1596. However, by regaining control of the sea, Spain was able to greatly increase the supply of gold and silver from America, which allowed it to increase military pressure on England and France. Under financial and military pressure, in 1598 Philip ceded the Spanish Netherlands to his daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia , following

23435-503: The administrator of the city of Jülich, had not yet sworn fealty to Neuburg or Brandenburg, and held the fortress city in the name of the Emperor. On 23 July, von Rauschenberg transferred Jülich to Archduke Leopold. The Habsburg’s seemingly militant intervention was not appreciated by France, the Dutch Republic, or the Protestant claimants, and war was inevitable. By 1609, the Habsburg domains were divided into three major sections. First, there

23650-487: The affair. The Meeting at Schwäbisch Hall began on 10 January 1610. Many major Protestant princes attended, along with representatives from 29 lesser counties and cities, and the French ambassador sent by Henry IV. According to Johann of Nassau-Siegen, it was almost as well attended as the Imperial Diet . The meeting proved to be both anti-Catholic and anti-Spanish, and that the duchies needed support from France, England,

23865-495: The affair. This would change as the year of 1609 progressed. By August, James had offered to help mediate the succession, and he was pleased that the princes had settled the succession peacefully thus far. However, as with Henry, England would not offer military nor economic support until the Protestant princes came up with a course of action. The entry of Christian of Anhalt changed things. He arrived in Paris on 17 December. Christian told

24080-411: The aftermath of Lothair's death. However, Conrad III was successfully elected as King of Germany in 1138; fearing Henry's power, Conrad denied Henry his investiture with the Duchy of Saxony , claiming that it was unlawful for a duke to hold two duchies. This, compounded with his bitterness for being denied the throne, prompted Henry to refuse to swear his oath of allegiance to Conrad. As a consequence, he

24295-518: The agreement on 23 February. On 31 March, the Dutch Republic agreed to provide in total 12,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry and artillery. England also agreed to provide military aid. In January 1610, Leopold requested money from Spanish ambassador Baltasar de Zúñiga . Zúñiga agreed to secretly send 6,000 escudos , but declared that he would not send any more money after this. The Spanish Council remained uninterested in German affairs, as Henry IV had recently formed an alliance with Savoy . This convinced

24510-467: The allies. With a massive effort, the Ottoman Empire rebuilt its navy. Within six months a new fleet was able to reassert Ottoman naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean . John captured Tunis (in present-day Tunisia ) from the Ottomans in 1573, but it was soon lost again . The Ottoman sultan agreed to a truce in the Mediterranean with Philip in 1580. In the western Mediterranean, Philip pursued

24725-568: The ascension of young Charles to both Spanish thrones as Charles I of Castile and Aragon , further solidifying the monarchy of Spain . His inheritance included all the Spanish possessions in the New World and around the Mediterranean. Upon the death of his Habsburg father in 1506, Charles had inherited the Habsburg Netherlands and Franche-Comté , growing up in Flanders. In 1519, with the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I , Charles inherited

24940-550: The authority of the Emperor. In 1543, Francis I , King of France, announced his unprecedented alliance with the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent , by occupying the Spanish-controlled city of Nice in cooperation with Turkish forces. Henry VIII of England, who bore a greater grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce, joined Charles in his invasion of France. Although

25155-549: The autumn of the same year (788). In Regensburg , he held a council and regulated issues regarding the Bavarian frontier counties ( marches ), thus preparing the basis for future actions in the east. In 790, the Avars tried to negotiate a peace settlement with the Franks, but no agreement was reached. Bavaria then became the main base for the Frankish campaign against the Avars, which was initiated in 791. A large Frankish army, personally led by Charlemagne , crossed from Bavaria in to

25370-541: The bases of his power, with Regensburg as the seat of his government. Due mainly to the support of the Bavarians, Arnulf could take the field against Charles in 887, and secure his own election as German king in the following year. In 899 Bavaria passed to Louis the Child , during whose reign continuous Hungarian ravages occurred. Resistance to these inroads became gradually feebler, and tradition has it that on 5 July, 907, almost

25585-447: The case of the extinction of the male line (which is what happened when John William died), the duchies would pass to a female line. However, the nature of this female succession was not clear, in that it was not obvious whether or not the duchies should pass through the eldest female, the eldest living female, or the eldest male descendent of a female. Emperor Rudolf II had claims to the duchies stemming from intermarriage. However, he

25800-491: The celebrations that followed the treaty, Henry was killed by a stray splinter from a lance. France was stricken for the next forty years by civil war and unrest and was unable to effectively compete with Spain and the Habsburgs in the European power struggle. Freed from any serious French opposition, Spain saw the height of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643. The Spanish Empire had grown substantially since

26015-532: The central authority led to a new strengthening of the German stem duchies . At the same time, East Francia was exposed to the rising threat from Hungarian invasions, especially in the Bavarian March of Austria ( marchia orientalis ) beyond the Enns river. In 907 the army of Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Pressburg . Luitpold himself was killed in action and his son Arnulf

