169-535: János József Kádár ( / ˈ k ɑː d ɑːr / ; Hungarian: [ˈjaːnoʃ ˈkaːdaːr] ; 26 May 1912 – 6 July 1989), born János József Czermanik , was a Hungarian Communist leader and the General Secretary of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party , a position he held for 32 years. Declining health led to his retirement in 1988, and he died in 1989 after being hospitalized for pneumonia. Kádár
338-745: A Germanisation policy. By the 1860s, the failure of the policy became apparent, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 . The creation of a personal union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary followed. The treaty left Croatia's status to Hungary, which was resolved by the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868 when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united. The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control, while Rijeka retained
507-587: A Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the European Union , submitted a formal application for the EU membership in 2003, was given the status of a candidate country in 2004, and began accession negotiations in 2005. Although the Croatian economy had enjoyed a significant boom in the early 2000s, the financial crisis in 2008 forced the government to cut spending, thus provoking a public outcry. Croatia served on
676-733: A decisive victory by Croatia; the event is commemorated each year on 5 August as Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders . Following the Croatian victory, about 200,000 Serbs from the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina fled the region and hundreds of mainly elderly Serb civilians were killed in the aftermath of the military operation, often in revenge attacks. There were instances of their property being looted, seized or burned down. Approximately half have returned since then. Their homes were subsequently settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The remaining occupied areas were restored to Croatia following
845-560: A smallholder family of Pusztaszemes , Somogy County . Kádár's father had Bavarian German origin. The mother, Borbála Csermanek was born in Ógyalla (today Hurbanovo , Slovakia ) to a landless Slovak father and Hungarian mother. The parents of Borbála were too poor to provide schooling for the girl, thus the teenager girl had to work as maid in various villas. Soon Borbála got a job in the popular seaside resort town, Opatija . Krezinger met with Borbála during his military service in Opatija,
1014-577: A "counter-revolution" was unfolding in Hungary that must be put to an end at any cost. He only agreed to change sides when the Soviet leaders informed him that the decision had already been taken to crush the revolution with the help of the Soviet troops stationed in Hungary. He was also told that unless he agreed to become prime minister in the new government, the Rákosi–Gerő leadership would be reinstalled. Although he
1183-556: A 1568 copy of a lost original, but it is not certain if the original was indeed older than the Branimir inscription. The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period . Neanderthal fossils dating to the middle Palaeolithic period were unearthed in northern Croatia, best presented at the Krapina site . Remnants of Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions. The largest proportion of sites
1352-509: A campaign of killing, terror, and expulsion of the Croats in the occupied territories, killing thousands of Croat civilians and expelling or displacing as many as 400,000-500,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their homes. Serbs living in Croatian towns, especially those near the front lines, were subjected to various forms of discrimination. Croatian Serbs in Eastern and Western Slavonia and parts of
1521-497: A church inscription found in Bijaći near Trogir dated to the end of the 8th or early 9th century. The presumably oldest stone inscription with fully preserved ethnonym is the 9th-century Branimir inscription found near Benkovac , where Duke Branimir is styled Dux Cruatorvm , likely dated between 879 and 892, during his rule. The Latin term Chroatorum is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir I of Croatia , dated to 852 in
1690-568: A commissar of the Hungarian Soviet Republic and a renowned political prisoner. While Kádár later claimed that there grew a father-son like bond between them, the more plausible truth is that there grew a "somewhat adolescent cheekiness" between the two. In prison, Rákosi interrogated Kádár, and came to the conclusion that his confessions were due to his "shortcomings". After being released from prison for good, some former party activists made contact with him and instructed Kádár to infiltrate
1859-508: A critical situation. The country was under Soviet military administration for several months. The fallen leaders of the Communist party took refuge in the Soviet Union and were planning to regain power in Hungary. The Chinese, East German, and Czechoslovak leaders demanded severe reprisals against the perpetrators of the "counter-revolution". Despite the distrust surrounding the new leadership and
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#17328722208312028-472: A derivation of North-West Slavic * Xərwate , by liquid metathesis from Common Slavic period *Xorvat , from proposed Proto-Slavic *Xъrvátъ which possibly comes from the 3rd-century Scytho-Sarmatian form attested in the Tanais Tablets as Χοροάθος ( Khoroáthos , alternate forms comprise Khoróatos and Khoroúathos ). The origin of the ethnonym is uncertain, but most probably
2197-476: A far greater extent than his counterparts. As Kádár once said, "what kind of regime is it that doesn't have even a tiny little opposition, just for show? But there's also the fact that they can't go beyond a certain limit, and if they try, they'll pay for it." Hungarians had much more freedom than their Eastern Bloc counterparts to go about their daily lives. The result was a regime that was far more humane than other Communist regimes , especially so when compared to
2366-512: A federal unit, were stopped by World War I . On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Parliament ( Sabor ) declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs , which in turn entered into union with the Kingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes . The Croatian Parliament never ratified the union with Serbia and Montenegro. The 1921 constitution defining
2535-518: A fee. Borbála found work in Budapest. To avoid the pronunciation problems of the Slovak-origin Czermanik name in Budapest, the family changed the orthography of their name to Csermanek . Although Kádár's foster father, Imre Bálint, was in charge, it was Bálint's brother, Sándor Bálint, that Kádár would remember as his true foster father. While Imre served in the army during World War I, Sándor
2704-528: A group of radical reformers who favored establishing a market economy. On 28 January 1989, young Politburo member and minister of state Imre Pozsgay announced during an interview with the radio program 168 Hours that the Poliburo's historical sub-committee regarded the events of 1956 as a 'people's uprising'. This announcement, not approved in advance by the Politburo, provoked and catalyzed various developments within
2873-457: A left-leaning Social Democrat , Kádár was asked to stop the party's illegal infiltration of his party. This meeting led to criticism being mounted against him during a Central Committee plenum meeting. In February 1936, Peter came up with an idea; his idea was to dissolve the party so that party members independently could spread communism, while a small secret leadership structure could keep itself together for some years. This, he said, would stop
3042-572: A majority in Parliament after the 1945 Hungarian parliamentary election , the Communist leadership started the divide and conquer strategy known as salami tactics . Kádár became a prominent figure during the period between 1945 and the 1947 Hungarian parliamentary election . Kádár had evolved a sense of rivalry with the Social Democratic Party of Hungary, claiming the party was "thrashing" them in government, and that they made it impossible for
3211-454: A mistake and denied and retracted all his confessions. He was sentenced to two years in prison. Because of his confessions to the police, he was suspended from KIMSZ. After being released for parole , he was politically in limbo . The hope of rejoining the Communist party was shattered by the Comintern 's decision to dissolve the national Communist party in Hungary. The few remaining members of
3380-690: A moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification . Mean monthly temperature ranges between −3 °C (27 °F ) in January and 18 °C (64 °F) in July. The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar featuring a snowy, forested climate at elevations above 1,200 metres (3,900 feet). The warmest areas are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by Mediterranean climate , as
3549-430: A party conference in Budapest on 22 May 1988, at which half a dozen of his Politburo associates were also removed, Kádár announced his resignation and was officially replaced as General Secretary by Prime Minister Károly Grósz , who strove to continue Kádár's policies in a modified form adapted to the new circumstances. Kádár was named instead to the ceremonial position of Party President. He did not wish to be re-elected to
