4025
113-463: Reynoutria japonica , synonyms Fallopia japonica and Polygonum cuspidatum , is a species of herbaceous perennial plant in the knotweed and buckwheat family Polygonaceae . Common names include Japanese knotweed and Asian knotweed . It is native to East Asia in Japan , China and Korea . In North America and Europe , the species has successfully established itself in numerous habitats, and
226-401: A haloperoxidase . An other important substrate is thiocyanate . The oxidized products produced through the action of this enzyme have potent and non-specific bactericidal and antiviral activities, including destruction of the influenza virus. Lactoperoxidase together with its inorganic ion substrates, hydrogen peroxide, and oxidized products is known as the lactoperoxidase system . Hence LPO
339-423: A mutation–selection balance . It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but evolutionarily neutral and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the fitness landscape will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect" or the "survival of the flattest". There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles
452-542: A two-part name , called a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs. The second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature , also sometimes in zoological nomenclature ). For example, Boa constrictor is one of the species of the genus Boa , with constrictor being the species' epithet. While the definitions given above may seem adequate at first glance, when looked at more closely they represent problematic species concepts. For example,
565-400: A "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus, early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four-winged Drosophila born to a two-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies . In the 1970s, Robert R. Sokal , Theodore J. Crovello and Peter Sneath proposed
678-424: A 'smallest clade' idea" (a phylogenetic species concept). Mishler and Wilkins and others concur with this approach, even though this would raise difficulties in biological nomenclature. Wilkins cited the ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan 's early 20th century remark that "a species is whatever a suitably qualified biologist chooses to call a species". Wilkins noted that the philosopher Philip Kitcher called this
791-487: A Property Care Association (PCA) registered firm has been satisfactorily completed. Treatment must be covered by a minimum 10-year insurance-backed guarantee, which is property specific and transferable to subsequent owners and any mortgagee in possession." Santander have relaxed their attitude in a similar fashion. In 2022 the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors produced updated guidance for assessing knotweed. Since
904-428: A connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow between each "linked" population. Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end" populations may co-exist in the same region thus closing
1017-432: A different species from its ancestors. Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable. A viral quasispecies is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly mutagenic environment, and hence governed by
1130-508: A genetic boundary suitable for defining a species concept is present. DNA barcoding has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use. One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for cytochrome c oxidase . A database, Barcode of Life Data System , contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider
1243-532: A heart flattened at the base, or a shield, and are usually around 12 cm (5 in) long. Mature R. japonica forms 2-to-3-metre-tall ( 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 to 10 ft), dense thickets. Leaves shoot from the stem nodes alternately in a zigzag pattern. Plants that are immature or affected by mowing and other restrictions have much thinner and shorter stems than mature stands, and are not hollow. Identification of Japanese knotweed may be confused with other plants suspected of being knotweed, due often to
SECTION 10
#17330848295801356-466: A large underground network of roots (rhizomes). To eradicate the plant the roots need to be killed. All above-ground portions of the plant need to be controlled repeatedly for several years in order to weaken and kill the entire patch. Picking the right herbicide is essential, as it must travel through the plant and into the root system below. But also more ecologically friendly means are being tested as an alternative to chemical treatments. The abundance of
1469-465: A lineage should be divided into multiple chronospecies , or when populations have diverged to have enough distinct character states to be described as cladistic species. Species and higher taxa were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being . In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time. Charles Darwin 's 1859 book On
1582-458: A means of controlling knotweed populations that invade sensitive wetland areas and drive out the native vegetation. It is eaten in Japan as sansai or wild foraged vegetable. In Europe, young shoots have been used in restaurant cuisine. Knotweed can grow up to 30 cm per day, hence it is a fast-growing vegetable tolerant of poor quality soils. Because knotweed is resistant to over-harvesting, it
1695-492: A misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently. Genetic introgression mediated by endosymbionts and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species. A phylogenetic or cladistic species is "the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineages (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts)". The empirical basis – observed character states – provides