26230-705: The centuries long Spanish–Moro conflict against the Sultanates of Maguindanao , Lanao and Sulu. War was also waged against the Sultanate of Ternate and Tidore , in response to Ternatean slaving and piracy against Spain's allies: Bohol and Butuan . During the Spanish–Moro conflict, the Moros of Muslim Mindanao conducted piracy and slave-raids against Christian settlements in the Philippines. The Spanish fought back by establishing Christian fort-cities such as Zamboanga City on Muslim Mindanao. The Spanish considered their war with

26445-704: The colonization of the archipelago. In 1571, the Spanish, their Mexican recruits and their Filipino (Visayan) allies attacked and occupied Maynila , a vassal-state of the Sultanate of Brunei , and negotiated the incorporation of the Kingdom of Tondo which was liberated from the Bruneian Sultanate's control and of whom, their princess, Kandarapa , had a tragic romance with the Mexican-born Conquistador and grandson of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, Juan de Salcedo . The combined Spanish-Mexican-Filipino forces also built

26660-469: The conclusion of the Treaty of Vervins with France. Under Philip II, royal power over the Indies increased, but the crown knew little about its overseas possessions. Although the Council of the Indies was tasked with oversight there, it acted without advice of high officials with direct colonial experience. Another serious problem was that the crown did not know what Spanish laws were in force there. To remedy

26875-716: The conflict was not fully resolved until later. It is often considered a precursor to the Thirty Years' War . By the early 17th century, the rapid spread of the Lutheran and Calvinist doctrines after the Protestant Reformation was met by a period of Roman Catholic resurgence, known as the Counter-Reformation . Such interdenominational conflicts such as the Cologne War and the Strasbourg Bishops' War prompted

27090-439: The coronation of the young Louis XIII happened smoothly, there was much that Marie de' Medici , Henry's wife and now regent of France, needed to do to stabilize the country. Marie de' Medici eventually agreed to continue supporting the Protestants, but not to the extent that Henry had originally planned. The Queen-Regent agreed to provide 8,000 infantry (consisting of 3,000 Swiss mercenaries ) and 1,000-1,200 cavalry. This force

27305-437: The costs involved in war; the Emperor had been rendered powerless by the conflicts with his brother [Matthias]; Bavaria [and the Catholic League] and the ecclesiastical princes [Cologne, Trier, Mainz] had not wanted to mix in the affairs of others; and Albert had sought merely to preserve what he already had." - Nicolas de Neufville, Seigneur de Villeroy Thus, the Protestant military campaign went on unopposed. As mentioned before,

27520-486: The country until it was brutally put down in 1526. Charles, even as far away from Germany as he was, was committed to keeping order. After the Peasants' War the Protestants organized themselves into a defensive league to protect themselves from Emperor Charles. Under the protection of the Schmalkaldic League , the Protestant states committed a number of outrages in the eyes of the Catholic Church (the confiscation of some ecclesiastical territories, among other things) and defied

27735-465: The creation of the Catholic League and the Protestant Union , with the intention of safeguarding the interests of the Holy Roman Empire 's Catholic and Protestant nobility, respectively. Growing tensions led to war in 1609, when a succession crisis in the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg sparked the War of the Jülich Succession. The territories in question covered an area of 14,000 km² and had both geopolitical importance from their proximity to

27950-409: The crown. Charles established the Council of the Indies in 1524 to oversee all of Castile's overseas possessions. Charles appointed a viceroy in Mexico in 1535, capping the royal governance of the high court, Real Audiencia , and treasury officials with the highest royal official. Officials were under the jurisdiction of the Council of the Indies. Charles promulgated the New Laws of 1542 to limit

28165-438: The culmination of the Reconquista with the conquest of Granada in 1492 and of Navarre in 1512 to 1529. Isabella and Ferdinand were bestowed the title of " Catholic King and Queen " by Pope Alexander VI in 1494. With the Habsburgs, the term Monarchia Catholica (Catholic Monarchy, Modern Spanish: Monarquía Católica ) remained in use. Spain continued to be one of the greatest political and military powers in Europe and

28380-499: The days of Ferdinand and Isabella. The Aztec and Inca empires were conquered during Charles' reign, from 1519 to 1521 and 1540 to 1558, respectively. Spanish settlements were established in the New World: Mexico City , the most important colonial city established in 1524 to be the primary center of administration in the New World; Florida , colonized in the 1560s; Buenos Aires , established in 1536; and New Granada (modern Colombia , Ecuador , Panama and Venezuela ), colonized in

28595-487: The death in 1700 of Spain's last Habsburg king, Charles II, the resulting War of the Spanish Succession led to the ascension of Philip V of the Bourbon dynasty , which began a new centralising state formation, which came into being de jure after the Nueva Planta decrees that merged the multiple crowns of its former realms (except for Navarre ). In 1504, Isabella I of Castile died, and although Ferdinand II of Aragon tried to maintain his position over Castile in

