146-551: The revolutionary period in Irish history was the period in the 1910s and early 1920s when Irish nationalist opinion shifted from the Home Rule -supporting Irish Parliamentary Party to the republican Sinn Féin movement. There were several waves of civil unrest linked to Ulster loyalism , trade unionism , and physical force republicanism , leading to the Irish War of Independence ,
292-609: A creeping barrage . The main attack was made on the open and flat sector defended by the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps . After an entire year spent in the trenches, the Portuguese were tired and had suffered heavy losses. They were being replaced in the front line by fresh British divisions, an operation that was planned to be completed on 9 April, the same day as the Germans attacked the sector. The process of relief in place
438-769: A war of attrition , yet he was not ready to give up the German gains in the west and east and was one of the main obstacles to the German government's attempts to reach a settlement with the Western Allies. Although Ludendorff was unsure whether the Americans would enter the war in strength, at a meeting of the Chiefs of Staff of the German armies on the Western Front on 11 November 1917, he decided to launch an offensive. The German government and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg , nominally
584-570: A "rear zone" where reserves were held ready to counter-attack or seal off penetrations. In theory, a British infantry division (with nine infantry battalions) deployed three battalions in the outpost zone, four battalions in the battle zone and two battalions in the rear zone. This change had not been completely implemented by the Allies. In particular, in the sector held by the British Fifth Army , which they had recently taken over from French units,
730-558: A Gaelic resurgence reestablished Gaelic cultural preeminence over most of the country, apart from the walled towns and the area around Dublin known as The Pale . Reduced to the control of small pockets, the English Crown did not make another attempt to conquer the island until after the end of the Wars of the Roses (1488). This released resources and manpower for overseas expansion, beginning in
876-524: A few days, to avoid being overburdened, and relied on supplies delivered quickly from the rear. The advance was slowed by supply shortages, which gave Allied commanders more time to reinforce the threatened areas and to slow the advance still more. German supply difficulties were made worse by the direction of advance, which crossed the wasteland created during the Battle of the Somme in 1916 and by Operation Alberich ,
1022-604: A fortified area around Dublin ( the Pale ), whose rulers had little real authority outside (beyond the Pale). By the end of the 15th century, central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared. England's attentions were diverted by the Wars of the Roses . The Lordship of Ireland lay in the hands of the powerful Fitzgerald Earl of Kildare , who dominated the country by means of military force and alliances with Irish lords and clans. Around
1168-470: A market town. Over the next century, a great period of economic growth would spread across the pastoral country. The Vikings brought Ireland into their wide-ranging system of international trade, as well as popularizing a silver-based economy with local trade and the first minting of coins in 997. In 902 Máel Finnia mac Flannacain of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecáin of Leinster joined forces against Dublin, and "The heathens were driven from Ireland, i.e. from
1314-479: A period of modernization and elevation on the European stage. Under his rule, the first castles in Ireland were built bringing improved defence and brought a new aspect to Irish warfare. He also built a naval base and castle at Dún Gaillimhe . A settlement grew around this castle which would grow to be the city of Galway today. He was a superb military commander and this allowed him to keep control of Ireland, with
1460-604: A prehistoric emphasis on tribal affiliation had been replaced by the 8th century by patrilineal dynasties ruling the island's kingdoms. Many formerly powerful kingdoms and peoples disappeared. Irish pirates struck all over the coast of western Britain in the same way that the Vikings would later attack Ireland. Some of these founded entirely new kingdoms in Pictland and, to a lesser degree, in parts of Cornwall , Wales , and Cumbria . The Attacotti of south Leinster may even have served in
1606-640: A remarkable account of his experiences on the run in Ireland. The re-conquest was completed during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I , after several brutal conflicts. (See the Desmond Rebellions , 1569–73 and 1579–83, and the Nine Years War , 1594–1603, for details.) After this point, the English authorities in Dublin established real control over Ireland for the first time, bringing a centralised government to
SECTION 10
#17330863176631752-502: A rich culture flourished. The society of these kingdoms was dominated by an upper class consisting of aristocratic warriors and learned people, which possibly included Druids . Linguists realised from the 17th century onwards that the language spoken by these people, the Goidelic languages , was a branch of the Celtic languages . This is usually explained as a result of invasions by Celts from
1898-604: A temporary advantage in numbers as nearly 50 divisions had been freed by the Russian defeat and withdrawal from the war with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . There were four German offensives, codenamed Michael , Georgette , Gneisenau , and Blücher-Yorck . Michael was the main attack, which was intended to break through the Allied lines, outflank the British forces (which held the front from
2044-808: Is said that the Romans invaded Anglesey in Wales causing concerns across the Irish Sea, but there is a small controversy on if they even set foot into Ireland. The closest Rome got to conquering Ireland was in 80 CE, when, according to Turtle Bunbury from the Irish Times , “Túathal Techtmar, the son of a deposed high king, who is said to have invaded Ireland from afar in order to regain his kingdom at about this time”. The Romans referred to Ireland as Hibernia around CE 100. Ptolemy , in CE 100, recorded Ireland's geography and tribes. Ireland
2190-502: Is traditionally credited with preserving and codifying Irish laws and changing only those that conflicted with Christian practices. He is credited with introducing the Roman alphabet , which enabled Irish monks to preserve parts of the extensive oral literature. The historicity of these claims remains the subject of debate and there is no direct evidence linking Patrick with any of these accomplishments. The myth of Patrick, as scholars refer to it,
2336-574: The British Third Army . The artillery bombardment began at 4.40am on March 21. The bombardment [hit] targets over an area of 150 square miles [390 km ], the biggest barrage of the entire war. Over 1,100,000 shells were fired in five hours... The German armies involved were—from north to south—the Seventeenth Army under Otto von Below , the Second Army under Georg von der Marwitz and