1808-617: A non-translucent material can be an effective follow-up strategy. However, the trimmed stems of the plant can be razor sharp and are able to pierce through most materials. Covering with non-flexible materials such as concrete slabs has to be done meticulously and without leaving even the smallest splits. The slightest opening can be enough for the plant to grow back. Soil steam sterilization involves injecting steam into contaminated soil in order to kill subterranean plant parts. Trials in Haida Gwaii , British Columbia , using sea water sprayed on
1921-452: A number of sites in Britain in a study running from 1 April 2010 to 31 March 2014. In 2012, results suggested that establishment and population growth were likely, after the insects overwintered successfully. In 2020 Amsterdam imported and released 5,000 Japanese Aphalara itadori leaf fleas, exempting them from a strict ban on the introduction of alien species, as one of the measures to contain
2034-449: A particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as
2147-400: A perfect model of life, it is still a useful tool to scientists and conservationists for studying life on Earth, regardless of the theoretical difficulties. If species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but evolutionary processes cause species to change. This obliges taxonomists to decide, for example, when enough change has occurred to declare that
2260-499: A potential role of lactoperoxidase-catalyzed activation of carcinogens in the causation of breast cancer. During the last decades, several clinical studies describing the clinical efficacy of the lactoperoxidase system in a variety of oral care products (tooth pastes, mouth rinses) have been published. After showing indirectly, by means of measuring experimental gingivitis and caries parameters, that mouth rinses containing amyloglucosidase (γ- amylase ) and glucose oxidase activate
2373-400: A short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of genera and species are usually printed in italics . However, abbreviations such as "sp." should not be italicised. When a species' identity is not clear,
SECTION 20
#17330848295802486-404: A specialist may use "cf." before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr." (near) or "aff." (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after. With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including: The naming of
2599-523: A species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in
2712-400: A species as determined by a taxonomist. A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as
2825-488: A species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but that is not what happens in HGT. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes , and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes , including some crustaceans and echinoderms . The evolutionary biologist James Mallet concludes that there
2938-685: A species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. Many authors have argued that a simple textbook definition, following Mayr's concept, works well for most multi-celled organisms , but breaks down in several situations: Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorised as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence , cryptic species ) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity , multiple life-cycle stages). In addition, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) makes it difficult to define
3051-651: A system that gives a knotweed risk rating throughout Britain. The decision was taken on 9 March 2010 in the UK to release into the wild a Japanese psyllid insect, Aphalara itadori . Its diet is highly specific to Japanese knotweed and shows good potential for its control. Controlled release trials began in South Wales in 2016. In Scotland, the Wildlife and Natural Environment (Scotland) Act 2011 came into force in July 2012 that superseded
3164-519: A taxonomic decision at the discretion of cognizant specialists, is not governed by the Codes of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature, in contrast to the PhyloCode , and contrary to what is done in several other fields, in which the definitions of technical terms, like geochronological units and geopolitical entities, are explicitly delimited. The nomenclatural codes that guide the naming of species, including
3277-477: A time of year when little else is flowering. Japanese knotweed yields a monofloral honey , usually called bamboo honey by northeastern U.S. beekeepers , like a mild-flavored version of buckwheat honey (a related plant also in the Polygonaceae). The young stems are edible as a spring vegetable , with a flavour similar to rhubarb . In some locations, semi-cultivating Japanese knotweed for food has been used as
3390-506: A traditional biological species. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses has since 1962 developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses; this has stabilised viral taxonomy. Most modern textbooks make use of Ernst Mayr 's 1942 definition, known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines
3503-469: A unit of biodiversity . Other ways of defining species include their karyotype , DNA sequence, morphology , behaviour, or ecological niche . In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of eukaryotes is between 8 and 8.7 million. About 14% of these had been described by 2011. All species (except viruses ) are given
Reynoutria japonica - Misplaced Pages Continue
3616-447: A variation on the morphological species concept, a phenetic species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar phenotype to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms. It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits. A mate-recognition species