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#17328722208313718-487: A petition to the government. The procession swelled as several people poured onto the streets. Gerő replied with a harsh speech that angered the people, and police opened fire. It proved to be the start of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 . As the revolution spread throughout the country, Nagy was called back as Prime Minister. The Hungarian Working People's Party decided to dissolve itself and to reorganize itself as
3887-590: A rambling, incoherent speech at the closed meeting of the Central Committee. By the " right of the last word ", he wanted to confess about his negotiations in 1956 in Moscow (about which he never spoke publicly) and about the conviction and execution of Imre Nagy. But all the changes that occurred in Eastern Europe and Hungary between 1956 and 1989 were at the same time in his head. An interpretation of Kádár's thoughts
4056-632: A single list from the Patriotic People's Front , which was dominated by the MSZMP. All prospective candidates had to accept the Front's program in order to stand; indeed, Kádár and his advisers used the Front to weed out candidates they deemed unacceptable. The secret police, the Ministry of Internal Affairs III , while operating with somewhat more restraint than their counterparts in other Eastern Bloc countries (such as
4225-434: A spy for the capitalistic countries. Szakasits' imprisonment would be the start of a long purge against former social democrats, trade union officials, and high-standing Communist party members. The purge would last until 1953, the extent of the purge went so far that the ÁVH held files on around one million, literally one-tenth of Hungary's population at that time. The purges were enacted when Rákosi and his associates were in
4394-607: A statement that they strove to establish a new relationship with Hungary on the basis of mutual respect and equality, in the first days of November, the Presidium of the Soviet Communist Party took a decision to crush the revolution by force. On 1 November 1956, Kádár, together with Ferenc Münnich , left Hungary for Moscow with the support of the Soviet Embassy in Budapest. There the Soviet leaders tried to convince him that
4563-613: Is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps. Croatia hosts deep caves , 49 of which are deeper than 250 m (820.21 ft), 14 deeper than 500 m (1,640.42 ft) and three deeper than 1,000 m (3,280.84 ft). Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes , a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades. The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue. Most of Croatia has
4732-502: Is from Proto-Ossetian / Alanian * xurvæt- or * xurvāt- , in the meaning of "one who guards" ("guardian, protector"). The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym's native variation *xъrvatъ is of the variable stem, attested in the Baška tablet in style zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ (" Zvonimir , Croatian king "), while the Latin variation Croatorum is archaeologically confirmed on
4901-499: Is in the valleys of northern Croatia. The most significant are Baden , Starčevo , and Vučedol cultures . Iron Age hosted the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture . The region of modern-day Croatia was settled by Illyrians and Liburnians , while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands of Hvar , Korčula , and Vis . In 9 AD, the territory of today's Croatia became part of
5070-520: Is situated in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea . Hungary is to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast and Slovenia to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E . Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is a practical exclave connected to
5239-431: Is so far progressing at a faster pace than expected. Full membership is expected in 2025 and is the last big foreign policy goal Croatia still has to achieve. On 1 January 2023, Croatia adopted the euro as its official currency, replacing the kuna , and became the 20th Eurozone member. On the same day, Croatia became the 27th member of the border-free Schengen Area , thus marking its full EU integration. Croatia
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5408-450: Is still a matter of considerable debate. While Kádár's regime remained strictly loyal to the Soviet Union in foreign policy, its intent was to establish a national consensus around its domestic policies. In notable contrast to Rákosi, who repeatedly declared "he who is not with us is against us" in his rally speeches, Kádár declared that "who is not against us is with us." Kádár was the first Eastern European leader to develop closer ties with
5577-760: Is the world's 127th largest country. Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Dinaric Alps with the highest point of the Dinara peak at 1,831 metres (6,007 feet) near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south to the shore of the Adriatic Sea which makes up its entire southwest border. Insular Croatia consists of over a thousand islands and islets varying in size, 48 of which are permanently inhabited . The largest islands are Cres and Krk , each of them having an area of around 405 square kilometres (156 square miles). The hilly northern parts of Hrvatsko Zagorje and
5746-485: The 1956 revolution . The government also gave limited freedom to the workings of the market via the New Economic Mechanism . However, it retained a monopoly of political power, and subjected the media to censorship that was fairly onerous by Western standards. The National Assembly , like its counterparts in the rest of the Soviet bloc, continued to rubber-stamp decisions already made by the MSZMP leadership. It
5915-516: The 6 January Dictatorship in 1929. The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitary constitution. The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček , continued to advocate federalisation, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia . The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to
6084-580: The Allies . With Allied support in logistics, equipment, training and airpower, and with the assistance of Soviet troops taking part in the 1944 Belgrade Offensive , the Partisans gained control of Yugoslavia and the border regions of Italy and Austria by May 1945. Members of the NDH armed forces and other Axis troops, as well as civilians, were in retreat towards Austria. Following their surrender, many were killed in
6253-698: The Communists , but having a degree of autonomy within the federation. In 1967, Croatian authors and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language demanding equal treatment for their language. The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and redistribution of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971, which
6422-527: The Croatian National Revival , a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of South Slavs within the empire. Its primary focus was establishing a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian while promoting Croatian literature and culture. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , Croatia sided with Austria. Ban Josip Jelačić helped defeat the Hungarians in 1849 and ushered in
6591-608: The Erdut Agreement of November 1995, concluding with the UNTAES mission in January 1998. Most sources number the war deaths at around 20,000. After the end of the war, Croatia faced the challenges of post-war reconstruction, the return of refugees, establishing democracy, protecting human rights, and general social and economic development. The 2000s were characterized by democratization, economic growth, structural and social reforms, and problems such as unemployment, corruption, and
6760-664: The Great Turkish War (1683–1698), Slavonia was regained, but western Bosnia , which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest, remained outside Croatian control. The present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome. Dalmatia , the southern part of the border, was similarly defined by the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars . The Ottoman wars drove demographic changes. During
6929-401: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the 2006 protests in Hungary , respectively. This act was received with widespread revulsion across the political and societal spectrum in Hungary. Police investigations focused on extremist right-wing groups which had been aspiring to "carry out an act that would create a big bang." Kádár's legacy remains disputed in Hungary. Supporters of Kádár argue that
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7098-528: The Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party . On 25 October 1956, Kádár was elected General Secretary. He was also a member of the Nagy Government as Minister of State. Nagy began a process of liberalization, removing state controls over the press, releasing many political prisoners, and expressing wishes to withdraw Hungary from the Warsaw Pact . He formed a coalition government. Although the Soviet leaders issued
7267-530: The Hungarian Working People's Party during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 , with János Kádár as general secretary. The party also controlled its armed forces, the Hungarian People's Army . Like all other Eastern Bloc parties, the MSZMP was organized on the basis of democratic centralism , a principle conceived by Vladimir Lenin that entails democratic and open discussion of issues within