2482-455: The December 1918 elections , Sinn Féin , the party of the rebels, won three-quarters of all seats in Ireland. Twenty-seven of these MPs assembled in Dublin on 21 January 1919 to form a 32-county Irish Republic parliament. The First Dáil Éireann unilaterally declared sovereignty over the island of Ireland. Unwilling to negotiate any understanding with Britain short of complete independence,
2628-733: The Early Middle Ages . The period of Insular art , mainly in the fields of illuminated manuscripts , metalworking, and sculpture flourished and produced such treasures as the Book of Kells , the Ardagh Chalice , and the many carved stone crosses that dot the island. Insular style was to be a crucial ingredient in the formation of the Romanesque and Gothic styles throughout Western Europe. Sites dating to this period include clochans , ringforts and promontory forts . Francis John Byrne describes
2774-522: The Eighteenth Army under Oskar von Hutier , with a Corps (Gruppe Gayl) from the Seventh Army supporting Hutier's attack. Although the British had learned the approximate time and location of the offensive, the weight of the attack and of the preliminary bombardment was an unpleasant surprise. The Germans were also fortunate in that the morning of the attack was foggy, allowing the stormtroopers leading
2920-570: The Irish Confederate Wars in 1641-52 and the Williamite war in 1689–91. Political power thereafter rested almost exclusively in the hands of a minority Protestant Ascendancy, while Catholics and members of dissenting Protestant denominations suffered severe political and economic privations under the Penal Laws . On 1 January 1801, in the wake of the republican United Irishmen Rebellion ,
3066-635: The Irish Parliament was abolished and Ireland became part of a new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland formed by the Acts of Union 1800 . Catholics were not granted full rights until Catholic Emancipation in 1829, achieved by Daniel O’Connell . The Great Famine struck Ireland in 1845 resulting in over a million deaths from starvation and disease and a million refugees fleeing the country, mainly to America. Irish attempts to break away continued with Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party which strove from
SECTION 20
#17330863176633212-577: The Irish Republican Army , the army of the newly declared Irish Republic, waged a guerilla war (the Irish War of Independence ) from 1919 to 1921. In the course of the fighting and amid much acrimony, the Fourth Government of Ireland Act 1920 implemented Home Rule while separating the island into what the British government 's Act termed " Northern Ireland " and " Southern Ireland ". In July 1921
3358-697: The Irish War of Independence , most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom to become the independent Irish Free State , but under the Anglo-Irish Treaty the six northeastern counties, known as Northern Ireland , remained within the United Kingdom, creating the partition of Ireland. The treaty was opposed by many; their opposition led to the outbreak of the Irish Civil War , in which Irish Free State , or "pro-treaty", forces proved victorious. The history of Northern Ireland has since been dominated by
3504-783: The Ludendorff offensive , was a series of German attacks along the Western Front during the First World War , beginning on 21 March 1918. Following American entry into the war in April 1917, the Germans decided that their only remaining chance of victory was to defeat the Allies before the United States could ship soldiers across the Atlantic and fully deploy its resources. The German Army had gained
3650-457: The Norman invasion of Ireland . By the 12th century, Ireland was divided politically into shifting petty kingdoms and over-kingdoms. Power was exercised by the heads of a few regional dynasties vying against each other for supremacy over the whole island. One of these men, King Diarmait Mac Murchada of Leinster was forcibly exiled by the new High King, Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair of
3796-753: The Partition of Ireland , the creation of the Irish Free State , and the Irish Civil War . Some modern historians define the revolutionary period as the period from the introduction of the Third Home Rule Bill to the end of the Civil War (1912/1913 to 1923), or sometimes more narrowly as the period from the Easter Rising to the end of the War of Independence or the Civil War (1916 to 1921/1923). The early years of
3942-615: The Somme River to the English Channel ) and defeat the British Army. Once that was achieved, it was hoped that the French would seek armistice terms. The other offensives were subsidiary to Michael and were designed to divert Allied forces from the main offensive effort on the Somme. No clear objective was established before the start of the offensives and once the operations were underway,
4088-498: The 13-year period from 1911 to 1923, as representing the turbulent years that had such a dramatic impact on the course of our island's history. There are approximately 62 events in that period which constitute the package of centenary celebrations, from the arrival of James Connolly in Belfast in 1911 through to the ending of the Civil War in 1923." A series of conferences, Reflecting on a decade of War and Revolution in Ireland 1912–1923
4234-462: The 1880s to attain Home Rule through the parliamentary constitutional movement, eventually winning the Home Rule Act 1914 , although this Act was suspended at the outbreak of World War I . In 1916, the Easter Rising succeeded in turning public opinion against the British establishment after the execution of the leaders by British authorities. It also eclipsed the home rule movement. In 1922, after
4380-540: The 25/26 March – before requests came in from Haig. The Allies reacted by appointing the French General Ferdinand Foch to coordinate all Allied activity in France, and subsequently as commander-in-chief of all Allied forces everywhere. The success of Operation Michael led German infantry to advance too far from its supply bases and railheads. The stormtrooper units leading the advance carried supplies for only
4526-544: The Aisne, whereas Foch and Haig did not overcommit reserves to the Aisne. Ludendorff sought to extend Blücher-Yorck westward with Operation Gneisenau, intending to draw yet more Allied reserves south, widen the German salient and link with the German salient at Amiens. The French had been warned of this attack (the Battle of Matz ( French : Bataille du Matz )) by information from German prisoners, and their defence in depth reduced
Irish revolutionary period - Misplaced Pages Continue
4672-539: The Chief of the General Staff, were not party to the planning process. Eventually it was decided to launch Operation Michael near Saint-Quentin , at the hinge between the French and British armies, and strike north to Arras. The main reason for the choice was tactical expediency. The ground on this sector of the front would dry out much sooner after the winter and spring rains and would therefore be easier to advance across. It