3729-515: A variety of reasons. Viruses are a special case, driven by a balance of mutation and selection , and can be treated as quasispecies . Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from morphology and moving towards genetics . Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept. Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts,
3842-438: Is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies". This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley and Mayden stated that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical" to Willi Hennig 's species-as-lineages concept, and asserted that
3955-607: Is a peroxidase enzyme secreted from mammary, salivary and other mucosal glands including the lungs, bronchii and nose that functions as a natural and the first line of defense against bacteria and viruses. Lactoperoxidase is a member of the heme peroxidase family of enzymes. In humans, lactoperoxidase is encoded by the LPO gene . Lactoperoxidase catalyzes the oxidation of several inorganic and organic substrates by hydrogen peroxide . These substrates include bromide and iodide and therefore lactoperoxidase can be categorised as
4068-400: Is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognise one another as potential mates. Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridise successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if
4181-458: Is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters. A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This
4294-535: Is also resilient in response to cutting, vigorously resprouting from the roots. Japanese Knotweed (Reynoutria japonica) has a strong and extensive root system that can penetrate through the cracks of hard surfaces such as concrete, asphalt, and brick. As the plant grows, it can cause significant damage to building foundations, walls, and drainage systems, which can be very costly to repair. Its invasive roots can also damage concrete foundations, buildings, roads, paving, retaining walls, and architectural sites. Additionally,
4407-422: Is an effective antimicrobial agent and is used as an antibacterial agent in reducing bacterial microflora in milk and milk products. Activation of the lactoperoxidase system by addition of hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate extends the shelf life of refrigerated raw milk. It is fairly heat resistant and is used as an indicator of overpasteurization of milk. A lactoperoxidase system is claimed to appropriate for
4520-448: Is an effective antimicrobial and antiviral agent. Consequently, applications of lactoperoxidase are being found in preserving food, cosmetics, and ophthalmic solutions. Furthermore, lactoperoxidase have found application in dental and wound treatment. Finally lactoperoxidase may find application as anti-tumor and anti viral agents. Lactoperoxidase has been used with radioactive iodine to selectively label membrane surfaces. Lactoperoxidase
4633-430: Is bound near the center of the protein. Lactoperoxidase catalyzes the hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) oxidation of several acceptor molecules: Specific examples include: Source of the hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) usually is the reaction of glucose with oxygen in the presence of the enzyme glucose oxidase ( EC 1.1.3.4 ) that also takes place in saliva . Glucose, in turn, can be formed from starch in
Reynoutria japonica - Misplaced Pages Continue
4746-414: Is called speciation . Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book The Origin of Species . Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation , a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in allopatric speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation
4859-548: Is classed as an unwanted organism in New Zealand and is established in some parts of the country. European adventurer Philipp Franz von Siebold transported Japanese knotweed from a Japanese volcano to Leiden Netherlands. By 1850, a specimen from this plant was donated by Von Siebold to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . It was favoured by gardeners because it looked like bamboo and grew everywhere. Ann Conolly provided
4972-472: Is classified as a pest and invasive species in several countries. The plant is popular with beekeepers, and its young stems are edible, making it an increasingly popular foraged vegetable with a flavour described as lemony rhubarb . The flowers are small, cream or white, produced in erect racemes 6–15 cm ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 –6 in) long in late summer and early autumn. Japanese knotweed has hollow stems with distinct raised nodes that give it
5085-484: Is considered a very important defense against invasive bacteria and viral agents such as influenza and the SARS-CoV-2 virus when sufficient iodine is provided. The lactoperoxidase system plays an important role in the innate immune system by killing bacteria in milk and mucosal (linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, which are involved in absorption and secretion) secretions hence augmentation of
5198-480: Is decreased, resulting in a reduced production of the antimicrobial hypothiocyanite and consequently contributes to increased risk of airway infection. Peroxidase-generated hypoiodous acid (HOI), hypoiodite and hypothiocyanite all destroy the herpes simplex virus and human immunodeficiency virus . Both the hypothiocyanite and the hypoiodate ion products are very potent and importantly non-specific antiviral oxidants which are lethal, even in small concentrations, to