7436-911: The Illyrian Provinces . In response, the Royal Navy blockaded the Adriatic Sea , leading to the Battle of Vis in 1811. The Illyrian provinces were captured by the Austrians in 1813 and absorbed by the Austrian Empire following the Congress of Vienna in 1815. This led to the formation of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and the restoration of the Croatian Littoral to the Kingdom of Croatia under one crown. The 1830s and 1840s featured romantic nationalism that inspired
7605-528: The OECD Council decided to open accession negotiations with Croatia. Throughout the accession process, Croatia was to implement numerous reforms that will advance all spheres of activity – from public services and the justice system to education, transport, finance, health, and trade. In line with the OECD Accession Roadmap from June 2022, Croatia will undergo technical reviews by 25 OECD committees and
7774-476: The Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska listen ), is a country in Central and Southeast Europe , on the coast of the Adriatic Sea . It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Italy to the west. Its capital and largest city, Zagreb , forms one of
7943-562: The Roman Empire . Emperor Diocletian was native to the region. He had a large palace built in Split , to which he retired after abdicating in AD 305. During the 5th century, the last de jure Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos ruled a small realm from the palace after fleeing Italy in 475. The Roman period ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century and
8112-516: The Sabor (parliament) and a Ban (viceroy) appointed by the king. This period saw the rise of influential nobility such as the Frankopan and Šubić families to prominence, and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families. An increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and a struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas ensued. The Venetians controlled most of Dalmatia by 1428, except
8281-912: The Schengen Area , NATO , the United Nations , the Council of Europe , the OSCE , the World Trade Organization , a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean , and is currently in the process of joining the OECD . An active participant in United Nations peacekeeping , Croatia contributed troops to the International Security Assistance Force and was elected to fill a non-permanent seat on
8450-405: The United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time. Croatia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy and ranks highly in the Human Development Index . Service , industrial sectors , and agriculture dominate the economy . Tourism is a significant source of revenue for the country, with nearly 20 million tourist arrivals as of 2019. Since
8619-506: The United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time, assuming the non-permanent seat in December 2008. On 1 April 2009, Croatia joined NATO . A wave of anti-government protests in 2011 reflected a general dissatisfaction with the current political and economic situation. The protests brought together diverse political persuasions in response to recent government corruption scandals and called for early elections. On 28 October 2011 MPs voted to dissolve Parliament and
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#17328722208318788-406: The Yugoslav Embassy. Kádár promised them safe return home at their request but failed to keep this promise as the Soviet party leaders decided that Imre Nagy and the other members of the government who had sought asylum at the Yugoslav Embassy should be deported to Romania . Later on, a trial was instituted to establish the responsibility of the Imre Nagy Government in the 1956 events. Although it
8957-437: The Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators . In the following years, ethnic Germans faced persecution in Yugoslavia , and many were interned. The political aspirations of the Partisan movement were reflected in the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia , which developed in 1943 as the bearer of Croatian statehood and later transformed into the Parliament in 1945, and AVNOJ —its counterpart at
9126-408: The city-state of Dubrovnik , which became independent. Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field and the 1526 Battle of Mohács , both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. King Louis II died at Mohács, and in 1527, the Croatian Parliament met in Cetin and chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he protects Croatia against
9295-715: The 'beauty' of the life of a skilled apprentice. And finally, when I became a skilled worker – in 1929 – the great economic crisis and unemployment came for us. This is how the entire generation of young workers lived at that time." His first meeting with Marxist literature came in 1928 after he won a junior chess competition organised by the Barbers Trade Union. His prize was Friedrich Engels 's Anti-Dühring . The tournament organiser explained to Kádár that if he didn't understand it after his first reading, he should re-read it again until he understood it. Kádár followed his advice, even if his friends were "unimpressed" by his reading. As he later noted later in his life, he did not understand
9464-402: The 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1075–1089). When Stjepan II died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Dmitar Zvonimir's brother-in-law Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown. This led to a war and personal union with Hungary in 1102 under Coloman . For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by
9633-539: The 16th century, Croats from western and northern Bosnia , Lika , Krbava , the area between the rivers Una and Kupa , and especially from western Slavonia , migrated towards Austria . Present-day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers. To replace the fleeing population, the Habsburgs encouraged Bosnians to provide military service in the Military Frontier . The Croatian Parliament supported King Charles III 's Pragmatic Sanction and signed their own Pragmatic Sanction in 1712 . Subsequently,
9802-538: The 1954 rehearing of his trial, when asked if he had been maltreated, he answered "Physically no", a denial he repeated in later interviews towards the end of his life. It is thought by some that the stories of brutality were intended to portray him as a victim of Stalinist torture in order to counter his image at home and abroad as a Soviet stooge. Kádár was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. His incarceration included three years of solitary confinement, conditions far worse than he suffered while imprisoned under
9971-705: The 2000s, the Croatian government has heavily invested in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors . Croatia has also positioned itself as a regional energy leader in the early 2020s and is contributing to the diversification of Europe's energy supply via its floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island, LNG Hrvatska . Croatia provides social security , universal health care , and tuition-free primary and secondary education while supporting culture through public institutions and corporate investments in media and publishing . Croatia's non-native name derives from Medieval Latin Croātia , itself
10140-407: The AVH), was nonetheless a feared tool of government control. The Hungarian media remained under censorship that was considered fairly onerous by Western standards, but far less stringent than was the case in other Communist countries. As a result of the relatively high standard of living, and more relaxed restrictions on speech, movement, and culture than that of other Eastern Bloc countries, Hungary
10309-540: The Central Committee and the Politburo, his memberships in these organisations were renewed at the party congress. Believing that his position was secure and that Rákosi had given him another chance, Kádár thought nothing more of it. This proved to be wrong, and by the end of March 1951, Rákosi informed the Soviets that Kádár along with Zöld and Gyula Kállai were to be imprisoned. On 18 April 1951, Zöld had killed his whole family and committed suicide after finding out that Rákosi and his associates had decided to purge him from
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#173287222083110478-426: The Central Committee was renamed the Political Executive Committee, and the Politburo was replaced by a four-man collective presidency chaired by Nyers. Although Grósz remained general secretary, Nyers now outranked him. On 7 October 1989 the MSZMP was dissolved and refounded as the Hungarian Socialist Party , a Western-style social democratic party. Two weeks later, the National Assembly approved numerous amendments to
10647-491: The Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation. In the same year, the first multi-party elections were held in Croatia, while Franjo Tuđman 's win exacerbated nationalist tensions. Some of the Serbs in Croatia left Sabor and declared autonomy of the unrecognised Republic of Serbian Krajina , intent on achieving independence from Croatia. As tensions rose, Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991. However,
