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88-476: Ivondro (former name: Lavaraty ) is a town and commune in Madagascar . It belongs to the district of Midongy-Atsimo , which is a part of Atsimo-Atsinanana Region . There are 2054 inscribed voters in this commune. To this commune belong also the villages of: This Atsimo-Atsinanana location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Madagascar Madagascar , officially

176-573: A Zanzibari traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition . In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy , and not Madagasy . Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo , possibly throughout

264-492: A strongman . Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a famine . In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout

352-449: A century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). From his initial capital Ambohimanga , and later from the Rova of Antananarivo , this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–28), who

440-808: A constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009 , Madagascar underwent a protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014. Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie . Malagasy and French are both official languages of

528-468: A given 'cutoff' (e.g. having at least one adult member with at least six years of education). A household is assigned a 'deprivation score' determined by the number of indicators they are deprived in and the 'weights' assigned to those indicators. Each dimension (health, education, standard of living, etc.) is typically given an equal weighting, and each indicator within the dimension is also typically weighted equally. If this household deprivation score exceeds

616-458: A given threshold (e.g. 1/3) then a household is considered to be 'multiply deprived', or simply 'poor'. The final 'MPI score' (or 'Adjusted Headcount Ratio') is determined by the proportion of households deemed 'poor', multiplied by the average deprivation score of 'poor' households. MPI advocates state that the method can be used to create a comprehensive picture of people living in poverty, and permits comparisons both across countries, regions and

704-738: A group of poor people who suffer two deprivations on average and a group of poor people who suffer five deprivations on average at the same time. Country X consists of persons A, B and C. The following table shows the deprivation on each of the 10 indicators for persons A, B and C. "0%" indicates no deprivation in that indicator, while "100%" indicates deprivation in that indicator. Factor H for country X is: 1 + 1 + 0 3 = 0.667 {\displaystyle {\frac {1+1+0}{3}}=0.667} Factor A for country X is: 33.33 % + 50.00 % 2 = 0.417 {\displaystyle {\frac {33.33\%+50.00\%}{2}}=0.417} Thus,

792-519: A multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana ,

880-601: A result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population. The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839. Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde , an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of

968-559: A separate version of the HDI named the IHDI ( Inequality-adjusted HDI ). While both the HDI and the MPI use the three broad dimensions health , education and standard of living , the HDI uses indicators at the aggregate level while the MPI uses microdata and all indicators must come from the same survey. This, among other reasons, has led to the MPI only being calculated for just over 100 countries, where data

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1056-511: A variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine and vincristine are vinca alkaloids , used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma , leukemia , and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle . The traveler's palm , known locally as ravinala and endemic to the eastern rain forests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo. Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna

1144-518: Is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what would eventually become New York City . An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of Malay origin, and may be related to the name of Malacca . In 1891, Saleh bin Osman,

1232-473: Is available for all these diverse indicators, while HDI is calculated for almost all countries. However, though HDI is thus more universally applicable, its relative sparsity of indicators also makes it more susceptible to bias. Indeed, some studies have found it to be somewhat biased towards GDP per capita (GDPpc), as demonstrated by a high correlation between HDI and the log of GDPpc. Hence, HDI has been criticized for ignoring other development parameters. Both

1320-621: Is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012 , there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur , 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than

1408-626: Is released annually by UNDP and OPHI and the results are published on their websites. The MPI is published along with the Human Development Index (HDI) in the Human Development Report . It replaced the Human Poverty Index . Multidimensional Poverty Indices typically use the household as their unit of analysis, though this is not an absolute requirement. A household is deprived for a given indicator if they fail to satisfy

1496-462: Is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited. One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word Malay , referring to the Austronesian origin of

1584-484: The 1973 oil crisis , resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of

1672-475: The High Transitional Authority , an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum , establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election , which

1760-567: The Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous . This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along

1848-728: The Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews. During the Second World War , the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force. The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized

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1936-549: The Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet , translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island. Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave

2024-572: The Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia . In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai , or "Malay island" in Arabic . The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira , as it was known by the Greeks , is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island. The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu , an abbreviated form of Malai Insula , in

2112-515: The Portuguese India Armadas . Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of Fort Dauphin . In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India , Jeronimo de Azevedo . Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by

2200-507: The Republic of Madagascar , is an island country comprising the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa , it is the world's fourth largest island , the second-largest island country and the 46th largest country in the world. Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo . Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana , Madagascar split from Africa during

2288-749: The Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif , and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi). The western and southern sides, which lie in

2376-615: The Vazimba . Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo , Ralambo , and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities. The written history of Madagascar began with

2464-422: The rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests , spiny forests , and deserts and xeric shrublands . Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from

2552-433: The trans-Atlantic slave trade . The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia . Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury , whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. European accounts until

2640-544: The "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot. Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries . The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests , Madagascar subhumid forests , Madagascar dry deciduous forests , Madagascar ericoid thickets , Madagascar spiny forests , Madagascar succulent woodlands , and Madagascar mangroves . More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in

2728-617: The Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam , the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe ), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements. European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of

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2816-509: The Early Jurassic , around 180 million years ago, and split from the Indian subcontinent around 90 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation; consequently, it is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries , with over 90% of wildlife being endemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar

2904-502: The MPI for country X is: 0.667 × 0.417 = 0.278 {\displaystyle 0.667\times 0.417=0.278} The Human Development Index (HDI) was developed by Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen in 1990, and was also developed by the UNDP . It is calculated as the geometric mean of the normalized indices of the three dimensions of human development; it takes into account: health, education and standard of living. UNDP has