5311-403: Is dependent on experimental conditions. If the bacteria are cultured after the exposure to lactoperoxidase-thiocyanate-hydrogen peroxide on nutrient agar under aerobic conditions, they may not grow, whereas they grow readily on blood agar under anaerobic conditions." In its antimicrobial capacity, lactoperoxidase appears to acts synergistically with lactoferrin and lysozyme . Lactoperoxidase
5424-403: Is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, which may not be based solely on morphology (see cryptic species ), differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a validly published name (in botany) or an available name (in zoology) when
5537-671: Is further weakened by the existence of microspecies , groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming species aggregates . For example, the dandelion Taraxacum officinale and the blackberry Rubus fruticosus are aggregates with many microspecies—perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion, complicated by hybridisation , apomixis and polyploidy , making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable. Species complexes occur in insects such as Heliconius butterflies, vertebrates such as Hypsiboas treefrogs, and fungi such as
5650-726: Is hard or even impossible to test. Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others. Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to count: the biologist R. L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts, and the philosopher of science John Wilkins counted 26. Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1) agamospecies for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3) ecospecies based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species,
5763-880: Is more often foraged than cultivated as a vegetable. The plant can be eaten raw or cooked. Ground-feeding songbirds and gamebirds also eat the seeds. Rhizome of R. japonica is the source of lactoperoxidase peroxidation cycle substrates, which can act as activators and inhibitors of the antimicrobial properties of that system. It grows widely throughout Japan and is foraged as a wild edible vegetable ( sansai ), though not in sufficient quantities to be included in statistics. They are called by such regional names as tonkiba ( Yamagata ), itazuiko ( Nagano , Mie ), itazura ( Gifu , Toyama , Nara , Wakayama , Kagawa ), gonpachi ( Shizuoka , Nara, Mie, Wakayama), sashi ( Akita , Yamagata), jajappo ( Shimane , Tottori , Okayama), sukanpo (many areas). Young leaves and shoots, which look like asparagus, are used. They are extremely sour;
SECTION 50
#17330848295805876-403: Is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced over large geographic ranges and time periods. The botanist Brent Mishler argued that the species concept
5989-472: Is not restricted to caries, gingivitis, and periodontitis . A combination of lysozyme and lactoperoxidase can be applied to support the treatment of the burning mouth syndrome ( glossodynia ). In combination with lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase combats halitosis ; in combination with lactoferrin and lysozyme, lactoperoxidase helps to improve symptoms of xerostomia. Furthermore, gels with lactoperoxidase help to improve symptoms of oral cancer when saliva production
6102-468: Is not valid, notably because gene flux decreases gradually rather than in discrete steps, which hampers objective delimitation of species. Indeed, complex and unstable patterns of gene flux have been observed in cichlid teleosts of the East African Great Lakes . Wilkins argued that "if we were being true to evolution and the consequent phylogenetic approach to taxa, we should replace it with
6215-489: Is now considered one of the worst invasive exotics in parts of the eastern United States. The success of the species has been partially attributed to its tolerance of a very wide range of conditions, including drought, different soil types, variable soil pH, and high salinity. Its rhizomes can survive temperatures of −35 °C (−31 °F) and can extend 7 metres (23 ft) horizontally and 3 metres (10 ft) deep, making removal by excavation extremely difficult. The plant
6328-473: Is present in excess of thiocyanide. The combination of lactoperoxidase, hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanide is much more effective than hydrogen peroxide alone to inhibit bacterial metabolism and growth. The oxidation of estradiol by lactoperoxidase is a possible source of oxidative stress in breast cancer . The ability of lactoperoxidase to propagate a chain reaction leading to oxygen consumption and intracellular hydrogen peroxide accumulation could explain
6441-586: Is similar to Mayr's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation. In the 21st century, a genetic species could be established by comparing DNA sequences. Earlier, other methods were available, such as comparing karyotypes (sets of chromosomes ) and allozymes ( enzyme variants). An evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) or "wildlife species" is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation. In palaeontology , with only comparative anatomy (morphology) and histology from fossils as evidence,
6554-555: Is sometimes an important source of genetic variation. Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains , making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species. Lactoperoxidase 76113 ENSG00000167419 ENSMUSG00000009356 P22079 n/a NM_001160102 NM_006151 NM_080420 NP_001153574 NP_006142 n/a Lactoperoxidase
6667-646: Is still sometimes sold or swapped in Canada as an edible "false bamboo". Bohemian knotweed , a hybrid between Japanese and giant knotweed that produces huge quantities of viable seeds, now accounts for about 80 per cent of knotweed infestations in British Columbia. Common names for Japanese knotweed include fleeceflower, Himalayan fleece vine, billyweed, monkeyweed, monkey fungus, elephant ears, pea shooters, donkey rhubarb, American bamboo, and Mexican bamboo, among many others, depending on country and location. In Japanese ,