28810-413: The decree of 1506, Albert's oldest son William IV was compelled to grant a share in the government in 1516 to his brother Louis X , an arrangement which lasted until the death of Louis in 1545. William followed the traditional Wittelsbach policy of opposition to the Habsburgs until in 1534 he made a treaty at Linz with Ferdinand I , the king of Hungary and Bohemia . This link strengthened in 1546, when

29025-517: The duchies. Hence, the Dutch had been eager to form an alliance with the likeminded Electorate of Brandenburg, who was also anti-Habsburg. France also had interests in the region. Henry IV of France , like the Dutch, was opposed to a pro-Habsburg ruler in Jülich-Cleves-Berg (see French–Habsburg rivalry ). Despite being a Catholic, Henry IV wanted to ensure that a Protestant would inherit the duchies, but he didn't necessarily care who. As such, he contacted Landgrave Maurice of Hesse-Kassel , explaining that

29240-418: The duchy in defiance to the acting regency and the Emperor, along with their troops. Though initially hesitant and urged by Imperial agents to wait for a decision from Emperor Rudolf, by 22 July, most of the estates had sworn fealty to their new rulers. This move was very controversial amongst neighboring powers. King Henry of France was very pleased with the treaty, as the protestants had joined forces to prevent

29455-456: The duke obtained extensive rights over the bishoprics and monasteries from the pope. He then took measures to repress the reformers, many of whom were banished; while the Jesuits , whom he invited into the duchy in 1541, made the Jesuit College of Ingolstadt , their headquarters in Germany. William died in March 1550 and was succeeded by his son Albert V , who had married a daughter of Ferdinand I. Early in his reign Albert made some concessions to

29670-446: The eastern coast of Spain did Charles personally lead attacks against holdings in North Africa (1535). In 1560, the Ottomans battled the Spanish Navy off the coast of Tunisia, but in 1565 Ottoman troops landing on the strategically vital island of Malta , defended by the Knights of St. John , were defeated. The death of Suleiman the Magnificent the following year and his succession by Selim II emboldened Philip, who resolved to carry

29885-405: The emperor Charles V obtained the help of the duke during the war of the league of Schmalkalden by promising him in certain eventualities the succession to the Bohemian throne, and the electoral dignity enjoyed by the count palatine of the Rhine . William also did much at a critical period to secure Bavaria for Catholicism . The reformed doctrines had made considerable progress in the duchy when

30100-406: The emperor's sons, a tradition maintained by Henry's Salian successors. This period saw the rise of many aristocratic families, such as the Counts of Andechs and the House of Wittelsbach . In 1061, the dowager empress Agnes of Poitou enfeoffed the Saxon count Otto of Nordheim with the Duchy. Nevertheless, her son King Henry IV seized the duchy on fallacious grounds, which ultimately led to

30315-456: The entire Iberian Peninsula, including the crowns of Castile , Aragon and from 1580 Portugal . It then expanded to include territories over the five continents, consisting of much of the American continent and islands thereof, the West Indies in the Americas, the Low Countries, Belgium, Luxembourg , Italian territories and parts of France in Europe, Portuguese possessions such as small enclaves like Ceuta and Oran in North Africa, and

30530-443: The establishment of a Christianized Philippines attracted Chinese traders who exchanged their silk for Mexican silver . Indian and Malay traders also settled in the Philippines too, to trade their spices and gems for the same Mexican silver. The Philippines then became a center for Christian missionary activity that was also directed to Japan. The Philippines even accepted Christian converts from Japan after they were persecuted. Most of

30745-409: The expected number. Henry also planned to march his army to the duchies by land, which drew alarm. Previously, French armies had often travelled by sea, as the Dutch and English navies held hegemony in the English Channel . Going by land meant that the French army was likely to pass through the Spanish Netherlands. Hearing about the size of Henry IV's intended army, the Spanish government decided that

30960-399: The fringes of the Habsburg dominions in Austria and northwest Africa. In response Ferdinand and Isabella had sent expeditions to North Africa, capturing Melilla in 1497 and Oran in 1509. Charles had preferred to combat the Ottomans through a considerably more maritime strategy, hampering Ottoman landings on the Venetian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean . Only in response to raids on

31175-437: The garrison surrendered in return for free passage into Upper Alsace . French armies withdrew from Jülich a week after, and most parties would disband much of their armies. The war, though brief, severely depleted the coffers of all the involved parties, leading to increased taxes, which in turn triggered the Rappenkrieg . French intervention had used up one third of the war chest that Henry IV had built up during his reign, and

31390-409: The head of a large army to restore order. In 1568, William of Orange , a German nobleman, led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. The Battle of Rheindalen is often seen as the unofficial start of the Eighty Years' War that led to the separation of the northern and southern Netherlands and to the formation of the United Provinces . The Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from

31605-465: The hostilities. At first, negotiations seemed promising, with the possessors writing about their willingness to reach an agreement with the Emperor. A plan to install a neutral Catholic prince in Jülich saw favor among the present princes and the French regency. It was decided in June that three new commissioners would be sent, Ernst of Bavaria, Landgrave Louis V of Hesse-Darmstadt , and Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel . However, Emperor Rudolf