2992-576: The Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria. The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims. Under colonial rule, plantations were established for

3080-489: The Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills. Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of

3168-543: The Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings. The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in

3256-590: The absolute power of the monarch. Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina , the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession. Over

3344-557: The adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960. Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana , was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around

3432-474: The basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War . At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority

3520-429: The central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo. Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost

3608-582: The city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. Popular resistance to the French capture of Antananarivo —known as the Menalamba rebellion —broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving

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3696-475: The coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna , including 17 species of giant lemurs , the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, Aepyornis maximus ), the giant fossa , and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus , which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing

3784-517: The coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten , a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it. The name Malagasikara , or Malagascar ,

3872-419: The country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique , located to the west. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during

3960-427: The country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. Gabriel Ramanantsoa , a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava , appointed to succeed him,

4048-404: The course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity declared

4136-408: The different types of deprivation that individuals experience at the same time, such as a lack of education or employment, or poor health or living standards. These deprivation profiles are analysed to identify who is poor and then used to construct a multidimensional index of poverty (MPI). The most common way of measuring poverty is to calculate the percentage of the population who are poor, known as

4224-514: The early 20th century identified Malagasy people as being of Jewish origin . The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in

4312-412: The first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser. Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on

4400-594: The first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. In June 2019 parliamentary elections the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as

4488-519: The following ten indicators with the following cutoffs. The indicators selected for other MPI-oriented studies vary according to the availability of data and the context, as well as the theoretical considerations of the researchers. The Alkire-Foster (AF) method is a way of measuring multidimensional poverty developed by OPHI's Sabina Alkire and James Foster . Building on the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke poverty measures, it involves counting

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4576-506: The forests of the central highlands. Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries. A wave of Bantu -speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000. Around this time, zebu from South India were first brought, intermingling with sanga found in East Africa. Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout

4664-581: The growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community . A period of provisional government ended with

4752-524: The headcount ratio ( H ). Having identified who is poor, the AF methodology generates a unique class of poverty measures ( Mα ) that goes beyond the simple headcount ratio. Three measures in this class are of high importance: M0 can be calculated with ordinal as well as cardinal data, which is why it is most often used. Cardinal data are required to calculate M1 and M2 . The AF Method is unique in that by measuring intensity it can distinguish between, for example,

4840-654: The heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island. Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless and caused more than US$ 250 million in damage. In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed 121 people, weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on

4928-465: The high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains. The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones , and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast;

5016-457: The indicators included and weightings attributed to them can change MPI scores and the resulting poverty evaluation. The Global MPI uses three standard dimensions: Health; Education; Standard of Living and ten indicators. These mirror the Human Development Index (HDI). Multidimensional Poverty Indices used for purposes other than global comparison have sometimes used different dimensions, including income and consumption. The Global MPI uses

5104-512: The initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM

5192-481: The international community deemed fair and transparent. In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in

5280-477: The island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as

5368-449: The island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported. However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See History of Madagascar ). Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear

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5456-499: The island. A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change , are going to be high. As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic . This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as

5544-648: The land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on

5632-486: The length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest . To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands , traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo , are

5720-492: The majority of the population. As of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is considered to be multidimensionally poor . In the Malagasy language , the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara ( Malagasy pronunciation: [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥] ) and its people are referred to as Malagasy . The origin of the name is uncertain, and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans. If this

5808-503: The medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar. Another hypothesis is that Madagascar is a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of Madageiscar to the south of Socotra . This name would then have been popularized on Renaissance maps by Europeans. One of

5896-438: The monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert , a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end

5984-540: The most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast. Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs : Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in

6072-599: The most numerous being the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles . The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France , from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as

6160-508: The nation's broken economy. Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010). The new Madagascar constitution established

6248-423: The neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century. The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called

6336-430: The official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions. Primarily on

6424-457: The period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand . It is proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran - Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar. Dates of settlement of

6512-418: The political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana

6600-407: The production of a variety of export crops. Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today. Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and

6688-525: The state. Christianity is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising traditional faiths . Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for

6776-640: The surviving lemur species. Multidimensional Poverty Index The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index ( MPI ) was developed in 2010 by the Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations Development Programme and uses health, education and standard of living indicators to determine the incidence and intensity of poverty experienced by a population. It has since been used to measure acute poverty across over 100 developing countries. The Global MPI

6864-514: The territory. William Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856 . The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of

6952-474: The world and within countries by ethnic group, urban/rural location, as well as other key household and community characteristics. MPIs are useful as an analytical tool to identify the most vulnerable people – the poorest among the poor, revealing poverty patterns within countries and over time, enabling policymakers to target resources and design policies more effectively. Critics of this methodology have pointed out that changes to cutoffs and thresholds, as well as

7040-561: The world, including five plant families. The family Didiereaceae , composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island. Three-fourths of Madagascar's 860 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine baobab species. The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic. Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for

7128-419: Was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history. At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi), Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country , the second-largest island country and the fourth-largest island . The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S , and longitudes 43°E and 51°E . Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and

7216-460: Was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression. The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I . In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed

7304-475: Was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of

7392-605: Was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from

7480-520: Was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption. Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina , led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état . In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of

7568-488: Was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD by Austronesian peoples , presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia . These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu groups crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classified peoples of Madagascar ,

7656-431: Was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa . Upon reaching

7744-442: Was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron , David Jones and David Griffiths , who established schools, transcribed

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