6780-594: Is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible alleles of the same gene, as described in the Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model . A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form (a chronospecies ), without increasing the number of resultant species. Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through hybridisation , antigenic shift , or reassortment ,
6893-523: The ICZN for animals and the ICN for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with sensu stricto ("in the narrow sense") to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as
SECTION 60
#17330848295807006-399: The fly agaric . Natural hybridisation presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the carrion crow Corvus corone and the hooded crow Corvus cornix appear and are classified as separate species, yet they can hybridise where their geographical ranges overlap. A ring species is
7119-498: The jaguar ( Panthera onca ) of Latin America or the leopard ( Panthera pardus ) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal (except for some inter-code homonyms ); they are in two parts used together : the genus as in Puma , and the specific epithet as in concolor . A species is given a taxonomic name when a type specimen
7232-406: The "cynical species concept", and arguing that far from being cynical, it usefully leads to an empirical taxonomy for any given group, based on taxonomists' experience. Other biologists have gone further and argued that we should abandon species entirely, and refer to the "Least Inclusive Taxonomic Units" (LITUs), a view that would be coherent with current evolutionary theory. The species concept
7345-430: The 2012 RICS report much more information on the risks from Japanese knotweed have been gained. One important change is that the distance of a plant from a property to be considered a problem has been reduced to 3 metres (10 feet). Property Care Association chief executive Steve Hodgson, whose trade body has set up a task force to deal with the issue, said: "Japanese knotweed is not 'house cancer' and could be dealt with in
7458-622: The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection . That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology . Genetic variability arises from mutations and recombination , while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to geographical isolation and genetic drift with varying selection pressures . Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal gene transfer ; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and polyploidy ; and species may become extinct for
7571-473: The UK government, the cost of controlling knotweed had hit £1.25 billion in 2014. It cost £70 million to eradicate knotweed from 10 acres of the London 2012 Olympic Games velodrome and aquatic centre. Defra 's Review of Non-native Species Policy states that a national eradication programme would be prohibitively expensive at £1.56 billion. The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology has been using citizen science to develop
7684-546: The United Kingdom, Japanese knotweed has received a lot of attention in the press as a result of very restrictive lending policies by banks and other mortgage companies. Several lenders have refused mortgage applications on the basis of the plant being discovered in the garden or neighbouring gardens. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors published a report in 2012 in response to lenders refusing to lend "despite [knotweed] being treatable and rarely causing severe damage to
7797-510: The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. This act states that is an offence to spread intentionally or unintentionally Japanese knotweed (or other non-native invasive species). In Northern Ireland , it has been recorded from Counties Down , Antrim and Londonderry . The earliest record is in 1872. In the Republic of Ireland , it has been recorded from Howth Head , County Dublin at Doldrum Bay. In
7910-405: The abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (standing for species pluralis , Latin for "multiple species") in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g. Canis sp.). This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in paleontology . Authors may also use "spp." as
8023-570: The amount of hybridisation is insufficient to completely mix their respective gene pools . A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species. In microbiology , genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA–DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to
8136-675: The appearance of bamboo , though it is not related. While stems may reach a maximum height of 3–4 m (10–13 ft) each growing season, it is typical to see much smaller plants in places where they sprout through cracks in the pavement or are repeatedly cut down. The leaves are broad oval with a truncated base, 7–14 cm (3– 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) long and 5–12 cm (2– 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) broad, with an entire margin. New leaves of Reynoutria japonica are dark red and 1 to 4 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 to 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) long; young leaves are green and rolled back with dark red veins; leaves are green and shaped like
8249-474: The biological species concept, "the several versions" of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggested that the concept works for both asexual and sexually-reproducing species. A version of the concept is Kevin de Queiroz 's "General Lineage Concept of Species". An ecological species