31820-430: The indigenous populations continued to be robust in the Philippines. One Spaniard described the climate as "cuatro meses de polvo, cuatro meses de lodo, y cuatro meses de todo" (four months of dust, four months of mud, and four months of everything). Legazpi built a fort in Manila and made overtures of friendship to Lakan Dula , Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. Maynila's former ruler, the Muslim rajah, Rajah Sulayman , who

32035-441: The invading Avars. The residence of the largely independent Agilolfing dukes was then Regensburg , the former Roman Castra Regina , on the Danube river. During Christianization , Bishop Corbinian laid the foundations for the later Diocese of Freising before 724; Saint Kilian in the 7th century had been a missionary of the Franconian territory in the north, then ruled by the Dukes of Thuringia , where Boniface founded

32250-452: The island of Alhucemas , in the Mediterranean, were taken. However, during the second half of the 17th century, Larache and La Mamora were also lost. Philip led Spain into the final phase of the Italian Wars , crushing a French army at the Battle of St. Quentin (1557) in Picardy and defeating the French again at the Battle of Gravelines . The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. France

32465-500: The land into Upper Bavaria with the Palatinate and the Nordgau (headquartered in Munich) and Lower Bavaria (with seats in Landshut and Burghausen). There is still today a distinction made between upper and lower Bavaria (cf. Regierungsbezirke ). Despite renewed division after a short time of reunification, Bavaria gained new heights of power with Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor , who became the first Wittelsbach emperor in 1328. The newly gained areas of Brandenburg (1323), Tyrol (1342),

32680-417: The local population had refused to supply it food. By now, Leopold had fled Jülich and left 1,500 troops inside. After Henry IV died, the Prince of Condé returned from the Spanish Netherlands. As first prince of the blood , Condé held some political weight. Condé argued that participating in the Jülich war would be an attack on the Catholic faith (as France was supporting Protestants), and anger both Spain and

32895-432: The main communication between Frankish possessions in Bavaria and Pannonia. In his 817, Ordinatio Imperii , Charlemagne's son and successor Emperor Louis the Pious tried to maintain the unity of the Carolingian Empire : while imperial authority upon his death was to pass to his eldest son Lothair I , the younger brothers were to receive subordinate realms. From 825, Louis the German styled himself "King of Bavaria" in

33110-445: The modern state of Bavaria , with the lands of the Nordgau march (the later Upper Palatinate ), but without its Swabian and Franconian regions. The separation of the Duchy of Carinthia in 976 entailed the loss of large East Alpine territories covering the present-day Austrian states of Carinthia and Styria as well as the adjacent Carniolan region in today's Slovenia . The eastern March of Austria —roughly corresponding to

33325-443: The most powerful man in Christendom . The accumulation of so much power by one man and one dynasty greatly concerned Francis I of France , who found himself surrounded by Habsburg territories. In 1521 Francis invaded the Spanish possessions in Italy and Navarre , which inaugurated a second round of Franco-Spanish conflict. The war was a disaster for France , which suffered defeats at Biccoca (1522), Pavia (1525, at which Francis

33540-404: The older Bavarian duchy can be traced to the year 551/555. In his Getica , the chronicler Jordanes writes: "That area of the Swabians has the Bavarii in the east, the Franks in the west ..." Until the end of the first duchy, all rulers descended from the family of the Agilolfings . The Bavarians then colonized the area from the March of the Nordgau along the Naab river (later called

33755-576: The pope's position. After Henry V , the last of the Salian emperors, died in 1125, Lothair III of the House of Supplinburg was elected to the throne; the Bavarian duke Henry the Proud had married Lothair's daughter Gertrude , and was thus promised her inheritance. When conflict arose with anti-king Conrad III , nephew of Henry V and member of the Swabian House of Hohenstaufen , the Bavarian duke threw his support behind Lothair, further increasing his social capital and increasing his chances of election as King of Germany as well as Duke of Saxony in

33970-495: The possessors petitioned the Protestant Union for aid, and on 17 October, they sent a letter to Elector Frederick IV, leader of the Protestant Union. The possessors requested money, soldiers, arms, and munitions from the Union. The Protestant Union also had to decide on a commander to lead the Protestant army. Both Ernst and Wolfgang Wilhelm would not accept each other's command, so a neutral figure had to be chosen. Two candidates were Johann of Nassau-Siegen and Christian of Anhalt . It

34185-406: The power of the Conquistadors to form a hereditary aristocracy that might challenge the power of the crown. Charles's victory at the Battle of Pavia (1525) surprised many Italians and Germans and elicited concerns that Charles would endeavor to gain even greater power. Pope Clement VII switched sides and now joined forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor, in

34400-403: The power of the Bavarian dukes was further diminished by the rise of the Franconian House of Babenberg , ruling as Margraves of Austria ( Ostarrichi ), who became increasingly independent. The last Ottonian duke, Henry IV of Bavaria , was elected King of the Romans in 1002 as Henry II. At different times, the duchy was ruled by the German kings in personal union, by dependent dukes, or even by