4818-634: The Free State and stay within the United Kingdom : it promptly did so. In 1922, both parliaments ratified the Treaty , formalising dominion status for the 26-county Irish Free State (which renamed itself Ireland and claimed sovereignty over the entire island in 1937, and declared itself a republic in 1949), while Northern Ireland, gaining Home Rule for itself, remained part of the United Kingdom. Separate unionist and nationalist historical narratives exist for
4964-531: The Free State, when it was governed by the pro- Treaty party Cumann na nGaedheal , have been described by at least one historian as a counter-revolution . Home Rule seemed certain in 1910 when the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) under John Redmond held the balance of power in the British House of Commons . The third Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1912. Unionist resistance was immediate, with
5110-531: The German retirement to the Hindenburg Line from February to March 1917. After a few days, the German advance began to falter, as the infantry became exhausted and it became increasingly difficult to move artillery and supplies forward to support them. Fresh British and Australian units were moved to the vital rail centre of Amiens and the defence began to stiffen. After fruitless attempts to capture Amiens, Ludendorff called off Operation Michael on 5 April. By
5256-421: The German superiority of numbers on the Western Front had sunk to 207 divisions to 203 Allied, a negligible lead which would be reversed as more American troops arrived. German manpower was exhausted. The German High Command predicted they would need 200,000 men per month to make good the losses suffered. Returning convalescents could supply 70,000–80,000 per month but there were only 300,000 recruits available from
5402-570: The Germans by surprise and halted their advance. Gneisenau was called off the following day. Losses were approximately 35,000 Allied and 30,000 German. Ludendorff now postponed Hagen and launched the German Seventh, First and Third Armies in the Friedensturm (Peace Offensive) of 15 July, a renewed attempt to draw Allied reserves south from Flanders and to expand the salient created by Blücher–Yorck eastwards. An attack east of Rheims
5548-618: The Germans losing all of the ground that they had taken in the Spring Offensive, the collapse of the Hindenburg Line , and the capitulation of Germany that November. The German High Command—in particular General Erich Ludendorff , the Chief Quartermaster General at Oberste Heeresleitung , the supreme army headquarters—has been criticised by military historians for the failure to formulate sound and clear strategy. Ludendorff privately conceded that Germany could no longer win
5694-500: The Germans once the front had broken. Despite French and British resistance on the flanks, German troops advanced to the Marne River and Paris seemed a realistic objective. There was a frenzied atmosphere in Paris, which German long-range guns had been shelling since 21 March, with many citizens fleeing and the government drawing up plans to evacuate to Bordeaux. Yet again, losses were much
5840-514: The Germans, in First World War terms. However, victory was not achieved and the German armies were severely depleted, exhausted and in exposed positions. The territorial gains were in the form of salients which greatly increased the length of the line that would have to be defended when Allied reinforcements gave the Allies the initiative. In six months, the strength of the German army had fallen from 5.1 million fighting men to 4.2 million. By July,
5986-415: The Government of Ireland Act and the Treaty, the events which led to the political division of this island come up for re-examination. We will also reflect on the crucial roles played by the Labour movement in that defining decade. He later said "We believe that mutual respect should be central to all commemorative events and that historical accuracy should be paramount." The Oireachtas Joint Committee on
Irish revolutionary period - Misplaced Pages Continue
6132-430: The Hiberno-Norman lordships and the Gaelic territories into the Kingdom of Ireland provided the impetus for ongoing warfare, notable examples being the 1st Desmond Rebellion , the 2nd Desmond Rebellion and the Nine Years War . This period was marked by the Crown policies of, at first, surrender and regrant , and later, plantation , involving the arrival of thousands of English and Scottish Protestant settlers, and
6278-403: The Home Rule Act, to establish self-government for Ireland, but the act was suspended for the duration of the war. Irish nationalist leaders and the IPP under Redmond supported Ireland's participation in the British war effort, in the belief that it would ensure implementation of Home Rule after the war. A core of leaders within the Irish Volunteers' were against this decision, but the majority of
6424-415: The Implementation of the Good Friday Agreement discussed commemoration on 13 October 2011, at which Ian Adamson said "The main problem that persists is one of two narratives. There is a Protestant, loyalist narrative and a republican narrative." On 27 February 2012, the Northern Ireland Assembly passed a motion: That this Assembly notes the number of centenaries of significant historic events affecting
6570-406: The Irish Catholic landowning class was engineered, and recusants were subordinated under the Penal Laws . During the 17th century, Ireland was convulsed by eleven years of warfare , beginning with the Rebellion of 1641 , when Irish Catholics rebelled against the domination of English and Protestant settlers. The Catholic gentry briefly ruled the country as Confederate Ireland (1642–1649) against
6716-420: The Irish and British governments agreed to a truce that halted the war. In December 1921 representatives of both governments signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty . The Irish delegation was led by Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins . This created the Irish Free State , a self-governing Dominion of the Commonwealth of Nations in the manner of Canada and Australia. Under the Treaty, Northern Ireland could opt out of
6862-442: The Irish greater access to the Kingdom of the Isles . Diarmuit was able to become High King of Ireland , and after his death, the O'Brien dynasty , who ruled Ireland since the days of Brian Boru, reclaimed the High Kingship and Irish influence in the Irish Sea area would increase dramatically over the next few decades, notably under High King Muircherteach Ua Briain , who was noted for his interest in foreign affairs. Perhaps it
7008-408: The National Commemorative Programme for the Decade of Centenaries, covering centenaries from 1912 to 1922, was announced in the Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht under minister Jimmy Deenihan . In June, Deenihan stated that consideration will initially be focused up to 2016, centenary of the Easter Rising. Hugo Swire told the UK parliament in May 2012 that the Northern Ireland Office