10816-446: The Communist Party of Hungary . Rákosi's leadership consisted of Mihály Farkas the Minister of Defence . Kádár and Béla Kovács noted with puzzlement the leadership's total lack of interest in the domestic Communist's experience and outlook. As head of cadres, Kádár supervised membership appointments to the party. This position gave him contacts, some of whom would become very important to him in his later life. After failing to secure
10985-452: The Communist Party of Hungary; Kádár became a member. Kádár rose, not because of ideology, or technical knowledge, but rather for his organisational skills. He helped organize the Party's headquarters and designed its membership card. The Soviet troops stationed in Hungary committed mass rapes and pillaged Budapest and the countryside. Kádár told the Interior Minister, "The Soviet command caused really big difficulties in our work, especially in
11154-565: The Communists during this election prompted the Social Democrats to postpone the rest of the election. At the 3rd Congress of the Communist Party of Hungary , Kádár was appointed one of Rákosi's two deputies. He was appointed deputy because of social and ethnic background, the majority of the leadership were of Jewish origins and were intellectuals, Kádár was however a "Hungarian" worker. In the aftermath of his appointment, he enrolled himself in Russian lessons and grew fond of reading, his favorite being The Good Soldier Švejk . Kádár, as in 1946,
11323-405: The Communists to negotiate policy with the Hungarian trade unions. In 1946, Kádár campaigned for the Communist party in workers districts and factories. These areas were heavily contested between the Communists and the Social Democrats. The Communists were able to persuade the Social Democrats to hold elections in factories where the Communists held the majority. The clear majority results gained by
11492-418: The Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban. In April 1941, Yugoslavia was occupied by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . Following the invasion, a German-Italian installed puppet state named the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established. Most of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the region of Syrmia were incorporated into this state. Parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy , Hungary annexed
11661-410: The Croatian throne. In October 1918, the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs , independent from the Habsburg Empire , was proclaimed in Zagreb, and in December 1918, it merged into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, most of Croatia was incorporated into a Nazi-installed puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia . A resistance movement led to
11830-468: The European Union on 1 July 2013. Croatia was affected by the 2015 European migrant crisis when Hungary's closure of borders with Serbia pushed over 700,000 refugees and migrants to pass through Croatia on their way to other EU countries. On 19 October 2016, Andrej Plenković began serving as the current Croatian Prime Minister. The most recent presidential elections, held on 5 January 2020, elected Zoran Milanović as president. On 25 January 2022,
11999-512: The Horthy regime. He was released from prison in July 1954, after the death of Stalin and the appointment of Imre Nagy as Prime Minister in 1953. Kádár accepted the offer to act as party secretary in the heavily industrialized 13th district of Budapest. He rose to prominence quickly, building up a large following among workers who demanded increased freedom for trade unions. Rákosi was forced to resign in 1956, replaced by Gerő. On 23 October 1956, students marched through Budapest intending to present
12168-619: The Interior with the deliberate aim to involve him in the "show trial" of Laszlo Rajk , although the investigations and proceedings were handled by the State Security Agency with the active participation of the Soviet Secret Police. Rákosi later boasted of "spending many a sleepless night" in unraveling the threads of the "anti-party conspiracy" led by Rajk and his "gang." During the public trial, Rákosi personally gave instructions to
12337-731: The Krajina were forced to flee or were expelled by Croatian forces, though on a restricted scale and in lesser numbers. The Croatian Government publicly deplored these practices and sought to stop them, indicating that they were not a part of the Government's policy. On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community , followed by the United Nations. The war effectively ended in August 1995 with
12506-567: The Kádár era was one of peace and stability with widespread job security and robust social protections for average people. Others argue that although Kádár increased the standard of living for Hungarians, and instituted broad liberalization, the country was still fundamentally a dictatorship and a Soviet satellite state. He is considered one of the most influential figures of 20th century Hungarian history along with István Tisza and Miklós Horthy . A research has found that according to 6% of respondents he
12675-598: The Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights. Following the decisive Ottoman victories, Croatia was split into civilian and military territories in 1538. The military territories became known as the Croatian Military Frontier and were under direct Habsburg control. Ottoman advances in Croatia continued until the 1593 Battle of Sisak , the first decisive Ottoman defeat, when borders stabilised. During
12844-506: The Party, taking part in Nagy's revolutionary government. A week later, he broke with Nagy over his decision to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact . After Soviet intervention in Hungary , Kádár was selected to lead the country. He ordered Nagy to be executed shortly after coming to power. He gradually moderated, releasing the majority of remaining prisoners of this period in an amnesty in 1963. His leadership
13013-545: The Political Committee, the most important decision-making body of the party. Nevertheless, the post allowed him the right to speak at Central Committee plenums. By May 1989, Kádár was showing unmistakable signs of mental deterioration; his increasingly incoherent speeches were becoming an embarrassment. Doctors encouraged him to go on vacation in the Crimea, but Kádár balked; he remembered how Rákosi had died in Soviet exile and
13182-403: The Social Democratic Party was a sculptor named György Goldmann. Kádár evolved into an effective speaker on "bread and butter issues", but failed at having any success on more serious and complex topics. In 1940 he was recalled to the party's ranks. At the beginning of its re-founding, the party liked to use members without any police records , therefore Kádár was given more responsibilities within
13351-553: The Social Democratic Party was forced to merge with the Communists. At the unification congress Kádár made a speech which made little impact on the Communist movement in Hungary. In May 1948 Kádár visited the Soviet Union , and for the first and last time in his life he saw Joseph Stalin with his own eyes. During his visit to the USSR, Kádár's brother, Jenő died. On 5 August 1948 László Rajk
13520-405: The Social Democratic Party with them. Within the party, Kádár and his associates made no secret of their Marxist views, frequently talking about the struggles of the working class and their gaze, which was directed towards the Soviet Union . Kádár still lived in poverty, and found it hard to blend in with the upper working class and the intelligentsia . Paradoxically, his main Communist contact in
13689-551: The Social Democratic parties of Western Europe. He also attempted to establish good relations with the United States, though could only go so far due to the limitations imposed by Kádár's ultimate commitment to communist internationalism. When Khrushchev was ousted in 1964, Kádár had some kind words about the deposed Soviet leader, which was a unique gesture among Eastern Bloc leaders. Consequently his relationship with Brezhnev
13858-682: The Socialist Workers' Bloc, an attempt by the Communist Party to create a front which would win over new supporters. This attempt was thwarted by the authorities, and new arrests ensued. In June 1931, he joined the Communist youth organization, the Communist Young Workers' Association (KIMSZ). He joined the Sverdlov party cell, named after Soviet Yakov Sverdlov . His alias within the party became János Barna. During his early membership,
14027-468: The Soviet Union at the end of the 1960s had an impact in Hungary. In the political-economic structure, which had been left untouched by the reforms, it was relatively easy for the "conservative" political offensive with Soviet support to take hold. Zoltán Komócsin , Béla Biszku and Árpád Pullai, who had aimed to stop economic reform and seize political power, defeated the reform wing, which was led by Rezső Nyers , Lajos Fehér and Jenő Fock , and implemented
14196-520: The Soviet forces, but was not able to muster much support from the populace, therefore its effect was marginal at best. After the Soviet victory in Budapest , he changed his name from Csermanek to Kádár, literally meaning " cooper " or "barrel-maker". After the Soviet liberation of Hungary, the Soviet–Hungarian Communist leadership sent Zoltán Vas and the new Kremlin-approved Central Committee of
14365-533: The Soviet sphere of influence with the tacit agreement of the West. Though influenced strongly by the Soviet Union, Kádár enacted a policy slightly contrary to that of Moscow, for example, allowing considerably large private plots for farmers of collective farms . Starting in the early 1960s, he gradually lifted Rákosi's more draconian measures against free speech and movement, and also eased some restrictions on cultural activities. He even tolerated samizdat publications to