34615-486: The power of the religious orders under control with the Ordenanza del Patronazgo , ordering friars to give up their Indian parishes and turn them over to the diocesan clergy, who were more closely controlled by the crown. The Spanish Inquisition expanded to the Indies in 1565 and was in place by 1570 in Lima and Mexico City. It drew many colonial Spaniards into torture chambers . Native Americans were exempt. The crown expanded its global claims and defended existing ones in

34830-468: The preparations for the expedition. On embarking on the expedition, Spain lacked maps or information to guide the King's decision to authorize the expedition. That realization subsequently led to the creation of reports from the various regions of the empire, the relaciones geográficas . The Philippines came under the jurisdiction of the viceroyalty of Mexico, and once the Manila Galleon sailings between Manila and Acapulco were established, Mexico became

35045-422: The present state of Lower Austria — was likewise elevated to a duchy in its own right by 1156. Over the centuries, several further seceded territories in the territory of the former stem duchy, such as the County of Tyrol or the Archbishopric of Salzburg , gained Imperial immediacy . From 1500, a number of these Imperial states were members of the Bavarian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire. The origins of

35260-435: The previously peaceful southern provinces to join the rebellion. The Spanish chose the route of negotiation, and pacified most of the southern provinces again with the Union of Arras in 1579. The Arras agreement required all Spanish troops to leave the Netherlands. Meanwhile, Philip had his eye on uniting the entire Iberian Peninsula under his rule, a traditional objective of Spanish monarchs. The opportunity came in 1578 when

35475-416: The rebellious Republic of Florence . The Protestant Reformation had begun in Germany in 1517. Charles, through his position as Holy Roman Emperor, his important holdings along Germany's frontiers, and his close relationship with his Habsburg relatives in Austria, had a vested interest in maintaining the stability of the Holy Roman Empire . The German Peasants' War broke out in Germany in 1524 and ravaged

35690-464: The reformers, who were still strong in Bavaria; but about 1563 he changed his attitude, favoured the decrees of the Council of Trent , and pressed forward the work of the Counter-Reformation . As education passed by degrees into the hands of the Jesuits, the progress of Protestantism was effectually arrested in Bavaria. The succeeding duke, Albert's son, William V , had received a Jesuit education and showed keen attachment to Jesuit tenets. He secured

35905-417: The religious warfare in France after Henry II's death. In 1589, Henry III , the last of the House of Valois , died at the walls of Paris. His successor, Henry IV, the first king from the House of Bourbon , was a man of great ability, winning key victories against the Catholic League at Arques (1589) and Ivry (1590). Committed to stopping Henry from becoming king of France, the Spanish divided their army in

36120-402: The remnants of the tribe in alliance with the Hungarians and became duke of the Bavarians in 911, uniting Bavaria and Carinthia under his rule. The German king Conrad I unsuccessfully attacked Arnulf when the latter refused to acknowledge his royal supremacy. The Carolingian reign in East Francia ended in 911, when Arnulf's son, King Louis the Child , died without heirs. The discontinuation of

36335-455: The rest of Iberia, although Spain continued to attempt to crush the revolt until 1668. The Council of Portugal was subsequently dissolved. Duchy of Bavaria The Duchy of Bavaria ( German : Herzogtum Bayern ) was a frontier region in the southeastern part of the Merovingian kingdom from the sixth through the eighth century. It was settled by Bavarian tribes and ruled by dukes ( duces ) under Frankish overlordship. A new duchy

36550-410: The ruling Sultan. Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish and went on to marry a Christian Tagalog , named Agustín de Legazpi of Tondo, and had children in the Philippines. In 1587, Magat Salamat , one of the children of Lakan Dula, along with Lakan Dula's nephew and lords of the neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan, were executed when

36765-471: The same monarch. As a result of the Iberian Union , Phillip II's enemies became Portugal's enemies, such as the Dutch in the Dutch–Portuguese War , England or France . War with the Dutch led to invasions of many countries in Asia, including Ceylon and commercial interests in Japan, Africa ( Mina ), and South America. During the reign of Philip IV (Philip III of Portugal) in 1640, the Portuguese revolted and fought successfully for their independence from

36980-401: The side of the Catholic League , winning battles, but failing to prevent Henry of Navarre from becoming king as Henry IV. To Spain's dismay, Pope Clement VIII accepted Henry into the Catholic Church. To keep the Netherlands under control required an extensive occupation force, and Spain was still financially strapped since the 1576 bankruptcy. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by

37195-452: The signing of the Dortmund Treaty. One issue was that the two had vastly different perspectives on the succession, and they were still technically rivals for the duchies. Both Wolfgang Wilhelm and Ernst had tried to rule the duchies in their own way, according to envoys from Wurttemberg and Baden . With Leopold's occupation of Jülich, the differences between the Brandenburg and Neuburg parties became even more evident. Ernst's initial perspective

37410-401: The situation, Philip appointed Juan de Ovando, who was named president of the council, to give advice. Ovando appointed a "chronicler and cosmographer of the Indies", Juan López de Velasco, to gather information about the crown's holdings, which resulted in the Relaciones geográficas in the 1580s. The crown sought greater control over encomenderos, who had attempted to establish themselves as