7154-410: The Portuguese 2nd Division made a desperate defence, trying to hold their positions, which, however, were rapidly enveloped and overrun by the masses of German forces. The 2nd Division was virtually annihilated, losing more than 7,000 men. The British 40th Division , on the northern flank of the Portuguese, also rapidly collapsed before the attack, opening a gap that further facilitated the envelopment of
7300-473: The Portuguese by the Germans. However, under much less pressure from the Germans and occupying good defensive positions protected by the La Bassée Canal, the British 55th Division on the southern flank of the Portuguese were able to hold much of their position throughout the battle. The next day, the Germans widened their attack to the north, forcing the defenders of Armentières to withdraw before they were surrounded, and capturing most of Messines Ridge. By
7446-402: The Roman military in the mid-to-late 300s. Perhaps it was some of the latter returning home as rich mercenaries, merchants, or slaves stolen from Britain or Gaul, that first brought the Christian faith to Ireland. Some early sources claim that there were missionaries active in southern Ireland long before St. Patrick . Whatever the route, and there were probably many, this new faith was to have
SECTION 50
#17330863176637592-596: The UK and Ireland in the next 10 years; calls on the Executive to ensure that these are marked in an inclusive manner; and further calls on the First Minister and deputy First Minister , the Minister of Culture, Arts and Leisure and the Minister of Enterprise, Trade and Investment to work together, with the British and Irish Governments, to develop a co-ordinated approach to the commemoration of these important events in our shared history. An All-Party Oireachtas Consultation Group on Commemorations exists, with an "Expert Advisory Group of eminent historians". In April 2012,
7738-491: The Vikings continued to grow and thrive as centres of Irish trade and finance. They remain so to this day. Despite the breaking of Norse power in Ireland, the Norse still maintained control of the Kingdom of Dublin . Although the King of Leinster levied tribute from the Norse, they rarely directly intervened in the affairs of the city-state, as it brought trade to the area. This changed, however, when Diarmuit mac Maél na mBó , King of Leinster, captured Dublin in 1052. This gave
7884-406: The Vikings were moving further inland to attack (often using rivers) and then retreating to their coastal headquarters. In 852, the Vikings landed in Dublin Bay and established a fortress. Dublin became the centre for the trade of many goods, especially slaves. Bringing back new ideas and motivations, they began settling more permanently. In the tenth century, an earthen bank was constructed around
8030-460: The Western kingdom of Connacht. Fleeing to Aquitaine , Diarmait obtained permission from Henry II to recruit Norman knights to regain his kingdom. The first Norman knights landed in Ireland in 1167, followed by the main forces of Normans, Welsh and Flemings . Several counties were restored to the control of Diarmait, who named his son-in-law, the Norman Richard de Clare , known as Strongbow, heir to his kingdom. This troubled King Henry, who feared
8176-433: The arrival of the Iron Age of the Celtic Hallstatt culture , beginning about 600 BCE. The subsequent La Tène culture brought new styles and practices by 300 BCE. Greek and Roman writers give some information about Ireland during the Classical period (see " protohistoric " period), by which time the island may be termed " Gaelic Ireland ". By the late 4th century CE Christianity had begun to gradually subsume or replace
8322-473: The attack to penetrate deep into the British positions undetected. By the end of the first day, the British had lost 7,512 dead and 10,000 wounded and the Germans had broken through at several points on the front of the British Fifth Army. After two days the Fifth Army was in full retreat. As they fell back, many of the isolated "redoubts" were left to be surrounded and overwhelmed by the following German infantry. The right wing of Third Army became separated from
8468-774: The background of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms until Oliver Cromwell reconquered Ireland in 1649–1653 on behalf of the English Commonwealth . Cromwell's conquest was the most brutal phase of the war. By its close, around half of Ireland's pre-war population was killed or exiled as slaves, where many died due to harsh conditions. As retribution for the rebellion of 1641, the better-quality remaining lands owned by Irish Catholics were confiscated and given to British settlers . Several hundred remaining native landowners were transplanted to Connacht . German spring offensive 1915 1916 1917 1918 Associated articles Associated articles The German spring offensive , also known as Kaiserschlacht ("Kaiser's Battle") or
8614-407: The beginning of Ireland's history as fully part of the English and later British Empire . During the 17th century, this division between a Protestant landholding minority and a dispossessed Catholic majority was intensified and conflict between them was to become a recurrent theme in Irish history. Domination of Ireland by the Protestant Ascendancy was reinforced after two periods of religious war,
8760-420: The breach in the Allied lines. In this sector, the British defences in depth were complete and fully manned, some of the opening German bombardment hit only empty positions and there was no fog to give cover to the attacking stormtroopers. After a day, the Germans had achieved only minor gains and had suffered heavy casualties. Operation Mars was immediately cancelled. The German breakthrough had occurred just to
8906-422: The city with a second larger bank built outside that in the eleventh century. On the interior of the town, an extensive series of defences have been excavated at Fishamble Street, Dublin. The site featured nine waterfronts, including two possible flood banks and two positive defensive embankments during the Viking Age. The early embankments were non-defensive, being only one metre high, and it is uncertain how much of
SECTION 60
#17330863176639052-431: The conquest and held them after the war was over. The Black Death arrived in Ireland in 1348. Because most of the English and Norman inhabitants of Ireland lived in towns and villages, the plague hit them far harder than it did the native Irish, who lived in more dispersed rural settlements. After it had passed, Gaelic Irish language and customs came to dominate the country again. The English-controlled territory shrank to
9198-490: The continent. However, other research has postulated that the culture developed gradually and continuously and that the introduction of Celtic language and elements of Celtic culture may have been a result of cultural exchange with Celtic groups in southwest continental Europe from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. The hypothesis that the native Late Bronze Age inhabitants gradually absorbed Celtic influences has since been supported by some recent genetic research. In 60 CE, it