8362-505: The biological species concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation – its criteria are independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. Therefore, it applies to asexual lineages. However, it does not always provide clear cut and intuitively satisfying boundaries between taxa, and may require multiple sources of evidence, such as more than one polymorphic locus, to give plausible results. An evolutionary species, suggested by George Gaylord Simpson in 1951,
8475-428: The boundaries between closely related species become unclear with hybridisation , in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies , and in a ring species . Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually , the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Although none of these are entirely satisfactory definitions, and while the concept of species may not be
8588-446: The clinically important Staphylococcus and many Streptococcus types. The lactoperoxidase system efficiently inhibits the common helicobacter pylori in buffer; however, in whole human saliva, it seems to have a weaker effect against this microbe. It has been shown that lactoperoxidase in the presence of thiocyanide can catalyze the bactericidal and cytotoxic effects of hydrogen peroxide under specific conditions when hydrogen peroxide
8701-433: The concept of a chronospecies can be applied. During anagenesis (evolution, not necessarily involving branching), some palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the phyletically extinct one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, some palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered
8814-499: The country and creates problems due to the impact on biodiversity, flooding management and damage to property. It is an offence under section 14(2) of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 to "plant or otherwise cause to grow in the wild" any plant listed in Schedule nine, Part II to the Act, which includes Japanese knotweed. As of 2014, householders and landlords within towns, who do not control
8927-435: The evidence to support hypotheses about evolutionarily divergent lineages that have maintained their hereditary integrity through time and space. Molecular markers may be used to determine diagnostic genetic differences in the nuclear or mitochondrial DNA of various species. For example, in a study done on fungi , studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising
9040-476: The fibrous outer skin must be peeled, soaked in water for half a day raw or after parboiling, before being cooked. This species is listed by the World Conservation Union as one of the world's worst invasive species . It is a frequent colonizer of temperate riparian ecosystems , roadsides, and waste places. It forms thick, dense colonies that completely crowd out any other herbaceous species and
9153-403: The first authoritative work on the history and distribution of the plant in the UK and Europe in the 1970s. According to The Daily Telegraph , the weed has travelled rapidly, aided by rail and water networks. In the UK, Japanese knotweed is a single female clone. However, it is able to readily hybridise with related species. In the UK, Japanese knotweed is established in the wild in many parts of
9266-418: The foliage, have not demonstrated promising results. Research has been carried out on a Mycosphaerella leaf spot fungus, which devastates knotweed in its native Japan. This research has been relatively slow due to the complex life cycle of the fungus. Following earlier studies, imported Japanese knotweed psyllid insects Aphalara itadori , whose only food source is Japanese knotweed, were released at
9379-537: The hydroxyl radical-induced DNA base lesions recently reported in female breast cancer tissue. Lactoperoxidase may be involved in breast carcinogenesis, because of its ability to interact with estrogenic hormones and oxidise them through two one-electron reaction steps. Lactoperoxidase reacts with the phenolic A-ring of estrogens to produce reactive free radicals . In addition, lactoperoxidase may activate carcinogenic aromatic and heterocyclic amines and increase binding levels of activated products to DNA, which suggests
9492-400: The influenza virus. The anti-viral activity of lactoperoxidase is enhanced with increasing concentrations of iodide ion. This enzyme has been shown effective against a highly dangerous and tough RNA virus (poliovirus) and a long-lived DNA virus (vaccina). The duox2-lactoperoxidase system has been shown to offer protection against many dozens of bacteria and mycoplasmas including varieties of
9605-478: The initiation of breast cancer , through its ability to oxidize estrogenic hormones producing free radical intermediates. The structure of lactoperoxidase consists mainly of alpha-helices plus two short antiparallel beta-strands . Lactoperoxidase belongs to the heme peroxidase family of mammalian enzymes that also includes myeloperoxidase (MPO), eosinophil peroxidase (EPO), thyroid peroxidase (TPO), and prostaglandin H synthase (PGHS). A heme cofactor
9718-423: The knotweed. The psyllids suck up sap from the plant, potentially killing young shoots and slowing or even stopping growth. It was hoped that the psyllid would hibernate over winter and establish themselves in 2021. Anecdotal reports of effective control describe the use of goats to eat the plant parts above ground followed by the use of pigs to root out and eat the underground parts of the plant. Japanese knotweed