37625-458: The soldiers and settlers sent by the Spanish to the Philippines were either from Mexico or Peru and very little people directly came from Spain. At one point, the royal officials in Manila complained that most of the soldiers who were being sent from New Spain were black, mulatto or Native American, with almost no Spaniards among the contingents. In 1578, the Castilian War erupted between the Christian Spaniards and Muslim Bruneians over control of

37840-442: The sources of spices continued to be a necessity with the Ottomans still controlled major choke points in central Asia. It was unclear how the agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing the Atlantic world affected finds on the other side of the Pacific. Spain had ceded its rights to the "Spice Islands" to Portugal in the Treaty of Saragossa in 1529, but the appellation was vague as was their exact delineation. The Legazpi expedition

38055-513: The sovereignty of Philip II of Spain and his successors after the Spanish victory in the War of Portuguese Succession . In 1580, King Philip saw the opportunity to strengthen his position in Iberia when the last member of the Portuguese royal family , Henry, King of Portugal , died. Philip asserted his claim to the Portuguese throne and in June sent Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba with an army to Lisbon to assure his succession. Philip famously remarked upon his acquisition of

38270-425: The struggle against France and the Republic of Venice for control of Italy. These conflicts became the center of Ferdinand's foreign policy as king. Ferdinand's first investment of Spanish forces came in the War of the League of Cambrai against Venice, where the Spanish soldiers distinguished themselves on the field alongside their French allies at the Battle of Agnadello (1509). Only a year later, Ferdinand joined

38485-518: The territory that was to become the centre of his power. When the brothers divided the Empire by the 843 Treaty of Verdun , Bavaria became part of East Francia under King Louis the German , who upon his death bequested the Bavarian royal title to his eldest son Carloman in 876. Carloman's natural son Arnulf of Carinthia , raised in the former Carantanian lands, secured possession of the March of Carinthia upon his father's death in 880, and became King of East Francia, in 887. Carinthia and Bavaria were

38700-435: The title of King of Portugal, but otherwise the country remained autonomous, retaining its own laws, currency, and institutions. However, Portugal surrendered all independence in foreign policy, and relations between the two countries were never warm. France formed the cornerstone of Spanish foreign policy. For 30 years after Cateau-Cambrésis, it was engulfed in civil war. After 1590, the Spanish intervened directly in France on

38915-409: The vital port of Antwerp , were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces. In 1572, a band of rebel Dutch privateers known as the watergeuzen ("Sea Beggars") seized a number of Dutch coastal towns, proclaimed their support for William and denounced the Spanish leadership. In 1574, the Spanish army under Luis de Requeséns was repulsed from the Siege of Leiden after

39130-411: The wake of her death, the Castilian Cortes Generales (the parliament) chose to crown Isabella's daughter Joanna of Castile as queen. Her husband, Philip I of Castile , was the Habsburg son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Mary of Burgundy . Shortly thereafter Joanna began to lapse into insanity, although the extent of her mental illness remains the topic of some debate. In 1506, Philip I

39345-419: The war to the Ottoman homelands. In 1571, a mixed naval expedition of Spanish, Venetian, and Papal ships led by Charles' illegitimate son Don John of Austria annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto , in the largest naval battle fought in European waters since Actium in 31 BC. The fleet included Miguel de Cervantes , future author of the historic Spanish novel Don Quixote . The victory curbed

39560-463: The war to the Sultan himself. In 1571, a Christian fleet, led by Philip's half-brother John of Austria , annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in the waters off southwestern Greece. Despite the significant victory, however, the Holy League 's disunity prevented the victors from capitalizing on their triumph. Plans to seize the Dardanelles as a step towards recovering Constantinople for Christendom, were ruined by bickering amongst

39775-402: The whole of the Bavarian tribe perished in the Battle of Pressburg against these formidable enemies. During the reign of Louis the Child, Luitpold , Count of Scheyern, who possessed large Bavarian domains, ruled the Mark of Carinthia , created on the southeastern frontier for the defence of Bavaria. He died in the great battle of 907, but his son Arnulf , whose last name was the Bad, rallied

39990-453: The world for much of the 16th and 17th centuries. During the Habsburg's period, Spain ushered in the Spanish Golden Age of arts and literature producing some of the world's most outstanding writers and painters and influential intellectuals, including Teresa of Ávila , Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Miguel de Cervantes , Francisco de Quevedo , Diego Velázquez , El Greco , Domingo de Soto , Francisco Suárez and Francisco de Vitoria . After

40205-429: Was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi but failed to get the support of Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and Pangasinan settlements to the north. When Tarik Sulayman and a force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the Spaniards in the Battle of Bangkusay , he was finally defeated and killed. The Spanish also repelled an attack by Chinese pirate warlord Limahong . Simultaneously,