9344-471: The continental Celtic La Tene style being found in at least the northern part of the island by about 300 BCE. The result of a gradual blending of Celtic and indigenous cultures would result in the emergence of Gaelic culture by the fifth century. It is also during the fifth century that the main over-kingdoms of In Tuisceart, Airgialla, Ulaid, Mide, Laigin, Mumhain, Cóiced Ol nEchmacht began to emerge (see Kingdoms of ancient Ireland ). Within these kingdoms,
9490-571: The contrary, this has tempted many scholars of medieval western Ireland to agree with the twelfth-century historian Giraldus Cambrensis who argued that the Gaelic kings did not build castles. By 1261 the weakening of the Normans had become manifest when Fineen MacCarthy defeated a Norman army at the Battle of Callann . The war continued between the different lords and earls for about 100 years, causing much destruction, especially around Dublin. In this chaotic situation, local Irish lords won back large amounts of land that their families had lost since
9636-483: The country under English control, heightened resentment of English rule. From the mid-16th to the early 17th century, crown governments had carried out a policy of land confiscation and colonisation known as Plantations . Scottish and English Protestant colonists were sent to the provinces of Munster , Ulster and the counties of Laois and Offaly . These Protestant settlers replaced the Irish Catholic landowners who were removed from their lands. These settlers formed
9782-509: The country, local Gaelic and Gaelicised lords expanded their powers at the expense of the English government in Dublin but the power of the Dublin government was in any case seriously curtailed by the introduction of Poynings' Law in 1494. According to this act, the Irish Parliament was essentially put under the control of the Westminster Parliament . From 1536, Henry VIII of England decided to reconquer Ireland and bring it under crown control. The Fitzgerald dynasty of Kildare , who had become
9928-453: The defence of Seicheprey on 20 April. After the British had held off the Michael advance on the Somme, the US 1st Division was moved to reinforce the line in that sector in mid-April and launched their first attack of the war on Cantigny on 28 May 1918 . The German attack took place on 27 May, between Soissons and Reims . The sector was partly held by four depleted British divisions which were "resting" after their exertions earlier in
10074-400: The defences were incomplete and there were too few troops to hold the complete position in depth. The rear zone existed as outline markings only, and the battle zone consisted of battalion "redoubts" which were not mutually supporting (allowing stormtroopers to penetrate between them). On 21 March 1918, the Germans launched a large offensive against the British Fifth Army and the right wing of
10220-418: The displacement of both the Hiberno-Normans (or Old English as they were known by then) and the native Catholic landholders. With English colonies going back to the 1550s, Ireland was arguably the first English and then British territory colonised by a group known as the West Country Men . Gaelic Ireland was finally defeated at the battle of Kinsale in 1601 which marked the collapse of the Gaelic system and
10366-509: The division of society along sectarian faultlines and conflict between (mainly Catholic) Irish nationalists and (mainly Protestant) British unionists . These divisions erupted into the Troubles in the late 1960s, after civil rights marches were met with opposition by authorities. The violence escalated after the deployment of the British Army to maintain authority led to clashes with nationalist communities. The violence continued for twenty-eight years until an uneasy, but largely successful peace
10512-595: The earlier Celtic polytheism . By the end of the 6th century it had introduced writing along with a predominantly monastic Celtic Christian church, profoundly altering Irish society. Scandinavian seafaring people who took jobs pirating, pillaging, and raiding lands (later referred to as Vikings ), settled from the late 8th century CE which resulted in extensive cultural interchange, as well as innovation in military and transport technology. Many of Ireland's towns were founded at this time as Scandinavian trading posts and coinage made its first appearance. Scandinavian penetration
10658-481: The earliest human settlement of Ireland to 10,500 BCE. The bone shows clear signs of cut marks with stone tools and has been radiocarbon dated to 12,500 years ago. It is possible that humans crossed a land bridge during the warm period, referred to as the Bølling–Allerød warming , that lasted between 14,700 and 12,700 years ago (i.e. between 12,700 BCE and 10,700 BCE) towards the end of the last ice age, and allowed
10804-478: The early 16th century. However, the nature of Ireland's decentralised political organisation into small territories (known as túatha ), martial traditions, difficult terrain and climate and lack of urban infrastructure, meant that attempts to assert Crown authority were slow and expensive. Attempts to impose the new Protestant faith were also successfully resisted by both the Gaelic and Norman-Irish. The new policy fomented
10950-544: The early 840s, had begun to establish settlements along the Irish coasts and to spend the winter months there. The longships were technologically advanced, allowing them to travel faster through the narrow rivers. Vikings founded settlements in several places; most famously in Dublin . Most of the settlements were near the water, allowing the Vikings to trade using their longships. Written accounts from this time (early to mid 840s) show that
11096-469: The effect of the epidemics which occurred during this era: The plagues of the 660s and the 680s had a traumatic effect on Irish society. The golden age of the saints was over, together with the generation of kings who could fire a saga -writer's imagination. The literary tradition looks back to the reign of the sons of Aed Slaine (Diarmait and Blathmac, who died in 665) as to the end of an era. Antiquaries, brehons , genealogists and hagiographers , felt
11242-518: The effective rulers of Ireland in the 15th century, had become unreliable allies of the Tudor monarchs. They had invited Burgundian troops into Dublin to crown the Yorkist pretender, Lambert Simnel as King of England in 1487. Again in 1536, Silken Thomas , Fitzgerald went into open rebellion against the crown. Having put down this rebellion, Henry resolved to bring Ireland under English government control so
11388-582: The end of the day, the few British divisions in reserve were hard-pressed to hold a line along the River Lys . Without French reinforcements, it was feared that the Germans could advance the remaining 15 mi (24 km) to the ports within a week. The commander of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, issued an "Order of the Day" on 11 April stating, "With our backs to