14534-446: The Yugoslav level. Based on the studies on wartime and post-war casualties by demographer Vladimir Žerjavić and statistician Bogoljub Kočović , a total of 295,000 people from the territory (not including territories ceded from Italy after the war) died, which amounted to 7.3% of the population, among whom were 125–137,000 Serbs, 118–124,000 Croats, 16–17,000 Jews, and 15,000 Roma. In addition, from areas joined to Croatia after
14703-459: The accusation leveled against his coworkers were true. It is believed that after Rajk's death Kádár was seen vomiting; these rumours have not been confirmed by any sources from that time. Rákosi contacted him the following the day, asking him why he was in such a bad mood, and continued, saying; "Did the executions affect you that much?". According to certain rumours, which are probably not reliable, Kádár visited Rákosi to tell him about his reaction to
14872-504: The acting party leader from December 1942, said; "he [Kádár] was extremely modest, a clever man but not then theoretically trained". Kovács brought Kádár into the party leadership and gave him a seat in the Secretariat of the Central Committee . By January 1943, had been able to get in touch with some seventy to eighty members, but this effort was torn apart by a new round of mass arrests, with Kovács being among them. The new leadership after
15041-399: The age of six, Borbála reclaimed him, moved him to Budapest and enrolled him in school. In school he got bullied for his bumpkin manners and his peasant talk. Borbála worked hard to ensure that Kádár would get a good education. In the summer time, Kádár would find work in the countryside. He was seen as "alien" by his contemporaries, in the countryside they would call him a "city boy" while in
15210-456: The beginning, and they still do". Kádár was appointed deputy chief of police. He had sharp critics, such as Rákosi's party deputy Ernő Gerő who felt his decision to dissolve the party during the war was a rash decision. Other peers felt he had been over-promoted. Nevertheless, he moved up to the Politburo of the Communist Party of Hungary . In February 1945, Rákosi was elected General Secretary of
15379-486: The city they would call him a "country boy". Then in 1920, Borbála got pregnant again; the father left soon. Kádár helped take care of his half-brother, Jenő. At the Cukor Street Elementary School, Kádár proved to be a bright student. He skipped school often, and his mother tried beatings to make it stop. Classes were easy for him and he skipped school to play sports. He did read often however, but his mother
15548-657: The constitution that purged it of its Marxist–Leninist character, ending one-party rule in Hungary. A small Communist faction, centred on Károly Grósz , opposed these reforms and broke away to form the Hungarian Communist Workers' Party on 17 December 1989. Croatia – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) Croatia ( / k r oʊ ˈ eɪ ʃ ə / , kroh- AY -shə ; Croatian : Hrvatska , pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː] ), officially
15717-453: The continuing mass arrest of the Communist party personnel and in turn strengthen the party for the future. While at the beginning Kádár was against such an idea, the idea grew on him and came to the conclusion that instead of dissolving the party, he would pretend to dissolve it and rename the party which would effectively throw the Hungarian authorities off their trail. The so-called "new party"
15886-637: The country as a unitary state and abolition of Croatian Parliament and historical administrative divisions effectively ended Croatian autonomy. The new constitution was opposed by the most widely supported national political party—the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) led by Stjepan Radić . The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in the National Assembly in 1928, culminating in King Alexander I 's establishment of
16055-418: The country's primary subdivisions , with twenty counties . Other major urban centers include Split , Rijeka and Osijek . The country spans 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), and has a population of nearly 3.9 million. The Croats arrived in modern-day Croatia in the late 6th century, then part of Roman Illyria . By the 7th century, they had organized the territory into two duchies . Croatia
16224-438: The country, with Soviet support, on 4 November 1956. Gradually, however, the new government instituted goulash Communism , a somewhat more humane way of governing than had prevailed under Mátyás Rákosi . Under Kádár's mantra of "he who is not against us is with us," Hungarians generally had more freedom than their Eastern Bloc counterparts to go about their daily lives. For example, his government executed only 350 people after
16393-633: The creation of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , which after the war became a founding member and constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . On 25 June 1991, Croatia declared independence , and the War of Independence was successfully fought over the next four years. Croatia is a republic and has a parliamentary system . It is a member of the European Union , the Eurozone ,
16562-840: The destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains. The city of Dubrovnik was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum . The ethnogenesis of Croats is uncertain. The most accepted theory, the Slavic theory, proposes migration of White Croats from White Croatia during the Migration Period . Conversely, the Iranian theory proposes Iranian origin, based on Tanais Tablets containing Ancient Greek inscriptions of given names Χορούαθος , Χοροάθος , and Χορόαθος (Khoroúathos, Khoroáthos, and Khoróathos) and their interpretation as anthroponyms of Croatian people. According to
16731-512: The economic difficulties, Kádár was able to normalize the situation in a remarkably short time. This was due to the realization that, under the circumstances, it was impossible to break away from the Communist bloc . The Hungarian people realized that the promises of the West to help the Hungarian revolution were unfounded and that the logic of the Cold War determined the outcome. Hungary remained part of
16900-401: The elite to an extent. To strengthen his popularity, whispering propaganda depicted him as totally intolerant to corruption by his underlings. Playing chess was one of his favorite pastimes. However, he was an avid hunter (hunting for sport used to be an aristocratic hobby before 1945 in Hungary and this pattern continued during the Communist era when it became a cherished pastime and occasion for
17069-564: The emperor pledged to respect all privileges and political rights of the Kingdom of Croatia , and Queen Maria Theresa made significant contributions to Croatian affairs, such as introducing compulsory education. Between 1797 and 1809, the First French Empire increasingly occupied the eastern Adriatic coastline and its hinterland, ending the Venetian and the Ragusan republics , establishing
17238-512: The execution. Later, during a party presentation to a college, Kádár emphasized party austerity. This presentation might reflect on Kádár's reaction to Rajk's execution and his revelation that he might become the next victim of government repression. When holding his presentation, he was described by his audience as a "haggard", "distressed" and as a man under a lot of "strain". Rákosi told Kádár, in late August 1950, that former Social Democratic party leader Árpád Szakasits had confessed to being
17407-423: The first seven years of undisguised Communist rule in Hungary. However, it was not a liberal regime in any sense. The Communists maintained absolute control over the government and also encouraged citizens to join party organizations. The National Assembly , like its counterparts in other Communist countries, did little more than approve decisions already made by the MSZMP and its Politburo. Voters were presented with
17576-781: The flat plains of Slavonia in the east which is part of the Pannonian Basin are traversed by major rivers such as Danube , Drava , Kupa , and the Sava . The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city of Vukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border with Vojvodina . The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains and forested highlands. Natural resources found in quantities significant enough for production include oil, coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, gypsum, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt, and hydropower. Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and
17745-555: The full implementation of the declaration only came into effect after a three-month moratorium on the decision on 8 October 1991. In the meantime, tensions escalated into overt war when the Serbian-controlled Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and various Serb paramilitary groups attacked Croatia. By the end of 1991, a high-intensity conflict fought along a wide front reduced Croatia's control to about two-thirds of its territory. Serb paramilitary groups then began