40420-434: Was also interested in the Jülich territories, but unlike Neuburg would not be able to count on Imperial support. Brandenburg had challenged the Emperor recently during the Strasbourg War, so tensions between the two parties were still high. Thus, Brandenburg sought allies, particularly amongst major protestant powers both foreign and in the Empire. Though they had failed to acquire support from Denmark-Norway , negotiations with

40635-457: Was assassinated by a supporter of Philip in 1584. After the Fall of Antwerp , the Queen of England began to aid the Northern provinces and sent troops there in 1585. English forces under Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester and then Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby , faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under Farnese in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for

40850-407: Was beheaded, and his head was mounted in Manila along with those of several other Spanish soldiers. Despite the fact that during the Iberian Union a certain degree of autonomy and the cultural identity of Portugal was maintained, many historians agree that the dynastic union was in fact a Spanish conquest by keeping Portugal and the Portuguese Empire as part of the Spanish colonial empire under

41065-498: Was by no means giving up authority over the duchies. Instead, he decided to enfeoff the duchies to Christian II, Elector of Saxony , who had old claims to the duchies and was loyal to the Emperor. Thus, on 7 July 1610, Saxony was granted the rights to the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. This led to the postponement of negotiations until August. In the meantime, the Protestants succeeded in seizing Dachstein , Mutzig and Molsheim , but these advances were brought to halt after

41280-464: Was captured), and Landriano (1529) before Francis relented and abandoned Milan to Spain once more. Spain's overseas possessions in the New World were based in the Caribbean and the Spanish Main and consisted of a rapidly decreasing indigenous population, few resources of value to the crown, and a sparse Spanish settler population. The situation changed dramatically with the expedition of Hernán Cortés , who, with alliances with city-states hostile to

41495-438: Was created from this area during the decline of the Carolingian Empire in the late ninth century. It became one of the stem duchies of the East Frankish realm, which evolved as the Kingdom of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire . During internal struggles in the Ottonian dynasty , the Bavarian territory was considerably diminished by the separation of the newly established Duchy of Carinthia in 976. Between 1070 and 1180,

41710-477: Was crushed in 954. In 952, Duke Henry I also received the Italian March of Verona , which Otto I had seized from King Berengar II of Italy . He still had to deal with the Hungarian threat, which was not eliminated until King Otto's victory at the 955 Battle of Lechfeld . The Magyars retreated behind the Leitha and Morava rivers, facilitating a second wave of German Ostsiedlung into the areas of today's Lower Austria , Istria and Carniola . Although ruled by

41925-418: Was declared jure uxoris king, but he died later that year under mysterious circumstances, possibly poisoned by his father-in-law, Ferdinand II. Since their oldest son Charles was only six, the Cortes reluctantly allowed Joanna's father Ferdinand II to rule the country as the regent of Queen Joanna and Charles. Spain was now in personal union under Ferdinand II of Aragon . As undisputed ruler in most of

42140-405: Was dispossessed of all of his territories, and Bavaria was given to his Babenberg half-brother Leopold IV, Margrave of Austria in 1139. The Duchy of Swabia consisted largely of countryside during the reign of the Staufer king, while Franconia became the center of Staufer power, having been invested with the title dux Francorum orientalium , in 1115 by Henry V. This lasted until 1168, when

42355-553: Was eventually decided that Christian of Anhalt would lead the Protestant cause. He arrived in the duchies on 20 November, and began inspecting the Protestant armies. Using the levies that the possessors had raised, Christian began to form a blockade on Jülich. Some believed that Leopold was a part of a greater Habsburg plan to take over the duchies. Instead, Leopold was left to fend for himself, without financial or military assistance. After arriving in Jülich, Leopold tried to negotiate with neighboring powers. He tried to convince France and

42570-504: Was forced, for the first of many times, to declare a sovereign default , requiring it to partially repudiate its debt through consolidation and conversion . The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 concluded the war with France, leaving Spain at a considerable advantage. However, the government was still mired in debt, and declared bankruptcy that year. Most of the government's revenues came from taxes and excise duties, not imported silver and other goods. The Ottoman Empire had long menaced

42785-416: Was impossible to have Brandenburg and Neuburg agree on a settlement, as both parties believed their claim was best. When the ailing John William finally died on 25 March 1609, both Neuburg and Brandenburg rushed to claim the duchies. However, the privy council that had governed Jülich-Cleves-Berg through John William's madness refused to accept either of them, and continued to rule on their own by establishing

43000-406: Was intercepted by the possessors and as a result, the Protestants would know about Leopold's financial troubles. Eventually, it was believed that Leopold's only chance was to wait until an Imperial Ban was declared by the Emperor and Leopold could potentially negotiate. Rudolf did issue an Imperial Ban in November 1609, but it didn't do anything at all. The possessors just ignored them, because there

43215-426: Was known in his youth after his birthplace as Charles of Ghent . When he became king of Spain he was known as Charles I of Spain, and after he was elected emperor, as Charles V (in French, Charles Quint ). In Spain, the dynasty was known as the Casa de Austria , including illegitimate sons such as John of Austria and John Joseph of Austria . The arms displayed in their simplest form were those of Austria, which