11534-505: The enemy front-line infantry defences. Bombardment would always be brief so as to retain surprise. Bruchmüller's tactics were made possible by the vast numbers of heavy guns—with correspondingly plentiful amounts of ammunition for them—which Germany possessed by 1918 . In their turn, the Allies had developed defences in depth, reducing the proportion of troops in their front line and pulling reserves and supply dumps back beyond German artillery range. This change had been made after experience of
11680-639: The entire island, and successfully disarmed the native lordships. In 1614 the Catholic majority in the Irish Parliament was overthrown through the creation of numerous new boroughs which were dominated by the new settlers. However, the English were not successful in converting the Catholic Irish to the Protestant religion and the brutal methods used by crown authority (including resorting to martial law ) to bring
11826-666: The essential areas (the approaches to the Channel Ports and the rail junction of Amiens ). Strategically worthless ground, which had been devastated by years of conflict, was left lightly defended. Within a few weeks, the danger of a German breakthrough had passed, though related fighting continued until July. The German Army made the deepest advances either side had made on the Western Front since 1914. They re-took much ground that they had lost in 1916–17 and took some ground that they had not yet controlled. Despite these apparent successes, they suffered heavy casualties in return for land that
11972-774: The establishment of a Neolithic culture, characterised by the appearance of pottery, polished stone tools, rectangular wooden houses, megalithic tombs, and domesticated sheep and cattle. Some of these tombs, as at Knowth and Dowth , are huge stone monuments and many of them, such as the Passage Tombs of Newgrange , are astronomically aligned. Four main types of Irish Megalithic Tombs have been identified: dolmens , court cairns , passage tombs and wedge-shaped gallery graves . In Leinster and Munster, individual adult males were buried in small stone structures, called cists , under earthen mounds and were accompanied by distinctive decorated pottery. This culture apparently prospered, and
12118-536: The establishment of a rival Norman state in Ireland. Accordingly, he resolved to establish his authority. In 1177, Prince John Lackland was made Lord of Ireland by his father Henry II of England at the Council of Oxford . With the authority of the papal bull Laudabiliter from Adrian IV , Henry landed with a large fleet at Waterford in 1171, becoming the first King of England to set foot on Irish soil. Henry awarded his Irish territories to his younger son John with
12264-674: The exact relationship between Rome and the dynasties and peoples of Hibernia remains unclear. Irish confederations (the Scoti ) attacked and some settled in Britain during the Great Conspiracy of 367. In particular, the Dál Riata settled in western Scotland and the Western Isles . The middle centuries of the first millennium CE marked great changes in Ireland. Politically, what appears to have been
12410-527: The first Earl of Ulster. The Hiberno-Norman community suffered from a series of invasions that ceased the spread of their settlement and power. Politics and events in Gaelic Ireland served to draw the settlers deeper into the orbit of the Irish. Furthermore, unlike the Anglo-Normans, the Gaelic kings did not keep detailed estate inventories and accounts. Coupled with the absence of archaeological evidence to
12556-790: The formation of the Ulster Volunteers (UVF). In turn, the Irish Volunteers were established in 1913 to oppose them and prevent the UVF introduction of self-government in Ulster . The Dublin lock-out in the same year led to creation of the Irish Citizen Army . In September 1914, two months after the First World War broke out, the UK Parliament passed the Government of Ireland Act 1914 , known as
12702-519: The fortress of Áth Cliath [Dublin]". They were allowed by the Saxons to settle in Wirral , England, but would however later return to retake Dublin. The Vikings never achieved total domination of Ireland, often fighting for and against various Irish kings. The great High King of Ireland , Brian Boru , defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 which began the decline of Viking power in Ireland but
12848-479: The help of the castles he built and his fleet based at Dún Gaillimhe . He also had commercial and political links with the rulers of France , Spain and England , increasing Ireland's international presence which brought more trade to the island. His reign lasted more than 50 years. One of Tairrdelbach's sons, Ruadhrí , would later go on to be High King himself. He was arguably the first High King without opposition, however, he would later abdicate following
12994-445: The historic events in question; nationalist perspectives are further divided by the Civil War which ended the revolutionary period. The Northern Ireland peace process , with its promotion of dialogue and reconciliation, has modified this separation. The Bureau of Military History established by the Irish government in 1947 collected oral history accounts from republican veterans of the period 1913 to 1921. Its records were sealed until
13140-507: The impact of the artillery bombardment on 9 June. Nonetheless, the German advance (consisting of 21 divisions attacking over a 23 mi (37 km) front) along the Matz River was impressive, resulting in an advance of 9 miles (14 km) despite fierce French and American resistance. At Compiègne , a sudden French counter-attack on 11 June, by four divisions and 150 tanks (under General Charles Mangin ) with no preliminary bombardment, caught
13286-508: The initial German jubilation at the successful opening of the offensive soon turned to disappointment, as it became clear that the attack had not achieved decisive results. Michael had drawn British forces to defend Amiens, leaving the rail route through Hazebrouck and the approaches to the Channel ports of Calais , Boulogne and Dunkirk vulnerable. German success here could choke the British into defeat. The attack started on 9 April after
13432-494: The initial breakthrough, Lieutenant Colonel Georg Bruchmüller , a German artillery officer, developed the Feuerwalze [ de ] , (literally: rolling fire, rolling barrage) an effective and economical creeping barrage scheme. There were three phases: first, a brief bombardment on the enemy's command and communications (headquarters, telephone exchanges, etc.); then, destruction of their artillery; lastly an attack upon
13578-588: The insurgents was small, the execution of fifteen people by firing squad, the imprisonment or internment of hundreds more, and the imposition of martial law caused a profound shift in public opinion towards the republican cause in Ireland . In addition, the unprecedented threat of Irishmen being conscripted to the British Army in 1918 (for service on the Western Front as a result of the German spring offensive ) accelerated this change (see Conscription Crisis of 1918 ). In