17914-628: The increase in real wages , which the leadership considered important, could only be covered by loans. In the early 1970s, credit was cheap and was freely used: by the end of the 1970s, $ 8 billion in debt had been accumulated. During Kádár's rule, international tourism increased dramatically, with many tourists (including Hungarians who emigrated in 1956 or before) from Canada, the US, and Western Europe bringing much-needed money into Hungary. Hungary built strong relations with developing countries and many foreign students arrived. The " Holy Crown " (referred to in
18083-480: The increasing commercial ties to the Western World would in turn worsen relations with Leonid Brezhnev in the Soviet Union. As the leader of Hungary, Kádár attempted to liberalize the Hungarian economy with a greater focus on consumer goods, in what would become known as Goulash Communism . János Kádár was an illegitimate son of the soldier János Krezinger and the servant maid Borbála Czermanik. Krezinger came from
18252-540: The inefficiency of public administration. In November 2000 and March 2001, the Parliament amended the Constitution, first adopted on 22 December 1990, changing its bicameral structure back into its historic unicameral form and reducing presidential powers. Croatia joined the Partnership for Peace on 25 May 2000 and became a member of the World Trade Organization on 30 November 2000. On 29 October 2001, Croatia signed
18421-515: The infant could only receive the Czermanik family name of his mother. Abandoned, Borbála gave birth to János in the middle of the holiday season , as no one wanted to employ a single mother with a child. His mother, Borbála went to look for Krezinger, but his family wanted nothing to do with them. She walked ten kilometres to the city of Kapoly where she persuaded the Bálint family to care for her child for
18590-408: The infiltration of the Social Democratic Party. During May and June the police arrested and rounded up several party activists, including Goldman, but Kádár had managed to go into hiding. As early as May 1942, Kádár became a member of the newly formed Central Committee of the Communist party, mostly due to the lack of personnel, seeing that the majority of them had been sent to prison. István Kovács ,
18759-425: The judge over the phone. Rákosi would later attempt to blame Kádár for Rajk's death. Later in his life, Rákosi said that Rajk died screaming "Long live Stalin! Long live Rákosi!" Instead, Tibor Szönyi died without saying a word and András Szalai crying. Farkas and Gábor Péter , upon the death of Rajk and the others, said "provocateurs to their last breaths". This event didn't assure Kádár; making him doubt if any of
18928-408: The last mass arrest consisted of Kádár as First Secretary, Gábor Péter , István Szirmai and Pál Tonhauser . During Kádár's first tenure as leader of the party, he faced many problems, the most important being that the Communists were becoming increasingly irrelevant in a fast-changing situation, mostly because of the Hungarian government's continuing interference. In a meeting with Árpád Szakasits ,
19097-562: The longer down the ladder he climbed there was a bigger chance of not being purged. In this he was wrong, and he along with new Minister of the Interior Sándor Zöld , were criticised for not doing a proper enough job to remove the anti-socialist movement within the country. Kádár would later refute most of the allegations the Rákosi leadership put against, but to no avail, and for every letter he wrote to refute an allegation another allegation
19266-501: The media as the "Hungarian Crown", so as to prevent it carrying a political symbolism of the Horthy régime or an allusion to Christianity) and regalia of Hungarian kings were returned to Budapest by the United States in 1978. Kádár was known for his simple and modest lifestyle and avoided the self-indulgence persona of other Communist leaders. Although he was never personally corrupt, he sometimes overlooked corrupt dealings of other members of
19435-401: The middle of the country's collectivising agriculture and the rapid industrialisation efforts. Ernő Gerő 's ambition to make Hungary a land made out of "steel and iron" led to a decline in the national standards of living . At this point, Rákosi had started distrusting Kádár, leading Kádár to resign as Ministry of the Interior citing health and stress reasons for his choice. Kádár believed
19604-542: The migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats was in the late 6th and early 7th century. Eventually, a dukedom was formed, Duchy of Croatia , ruled by Borna , as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in 818. The record represents the first document of Croatian realms, vassal states of Francia at the time. Its neighbor to the North was Principality of Lower Pannonia , at the time ruled by duke Ljudevit who ruled
19773-576: The new elite to informally socialize and to get drunk), and was a member of an exclusive hunting association made up by Party leaders and other dignitaries. He wasn't a heavy drinker though and demanded modesty when he was present. Also, foreign guests often visited the Hungarian forests too, from the Shah of Iran through Fidel Castro to the King of Nepal, and Leonid Brezhnev hunted with Kádár several times. The popularity of this "gentleman's sport" among Communist leaders
19942-459: The new party failed to win much popular support. After World War II , with Soviet support, the Communist party took power in Hungary. Kádár rose through the party ranks, serving as Interior Minister from 1948 to 1950. In 1951, he was imprisoned by the government of Mátyás Rákosi but was released in 1954 by reformist Prime Minister Imre Nagy . On 25 October 1956, during the Hungarian Revolution , Kádár replaced Ernő Gerő as General Secretary of
20111-514: The northern Croatian regions of Baranja and Međimurje . The NDH regime was led by Ante Pavelić and ultranationalist Ustaše , a fringe movement in pre-war Croatia. With German and Italian military and political support, the regime introduced racial laws and launched a genocide campaign against Serbs , Jews , and Roma . Many were imprisoned in concentration camps ; the largest was the Jasenovac complex . Anti-fascist Croats were targeted by
20280-462: The party followed by the requirement of total unity in upholding the agreed policies. The highest body within the MSZMP was the party Congress, which convened every five years. When the Congress was not in session, the Central Committee of the MSZMP was the highest body. Because the Central Committee met twice a year, most day-to-day duties and responsibilities were vested in the Politburo. The party leader
20449-414: The party was illegal, following the crushing of the 1919 Hungarian Soviet Republic . In December 1931, the authorities had been able to track him down, and Kádár was arrested on charges of spreading communism, and being a communist. He denied the charges, and because of lack of evidence, was released. He was however under constant police surveillance, and after some days, he was back in contact with KIMSZ. He
20618-525: The party were told to infiltrate and work cooperatively with the Social Democratic Party of Hungary and trade unions. Kádár had in the meantime been able to persuade himself that it was because of changes within the party, and not his confessions, which had led to none of his associates making contact with him. He did, at the same time, have four more months of his prison sentence to serve before being released. In prison Kádár met with Mátyás Rákosi ,
20787-426: The party, and brought about sudden and ever-escalating changes that, within nine months, resulted in the ending of Communism in Hungary and the dissolution of the MSZMP. By the summer of 1989, the MSZMP was no longer a Marxist–Leninist party, and the radical reformers, led by Prime Minister Miklós Németh , Foreign Minister Gyula Horn , Rezső Nyers , and Pozsgay, had taken over the party machinery. On 26 June 1989,
20956-427: The party. When the authorities found their bodies, they decided to quickly gather the remaining two before they did something rash too. Kádár, who did not know what had just taken place, was at home taking care of his wife Maria, who had been in and out of the hospital. The Hungarian leadership decided to call him, asking Kádár to meet them at the party headquarters, when leaving his home he was stopped by ÁVH officers and
21125-634: The police failed, and the police continued arresting Hungarian Communists. Later in his life, this would be one of the few topics of his life Kádár would refuse to discuss. After the German invasion of Hungary , the Peace Party, with other parties, established the Hungarian Front , the party's potential allies were still very wary of them. Therefore, the Popular Front was never able to win much support amongst
21294-499: The populace. In the aftermath of the invasion, the party under Kádár's leadership started partisan operations and created their own Military Committee. Kádár tried to cross the border into Yugoslavia in hope of making contact with the Yugoslav partisans and their leader, Josip Broz Tito . At the same time, Kádár probably hoped to establish better, and stronger, relations with the USSR; something they had been trying to do since 1942. Kádár
21463-493: The protests gradually subsided. President Ivo Josipović agreed to a dissolution of Sabor on Monday, 31 October and scheduled new elections for Sunday 4 December 2011. On 30 June 2011, Croatia successfully completed EU accession negotiations. The country signed the Accession Treaty on 9 December 2011 and held a referendum on 22 January 2012, where Croatian citizens voted in favor of an EU membership. Croatia joined