43430-408: Was no longer given as a fief, but managed by servants. Also, powerful families, such as the counts of Andechs, died out during this period. Otto's son Ludwig I of Wittelsbach was enfeoffed in 1214 with the County Palatine of the Rhine . Since there was no preference for succession of the firstborn in the Wittelsbach dynasty, in contrast to many governments of this time, there was in 1255 a division of

43645-425: Was nobody to enforce the bans (the Emperor was still busy with his own affairs). Having been discouraged by the indecisiveness among the possessors, Henry IV had lost much of his enthusiasm for supporting the Protestant cause. In September, a Dutch ambassador said that Henry was considering withdrawing his soldiers from the border, and in October, Villeroy stated that he had no idea what Henry meant to do. In addition,

43860-487: Was not yet at peace, as the aggressive Henry II of France came to the throne in 1547 and renewed the conflict between the two countries four years later. Charles' successor, Philip II, aggressively conducted the war against France, crushing a French army at the Battle of St. Quentin in Picardy in 1557 and defeating Henry again at the Battle of Gravelines the following year. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. In

44075-430: Was one of many, which also included action in Mindanao and Sulu . The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on 16 April 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong . In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. The Spanish suffered heavy losses due to

44290-403: Was ordered by King Philip II, after whom the Philippines had earlier been named by Ruy López de Villalobos, when Philip was heir to the throne. The King stated that "the main purpose of this expedition is to establish the return route from the western isles, since it is already known that the route to them is fairly short." The Viceroy died in July 1564, but the Audiencia and de Legazpi completed

44505-556: Was situated on the river Enns . Already in 788, the Avars made an incursion into Bavaria, but Franko-Bavarian forces repelled them, and then launched a counterattack towards neighbouring Avarian regions, situated along the river Danube , east of the Enns. The two sides clashed near the river Ybbs , on the Ybbs Field ( German : Ybbsfeld ), where the Avars suffered a significant defeat (788). In order to secure Bavaria's eastern borders, and resolve other political and administrative questions, Charlemagne came to Bavaria in person, during

44720-413: Was still neutral, despite the war seemingly of major interest to the Dutch since Jülich-Cleves-Berg was very close to the Dutch Republic. The States-General had just agreed to a truce with Spain. After 40 years of constant war , the Dutch needed a break, and thus, there was little interest from the Dutch in joining the Jülich affair. Nonetheless, Henry wanted Dutch support in the war, and he asked both

44935-429: Was stricken for the next thirty years by chronic civil war and unrest. During this period, it was removed from effectively competing with Spain and the Habsburg family in European power games. Freed from effective French opposition, Spain attained the apogee of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643. In 1566, Calvinist -led riots in the Netherlands prompted the Duke of Alba to march into Brussels at

45150-443: Was subsequently appointed viceroy to replace Toledo in Peru. In Peru, after decades of political unrest, with ineffective viceroys and encomenderos wielding undue power, weak royal institutions, a renegade Neo-Inca State existing in Vilcabamba , and waning revenue from the Cerro Rico silver mine of Potosí , Toledo's appointment was a major step forward for royal control. He built on reforms attempted under earlier viceroys, but he

45365-400: Was succeeded by his younger brother Berthold . In 948, King Otto finally disempowered the Luitpoldings and installed his younger brother Henry I as Bavarian duke. The late Duke Berthold's minor heir, Henry III , was fobbed off with the office of a Bavarian Count palatine . The last attempt of the Luitpoldings to regain power by joining the rebellion of King Otto's son Duke Liudolf of Swabia

45580-413: Was the Spanish Empire and its Mediterranean possessions, ruled by King Phillip III . Second were the Holy Roman Emperor's lands in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary (along with other disparate territories). Last were the Spanish Netherlands, which were ruled by Archduke Albert VII. Archduke Albert, who governed the Spanish Netherlands, was the closest to Jülich-Cleves-Berg. Albert had a decently strong army:

45795-406: Was to be transported by land to Jülich, led by Marshall Claude de la Châtre , and began mobilizing at Metz on 5 July. However, France only promised 4 months of support, before the French army would withdraw. Marie told the Protestants that this army would be best used to secure a peace treaty. On 1 May 1610, an Imperial meeting was called in Prague , headed by the Emperor himself, seeking to end

46010-435: Was to militarily confront Archduke. Wolfgang Wilhelm on the other hand was scared of offending the Emperor, so he wished for a more peaceful resolution. Wolfgang Wilhelm was also concerned with Brandenburg's growing power. Elector Palatine Frederick IV, John Frederick of Wurttemberg, and George Frederick of Baden met in Friedrichsbuhel in mid-August, and proceeded to discuss the Jülich crisis. They agreed to provide funds to

46225-412: Was unable to declare his intentions openly without compromising his perceived neutrality. A total of six other claimants appeared, with rulers of the Margraviate of Brandenburg and Palatinate-Neuburg having the only credible claims through their relationship to John William's sisters. However, the nature of the claims were different. Johann Sigismund of Brandenburg claimed the duchies through his wife,

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