13724-475: The island became more densely populated. Near the end of the Neolithic new types of monuments developed, such as circular embanked enclosures and timber, stone and post and pit circles. The Céide Fields is an archaeological site on the north County Mayo coast in the west of Ireland , about 7 kilometres northwest of Ballycastle , and the site is the most extensive Neolithic site in Ireland and contains
13870-538: The island would not become a base for future rebellions or foreign invasions of England. In 1542, he upgraded Ireland from a lordship to a full kingdom. Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland at a meeting of the Irish Parliament that year. This was the first meeting of the Irish Parliament to be attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Hiberno-Norman aristocracy. With the institutions of government in place,
14016-423: The island. Early Viking raids were generally fast-paced and small in scale. These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture and marked the beginning of two centuries of intermittent warfare, with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland. Most of those early raiders came from western Norway. The Vikings were expert sailors, who travelled in longships , and by
14162-513: The journey we have started towards lasting peace and reconciliation. Twelve years have passed since the [Good Friday] Agreement. In the next twelve years we will witness a series of commemorations which will give us pause to reflect on where we have come from, and where we are going. With the centenaries of the Ulster Covenant, the Battle of the Somme, the Easter Rising, the War of Independence,
14308-557: The last veteran's death in 2003; they were published online in 2012. In May 2010, the Institute for British Irish Studies in University College Dublin organised a conference on the theme A Decade of Centenaries: Commemorating Our Shared History . Taoiseach Brian Cowen addressed the conference: This coming decade of commemorations, if well prepared and carefully considered, should enable all of us on this island to complete
14454-470: The late Bronze Age, there was an increase in stored weapons, which has been taken as evidence for greater warfare. Fleshed bog bodies also appear at this time, continuing into the Iron Age. The Iron Age in Ireland began about 600 BCE. The period between the start of the Iron Age and the historic period (CE 431) saw the gradual infiltration of small groups of Celtic-speaking people into Ireland, with items of
14600-658: The men left to form the National Volunteers , some of whom enlisted in Irish regiments of the New British Army , the 10th and 16th (Irish) Divisions , the counterparts of the unionist 36th (Ulster) Division . Before the war ended, Britain made two concerted efforts to implement Home Rule, one in May 1916 and again with the Irish Convention during 1917–1918, but nationalists and unionists were unable to agree to terms for
14746-521: The most profound effect on the Irish. Tradition maintains that in A.D. 432, St. Patrick arrived on the island and, in the years that followed, worked to convert the Irish to Christianity. St Patrick's Confession , in Latin, written by him is the earliest Irish historical document. It gives some information about the Saint. On the other hand, according to Prosper of Aquitaine , a contemporary chronicler, Palladius
14892-414: The need to collect ancient traditions before they were totally forgotten. Many were in fact swallowed by oblivion; when we examine the writing of Tirechan we encounter obscure references to tribes that are quite unknown to the later genealogical tradition. The laws describe a ... society that was obsolescent , and the meaning and use of the word moccu dies out with archaic Old Irish at the beginning of
15038-423: The new century. The first English involvement in Ireland took place in this period. Tullylease, Rath Melsigi and Maigh Eo na Saxain were founded by 670 for English students who wished to study or live in Ireland. In summer 684, an English expeditionary force sent by Northumbrian King Ecgfrith raided Brega. The first recorded Viking raid in Irish history occurred in 795 CE when Vikings from Norway looted
15184-497: The next annual class of eighteen-year-olds. Even worse, they lost most of their best-trained men: stormtrooper tactics had them leading the attacks. Even so, about a million German soldiers remained tied up in the east until the end of the war. The Allies had been badly hurt but not broken. The lack of a unified high command was partly rectified by the appointment of General Foch to the supreme command, and coordination would improve in later Allied operations. American troops were for
15330-546: The next step was to extend the control of the English Kingdom of Ireland over all of its claimed territory. This took nearly a century, with various English administrations either negotiating or fighting with the independent Irish and Old English lords. The Spanish Armada in Ireland suffered heavy losses during an extraordinary season of storms in the autumn of 1588. Among the survivors was Captain Francisco de Cuellar , who gave
15476-539: The north of the boundary between the French and British armies. The French commander-in-chief, General Philippe Pétain , sent reinforcements to the sector too slowly in the opinion of the British commander-in-chief, Field Marshal Douglas Haig , and the British government, though the historian Elizabeth Greenhalgh disputes this, arguing that Petain sent the six additional divisions quicker than had been arranged with Haig – in 2 days instead of 4 – and arranging for extra divisions several times – 12 divisions on 23 March and 13 on
15622-458: The oldest known field systems in the world. Using various dating methods, it was discovered that the creation and development of the Céide Fields goes back some five and a half thousand years (~3500 BCE). The short-lived Irish Copper Age and subsequent Bronze Age , which came to Ireland around 2000 BCE, saw the production of elaborate gold and bronze ornaments, weapons and tools. There
15768-789: The presence of homo sapiens to around 10,500 to 7,000 BCE. The receding of the ice after the Younger Dryas cold phase of the Quaternary , around 9700 BCE, heralds the beginning of Prehistoric Ireland , which includes the archaeological periods known as the Mesolithic , the Neolithic from about 4000 BCE, and the Copper Age beginning around 2500 BCE with the arrival of the Beaker Culture . The Irish Bronze Age proper begins around 2000 BCE and ends with
15914-470: The rear areas, as well as to occupy territory rapidly. Each major formation "creamed off" its best and fittest soldiers into storm units; several complete divisions were formed from these elite units. This process gave the German army an initial advantage in the attack, but meant that the best formations would suffer disproportionately heavy casualties, while the quality of the remaining formations declined as they were stripped of their best personnel to provide