21632-522: The reading but it got him thinking: "Immutable laws and connections in the world which I had not suspected." While it may be true that as Kádár comments that the book had great influence over him, it was in 1929 when he was fired after he flared up at his employer after he talked condescendingly towards Kádár. When the Great Depression hit Hungary, Kádár was the first to be fired. What ensued was low paid jobs and poverty. He later became unemployed, and it
21801-625: The regime as well. Several concentration camps (most notably the Rab , Gonars and Molat camps) were established in Italian-occupied territories, mostly for Slovenes and Croats. At the same time, the Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist Chetniks pursued a genocidal campaign against Croats and Muslims , aided by Italy. Nazi German forces committed crimes and reprisals against civilians in retaliation for Partisan actions, such as in
21970-499: The regime he had largely created. Kádár's grave at the Kerepesi Cemetery in Budapest was vandalized on 2 May 2007 as a number of his bones, including his skull, were dug up and stolen, along with his wife Mária Tamáska's urn. A message reading "murderers and traitors may not rest in holy ground 1956–2006" (taken from a song titled "Neveket akarok hallani" written by the rock band Kárpátia ) was written nearby. The two dates refer to
22139-635: The reign of Mislav , or his successor Trpimir I . The native Croatian royal dynasty was founded by duke Trpimir I in the mid 9th century, who defeated the Byzantine and Bulgarian forces. The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke Branimir , who received papal recognition from Pope John VIII on 7 June 879. Tomislav was the first king of Croatia , noted as such in a letter of Pope John X in 925. Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions. The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in
22308-435: The renewed centralisation of the economy. Unqualified people were appointed to leading positions en masse, and a campaign was launched against certain sections of the intelligentsia. At the same time, the oil crisis caused an unfavorable turn in the world economy for the Hungarian economy: Hungarian goods for export were paid less, while imported goods needed for economic growth and modernization became more expensive. Thus,
22477-413: The rest of the mainland by territorial waters , but separated on land by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum . The Pelješac Bridge connects the exclave with mainland Croatia. The territory covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), consisting of 56,414 square kilometres (21,782 square miles) of land and 128 square kilometres (49 square miles) of water. It
22646-522: The revolution. The proclamation of the so-called Revolutionary Workers'-Peasants' Government of Hungary , headed by Kádár, was broadcast from Szolnok the same day. He announced a "Fifteen Point Programme" for this new government: The 15th point was withdrawn after pressure from the USSR that a 200,000 strong Soviet detachment be garrisoned in Hungary. This development allowed Kádár to divert huge defense funds to welfare. Nagy, along with Georg Lukács , Géza Losonczy and László Rajk's widow, Júlia, fled to
22815-399: The right stuff to be minister of internal affairs" . In 1949, Borbála died, and Kádár married Mária Tamáska. Just as Stalin had launched a Great Purge against those with knowledge of the pre-Stalin party, Rákosi launched a purge against those who had worked in Hungary, and not in the Soviet Union, during World War II and before. In retrospect, it is clear that Kádár was appointed Minister of
22984-623: The second-largest contributors to the Partisan movement after Serbs. In per capita terms, Croats contributed proportionately to their population within Yugoslavia. By May 1944 (according to Tito), Croats made up 30% of the Partisan's ethnic composition, despite making up 22% of the population. The movement grew fast, and at the Tehran Conference in December 1943, the Partisans gained recognition from
23153-613: The status of corpus separatum previously introduced in 1779. After Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin , the Military Frontier was abolished. The Croatian and Slavonian sectors of the Frontier returned to Croatia in 1881, under provisions of the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement. Renewed efforts to reform Austria-Hungary , entailing federalisation with Croatia as
23322-545: The story however how they met is unknown. Kádár only met his father once, in 1960, when Kádár was already the leader of the country. Kádár was born out of wedlock in Fiume (now Rijeka , Croatia ) on 26 May 1912. The infant was registered in the Italian version of his name: Giovanni Giuseppe Czermanik (In Hungarian: János József Czermanik) because he was born in the Italian established Santo Spirito Hospital. Being an illegitimate child,
23491-488: The territories between the Drava and Sava rivers, centred from his fort at Sisak . This population and territory throughout history was tightly related and connected to Croats and Croatia. Christianisation of Croats began in the 7th century at the time of archon Porga of Croatia , initially probably encompassed only the elite and related people, but mostly finished by the 9th century. The Frankish overlordship ended during
23660-479: The villages of Kamešnica and Lipa in 1944. A resistance movement emerged. On 22 June 1941, the 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed near Sisak , the first military unit formed by a resistance movement in occupied Europe . That sparked the beginning of the Yugoslav Partisan movement, a communist, multi-ethnic anti-fascist resistance group led by Josip Broz Tito . In ethnic terms, Croats were
23829-468: The war, a total of 32,000 people died, among whom 16,000 were Italians and 15,000 were Croats. Approximately 200,000 Croats from the entirety of Yugoslavia (including Croatia) and abroad were killed in total throughout the war and its immediate aftermath, approximately 5.4% of the population. After World War II , Croatia became a single-party socialist federal unit of the SFR Yugoslavia , ruled by
23998-531: The work De Administrando Imperio written by 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII , Croats arrived in the Roman province of Dalmatia in the first half of the 7th century after they defeated the Avars . However, that claim is disputed: competing hypotheses date the event between the late 6th-early 7th (mainstream) or the late 8th-early 9th (fringe) centuries, but recent archaeological data has established that
24167-452: The working class, there were only 160 of them in the country. "I was a servant to a village pig herder, a servant child to a kulak (rich peasant), a vici (janitor) child, a newspaper boy, a 'parcel delivery boy' or courier in the city, and even a briefly homeless evicted person. I worked from 5 in the morning until classes started at [elementary] school, then after the education in the afternoon I had to work again until late at night. Then came
24336-448: The ÁVH head Gábor Péter . Only a year later, Kádár found himself the defendant in a show trial of his own—on false charges of having been a spy of Horthy's police. This time it was Kádár who was beaten by the security police and urged to "confess". During Kádár's interrogation, the ÁVH reportedly beat him, smeared him with mercury to prevent his skin pores from breathing, and had his questioner urinate into his pried-open mouth. However, at
24505-418: Was "the greatest Hungarian", finishing 3rd from a list of 10 choices. Hungarian Socialist Workers%27 Party The Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party ( Hungarian : Magyar Szocialista Munkáspárt , pronounced [ˈmɒɟɒr ˈsot͡sijɒliʃtɒ ˈmuŋkaːʃpaːrt] , MSZMP ) was the ruling Marxist–Leninist party of the Hungarian People's Republic between 1956 and 1989. It was organised from elements of
24674-483: Was a Communist party campaigner, and was described by historian Robert Gough as "a great success". The Communists won a majority in Parliament in 1947, and because of the escalation of the Cold War , the Soviet leadership ordered them to drop all pretense of liberal democracy and create an undisguised Communist one-party state . Kádár played an active role in the creation of the Hungarian Working People's Party ; created when
24843-401: Was adjourned several times, the defendants were eventually convicted of treason and conspiracy to overthrow the "democratic state order". Imre Nagy , Pál Maléter and Miklós Gimes were sentenced to death and executed on 16 June 1958. Géza Losonczy and Attila Szigethy [ hu ] both died in prison under suspicious circumstances during the court proceedings. Kádár assumed power in
25012-543: Was appointed to the office of the Minister of Foreign Affairs , and Kádár took his place as Minister of the Interior. As Interior Minister, Kádár did not have real power as the most important organizations of internal state security operated under the direct control of Rákosi and his closest associates. Unlike his Eastern European counterparts, Kádár was unenthusiastic about the role; Enver Hoxha , after being introduced to Kádár by Rákosi, thought "how he didn’t seem to me to be of