9831-441: The lactoperoxidase system may have therapeutic applications. Furthermore, addition or augmentation of the lactoperoxidase system has potential applications in controlling bacteria in food and consumer health care products. The lactoperoxidase system does not attack DNA and is not mutagenic. However, under certain conditions, the lactoperoxidase system may contribute to oxidative stress. Furthermore, lactoperoxidase may contribute to
9944-455: The lactoperoxidase system, the protective mechanism of the enzymes in oral care products has been partially elucidated. Enzymes such as lysozyme , lactoperoxidase and glucose oxidase are transferred from the tooth pastes to the pellicle . Being components of the pellicle, these enzymes are catalytically highly active. Also, as part of tooth pastes, the lactoperoxidase system has a beneficial influence to avoid early childhood caries by reducing
10057-493: The mammalian immune defense system; the lactoperoxidase system is considered the first line of defense against airborne bacteria and viral agents. Importantly, lactoperoxidase is also extruded into the lung, bronchii and nasal mucus. Hypothiocyanite is one of the reactive intermediates produced by the activity of lactoperoxidase on thiocyanate and hydrogen peroxide produced by dual oxidase 2 proteins, also known as Duox2. Thiocyanate secretion in cystic fibrosis patients
10170-477: The name is itadori ( 虎杖, イタドリ ) , with the kanji rendering from the Chinese meaning "tiger staff". Species A species ( pl. : species) is a population of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring , typically by sexual reproduction . It is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as
10283-403: The number of colonies formed by the cariogenic microflora while increasing the thiocyanate concentration. With xerostomia patients, tooth pastes with the lactoperoxidase system are seemingly superior to fluoride -containing tooth pastes with respect to plaque formation and gingivitis. More studies are required to examine further the protective mechanisms. The application of lactoperoxidase
10396-478: The numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied. Versions of the phylogenetic species concept that emphasise monophyly or diagnosability may lead to splitting of existing species, for example in Bovidae , by recognising old subspecies as species, despite the fact that there are no reproductive barriers, and populations may intergrade morphologically. Others have called this approach taxonomic inflation , diluting
10509-570: The other side." At Mission Point Park in Davis Bay, British Columbia, municipal crews attempted to eradicate it by digging out the plant to a depth of about three metres (10 feet) with an excavator. It grew back twice as large the next year. To avoid an epidemic as in the United Kingdom, some provinces in Canada are pushing for relaxation of provincial limits on the use of herbicides close to waterways so knotweed can be aggressively managed with strong chemicals. In spite of its status as an invasive species it
10622-585: The paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens. Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence". Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully, using
10735-674: The person who named the species, while the antonym sensu lato ("in the broad sense") denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct." ("author"), and qualifiers such as "non" ("not") may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species. Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species, exchanging genes with other species, merging with other species or by becoming extinct. The evolutionary process by which biological populations of sexually-reproducing organisms evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species
10848-442: The plant can be significantly reduced by applying glyphosate , imazapyr , a combination of both, or by cutting all visible stalks and filling the stems with glyphosate. However, these methods have not been proven to provide reliable long-term results in eliminating the treated population. Digging up the rhizomes is a common solution where the land is to be developed, as this is quicker than the use of herbicides, but safe disposal of
10961-482: The plant in their gardens, can receive an on-the-spot fine or be prosecuted. It is also classed as "controlled waste" in Britain under part 2 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 . This requires disposal at licensed landfill sites. Some home owners in the United Kingdom are unable to sell their homes if there is any evidence of knotweed on the property. The species is expensive to remove. According to
11074-432: The plant is "within 7 metres (23 feet) of the main building, habitable spaces, conservatory and/or garage and any permanent outbuilding, either within the curtilage of the property or on neighbouring land; and/or is causing serious damage to permanent outbuildings, associated structures, drains, paths, boundary walls and fences" Woolwich lending criteria now specify that this property may be acceptable if "remedial treatment by
11187-423: The plant material without spreading it is difficult; knotweed is classed as controlled waste in the UK, and disposal is regulated by law. Digging up the roots is also very labour-intensive and not always effective. The roots can extend up to 3 metres (10 feet) deep, and leaving even just a few centimetres (inches) of root behind will result in the plant quickly growing back. Covering the affected patch of ground with
11300-489: The plant's dense growth can impede water flow, increasing the risk of flooding by reducing the capacity of flood channels to carry water. Recent reporting suggests that Japanese knotweed is not nearly as destructive to structures as once thought. Damage appears to only occur at or near areas that were already compromised. Japanese knotweed shades out other vegetation , grows over buildings and other structures, encourages fire, and damages paved surfaces. Japanese knotweed has