25181-502: Was born in Fiume in poverty to a single mother. After living in the countryside for some years, Kádár and his mother moved to Budapest. He joined the Party of Communists in Hungary 's youth organization, KIMSZ, and went on to become a prominent figure in the pre-1939 Communist party, eventually becoming First Secretary. As a leader, he would dissolve the party and reorganize it as the Peace Party, but
25350-975: Was characterized by unrelenting Realpolitik ; for a long time, he successfully maneuvered between Moscow's wishes, local interests and the expectations of the Western world. In an interview with a Western journalist, he called himself a "toiler for compromise". Kádár was succeeded by Károly Grósz as General Secretary on 22 May 1988. Grósz would only serve a year in this post due to the fall of Communism in Europe in 1989. During his time as leader of Hungary, Kádár pushed for an improvement in standards of living. Kádár increased international trade with non-communist countries, in particular those of Western Europe. Kádár's policies differed from those of other Communist leaders, such as Nicolae Ceaușescu , Enver Hoxha , and Wojciech Jaruzelski , all of whom favored more orthodox interpretations of Marxism–Leninism . Kádár's reformist policies and
25519-422: Was first internationally recognized as independent on 7 June 879 during the reign of Duke Branimir . Tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom . During the succession crisis after the Trpimirović dynasty ended, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest , the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of Austria to
25688-428: Was formed in August under the name, Peace Party . This decision was not supported by all, and the Moscow-based Hungarian Communists led by Mátyás Rákosi condemned the decision and domestic militants. Kádár disagreed with the criticism laid against him, claiming it was a "tactical retreat" which led to the renaming of the party, but with no changes to either the party's principles or structures. His attempted plan to fool
25857-510: Was generally considered one of the better countries in which to live in Eastern Europe during the Cold War . The dramatic fall in living standards after the fall of Communism led to some nostalgia about the Kádár era. However, the relatively high living standards had their price in the form of 58% of GDP or US$ 22 bn state debt left behind by the Kádár régime. As mentioned above, the regime's cultural and social policies were still somewhat authoritarian; their impact on contemporary Hungarian culture
26026-408: Was given a new identity as an army corporal trying to cross the Hungarian-Yugoslav border. This attempt failed, and he was sentenced to two and a half years in prison. The authorities never figured out his real identity therefore members such as Rákosi thought he was a secret agent for the police. There is however no hard proof for these accusations, and incompetence remains the sole plausible reason. It
26195-573: Was given new responsibilities, and by May 1933 he became a member of the KIMSZ Budapest committee. Because of his promotion in the Communist hierarchy, he was given a new alias, Róna. The party suggested, but Kádár rejected, the offer of studying at the Lenin Institute in Moscow, claiming that he could not leave his family alone. His advance up the hierarchy came to an end when he was arrested on 21 June 1931 with other Communist activists. Kádár cracked because of police brutality , when he later confronted his fellow arrested Communists, he realized he had made
26364-463: Was in prison. Horthy was deposed by the German government and replaced by Arrow Cross Party leader Ferenc Szálasi . Szálasi's policies had an immediate effect on Kádár; he had emptied the prison Kádár lived in and sent them to Nazi concentration camps . Kádár was able to escape and made his way back to Budapest. Immediately after his return to Budapest, Kádár headed the Communist party's military committee. The committee tried to persuade workers to help
26533-518: Was later proven, when SS officer Otto Winckelmann reported to Berlin that Kádár had been arrested, they had mistakenly confused Kádár for another Communist. Kádár, while in prison, was able to send out messages to Péter, and other high-ranking party members, they were able to orchestrate a scheme to free him. In the meantime, the leader of Hungary Miklós Horthy was conspiring against the German occupiers. There were rumours that claim that Horthy tried to get in contact with Kádár, but did not know that he
26702-433: Was left to take care of Kádár. Sándor was the only man Kádár had a good relationship with throughout his early childhood. Kádár started working at an early age and helped Sándor take care of his sick wife. Kádár years later recalled how his early experiences moved him towards Marxist–Leninism . He recalls how he was accused of setting a building on fire when the true culprit was the corrupt inspector's son. Suddenly in 1918, at
26871-400: Was marked by political decisions made on hunting excursions. Kádár was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize (1975–76). He was also awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union on 3 April 1964. János Kádár held power in Hungary until the "apparat coup" in the spring of 1988, when he resigned under pressure as General Secretary in the face of mounting economic difficulties and his own ill health. At
27040-411: Was offered by Mihály Kornis , who gave a lecture about János Kádár. According to Miklós Németh 's testimony, in late May or early June 1989, a few weeks before his death, Kádár asked a Roman Catholic priest to hear his confession, which some have theorised as a sign of a possible revelation and conversion to Christianity. Kádár died of cancer on 6 July 1989 aged 77, three months before the formal end of
27209-406: Was put against him. He eventually gave up and in one letter Kádár even admitted to his faults; claiming that he was still "politically backward" and "ideologically untrained" when he headed the prewar Communist Party as First Secretary. Kádár concluded that he had been fooled by the capitalists and therefore offered his resignation from active politics. Instead of resigning, and losing his seats in
27378-400: Was somewhat uneasy for a long time. Kádár tried to mediate between the leaders of the Czechoslovak reform movement of 1968 and the Soviet leadership to avert the danger of military intervention. When the Soviet leaders took the decision to intervene to suppress the Prague Spring , Kádár decided to participate in the Warsaw Pact operation . The regression towards Stalinist economic policies in
27547-472: Was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership. Still, the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents. Following Tito's death in 1980, the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated. National tension was fanned by the 1986 SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo, and Montenegro . In January 1990,
27716-450: Was the de facto chairman of the Politburo and a de facto chief executive of Hungary. At various points he served as the prime minister in addition to being party leader. János Kádár announced the formation of the party via radio on 1 November 1956. The party supported the revolution, but turned against Imre Nagy 's government after he denounced the Warsaw Pact . The party formed a ' Revolutionary Peasant-Worker Government ' that took over
27885-434: Was the dominant component of the Patriotic People's Front , a popular front that included some non-Communists. However, all prospective candidates had to accept the Front's program in order to stand. Indeed, Kádár and his close advisers used the Front to weed out candidates they deemed unacceptable. Kádár retired on 22 May 1988 and was succeeded by Prime Minister Károly Grósz . However, Grósz soon found himself eclipsed by
28054-418: Was this experience which brought him into contact with the Communist Party of Hungary . According to Kádár he became a member of the party in 1931. In September 1930, Kádár took part in an organised trade union strike. The strike was crushed by the authorities, and many of his fellow Communists were arrested. In the aftermath of the failed strike, he supported the party by gathering signatures for candidates of
28223-441: Was under duress, he did not, by his own admission, resist as much as he could have. In a speech given on 12 April 1989, he confessed to having played a role in Nagy's execution, calling it his "own personal tragedy." Writing in 1961, American journalist John Gunther said that "Kádár today looks like a man pursued by shadows, a walking corpse." At dawn on 4 November 1956, Soviet tank divisions moved into Budapest with orders to crush
28392-414: Was unimpressed by this and sarcastically asked him if he was a "gentleman of leisure". Kádár left school at the age of fourteen in 1926. Kádár started his apprenticeship as a car mechanic. After he was turned down as a car mechanic, he started work as an apprentice of Sándor Izsák, chief Hungarian representative of Torpedo Typewriter Company in the autumn of 1927. Typewriter mechanics had a high standing among
28561-438: Was wary of the same fate. On 8 May, Kádár lost his remaining posts; officially, he retired for health reasons. Grósz and his associates were in no position to resist, as they were in turn were being sidelined by a faction of young "radical reformers" who set out to dismantle Communism altogether and rehabilitate the party's image ahead of free elections due the following year . On 12 April 1989 Kádár unexpectedly appeared and made
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