11413-481: The presence of the saliva enzyme amyloglucosidase ( EC 3.2.1.3 ). These relatively short lived oxidized intermediates have potent bactericidal effects, hence lactoperoxidase is part of the antimicrobial defense system in tissues that express lactoperoxidase. The lactoperoxidase system is effective in killing a range of aerobic and certain anaerobic microorganisms. Research (1984): "The effect of lactoperoxidase-thiocyanate-hydrogen peroxide mixtures on bacteria
11526-412: The property then a case will be declined due to the invasive nature of the plant." Their criteria have since been relaxed to a category-based system depending on whether the plant is discovered on a neighbouring property (categories 1 and 2) or the property itself (categories 3 and 4) incorporating proximity to the property curtilage and the main buildings. Even in a worst-case scenario (category 4), where
11639-415: The property". There is a real lack of information and understanding of what Japanese knotweed is and the actual damage it can cause. Without actual advice and guidance, surveyors have been unsure of how to assess the risk of Japanese knotweed, which can result in inconsistent reporting of the plant in mortgage valuations. RICS hopes that this advice will provide the industry with the tools it needs to measure
11752-487: The result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species. The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat" could mean the domestic cat, Felis catus , or the cat family, Felidae . Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean Puma concolor in various parts of America, while "panther" may also mean
11865-573: The ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation. However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the herring gull – lesser black-backed gull complex around the North pole, the Ensatina eschscholtzii group of 19 populations of salamanders in America, and the greenish warbler in Asia, but many so-called ring species have turned out to be
11978-463: The risk effectively, and provide banks with the information they require to identify who and how much to lend to at a time when it is essential to keep the housing market moving. In response to this guidance, several lenders have relaxed their criteria in relation to discovery of the plant. As recently as 2012, the policy at the Woolwich (part of Barclays plc ) was "if Japanese knotweed is found on or near
12091-508: The same species. This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7%. The average nucleotide identity (ANI) method quantifies genetic distance between entire genomes , using regions of about 10,000 base pairs . With enough data from genomes of one genus, algorithms can be used to categorize species, as for Pseudomonas avellanae in 2013, and for all sequenced bacteria and archaea since 2020. Observed ANI values among sequences appear to have an "ANI gap" at 85–95%, suggesting that
12204-529: The same species. When two species names are discovered to apply to the same species, the older species name is given priority and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called synonymy . Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting . Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms. The circumscription of taxa, considered
12317-554: The same way qualified contractors dealt with faulty wiring or damp." The weed can be found in 42 of the 50 United States. According to Gail Wallin, executive director of the Invasive Species Council of B.C., and co-chair of the Canadian Council on Invasive Species, by 2015 it was found in all provinces in Canada except Manitoba and Saskatchewan. In Vancouver plants went under "four lanes of highway and have popped up on
12430-612: The similar appearance of leaves and stems. Dogwood , lilac , houttuynia ( Houttuynia cordata ), ornamental bistorts such as red bistort ( Persicaria amplexicaulis ) , lesser knotweed ( Koenigia campanulata ), Himalayan balsam ( Impatiens glandulifera ), broad-leaved dock ( Rumex obtusifolius ), bindweed ( Convolvulus arvensis ), bamboo , Himalayan honeysuckle ( Leycesteria formosa ), and Russian vine ( Fallopia baldschuanica ) have been suspected of being Reynoutria japonica . Japanese knotweed flowers are valued by some beekeepers as an important source of nectar for honeybees, at
12543-502: The species concept and making taxonomy unstable. Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding. Unlike
12656-735: The treatment of gingivitis and paradentosis . Lactoperoxidase has been used in toothpaste or a mouthrinse to reduce oral bacteria and consequently the acid produced by those bacteria. A combination of lactoperoxidase, glucose, glucose oxidase (GOD), iodide and thiocyanate is claimed to be effective in the preservations of cosmetics. Antibody conjugates of glucose oxidase and to lactoperoxidase have been found to effective in killing tumor cells in vitro. In addition, macrophages exposed to lactoperoxidase are stimulated to kill cancer cells. Knockout mice deficient in lactoperoxidase suffer ill-health and develop tumors. The antibacterial and anti-viral activities of lactoperoxidase play an important role in
12769-537: The wild. It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species concepts is called the species problem. The problem was recognised even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in On the Origin of Species : I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. He went on to write: No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of
#579420