16060-569: The rebellion of the Hiberno-Norman Earl of Kildare Silken Thomas in 1534, keen to defend his traditional autonomy and Catholicism, and marked the beginning of the prolonged Tudor conquest of Ireland lasting from 1536 to 1603. Henry VIII proclaimed himself King of Ireland in 1541 to facilitate the project. Ireland became a potential battleground in the wars between Catholic Counter-Reformation and Protestant Reformation Europe. England's attempts either to conquer or to assimilate both
16206-528: The reinhabitation of northern Europe. A sudden return to freezing conditions known as the Younger Dryas cold phase, which lasted from 10,900 BCE to 9700 BCE, may have depopulated Ireland. During the Younger Dryas, sea levels continued to rise and no ice-free land bridge between Great Britain and Ireland ever returned. The earliest confirmed inhabitants of Ireland were Mesolithic hunter-gatherers , who arrived sometime around 7900 BCE. While some authors take
16352-462: The remaining Allied ports in Belgium and France while diverting Allied forces from Michael . However, these remained only secondary and weaker operations, subordinate to Michael . The constant changing of operational targets once the offensive was underway gave the impression the German command had no coherent strategic goal. Any capture of an important strategic objective, such as the Channel ports, or
16498-399: The retreating Fifth Army, and also retreated to avoid being outflanked. Ludendorff failed to follow the correct stormtrooper tactics, as described above. His lack of a coherent strategy to accompany the new tactics was expressed in a remark to Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria —commander of one of his Army Groups —in which he stated, "We chop a hole. The rest follows." Ludendorff's dilemma
16644-409: The ruling class of future British appointed administrations in Ireland. Several Penal Laws , aimed at Catholics, Baptists and Presbyterians, were introduced to encourage conversion to the established ( Anglican ) Church of Ireland . The 17th century was perhaps the bloodiest in Ireland's history. Two periods of war (1641–53 and 1689–91) caused a huge loss of life. The ultimate dispossession of most of
16790-411: The same on each side: 127,000 Allied and 130,000 German casualties up to 6 June. German losses were again mainly from the difficult-to-replace assault divisions. Although Ludendorff had intended Blücher-Yorck to be a prelude to a decisive offensive ( Hagen ) to defeat the British forces further north, he made the error of reinforcing merely tactical success by moving reserves from Flanders to
16936-636: The site they encircled. After several generations a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose, the Gall-Gaels , '( Gall being the Old Irish word for foreign). The second wave of Vikings made stations at winter bases called longphorts to serve as control centres to exert a more localized force on the island through raiding. The third wave in 917 established towns as not only control centres, but also as centres of trade to enter into Irish economy and greater Western Europe. Returning to Dublin, they set up
17082-699: The standards of the time, there had been a substantial advance. It was, however, of little value; a Pyrrhic victory in terms of the casualties suffered by the crack troops, as the vital positions of Amiens and Arras remained in Allied hands. The newly-won territory would later be difficult to defend against Allied counter-attacks. The Allies lost nearly 255,000 men (British, British Empire and French). They also lost 1,300 artillery pieces and 200 tanks. All of this could be replaced, either from French and British factories or from American manpower. German troop losses were 239,000 men, many of them specialist shocktroops ( Stoßtruppen ) who were irreplaceable. In terms of morale,
17228-402: The stormtroops. The Germans also failed to arm their forces with a mobile exploitation force, such as cavalry, to exploit gains quickly. This tactical error meant the infantry had to keep up an exhausting tempo of advance. Notwithstanding the effectiveness of the stormtroopers, the following German infantry often made attacks in large traditional waves and suffered heavy casualties. To enable
17374-423: The strategic results were disappointing for the Germans. Hazebrouck remained in Allied hands and the Germans occupied a vulnerable salient under fire from three sides. The British abandoned the comparatively worthless territory they had captured at vast cost the previous year around Ypres , freeing several divisions to face the German attackers. While Georgette ground to a halt, a new attack on French positions
17520-400: The successful German use of defence in depth during 1917. In theory, the front line was an "outpost zone" (later renamed the "forward zone"), lightly held by snipers, patrols and machine-gun posts only. Behind, out of range of German field artillery, was the "battle zone" where the offensive was to be firmly resisted, and behind that again, out of range of all but the heaviest German guns, was
17666-442: The targets of the attacks were constantly changed, depending on the tactical situation. Once they began advancing, the Germans struggled to maintain the momentum, partly due to logistical issues. The fast-moving stormtrooper units could not carry enough food and ammunition to sustain themselves for long, and the army could not move in supplies and reinforcements fast enough to assist them. The Allies concentrated their main forces in
17812-536: The temporary or permanent exclusion of Ulster from its provisions. The period 1916–1921 was marked by political violence and upheaval, ending in the partition of Ireland and independence for 26 of its 32 counties. A failed militant attempt by the Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizen Army was made to gain independence for Ireland with the 1916 Easter Rising , an insurrection in Dublin. Although support for
17958-469: The title Dominus Hiberniae ("Lord of Ireland"). When John unexpectedly succeeded his brother as King John of England , the " Lordship of Ireland " fell directly under the English Crown. The Normans initially controlled the entire east coast, from Waterford to eastern Ulster , and penetrated a considerable distance inland as well. The counties were ruled by many smaller kings. The first Lord of Ireland
18104-586: The towns which Vikings had founded continued to flourish, and trade became an important part of the Irish economy. Brian Boru , though he did not succeed in unifying Ireland, changed the High Kingship in the way that the High King would now have more power and control over the country and could manage the country's affairs. This led to prosperity for Ireland over the next few years. The Irish economy grew as international trade became more common. The towns founded by
18250-413: The view that a land bridge connecting Ireland to Great Britain still existed at that time, more recent studies indicate that Ireland was separated from Britain by c. 14,000 BCE when the climate was still cold and local ice caps persisted in parts of the country. The people remained hunter-gatherers until about 4000 BCE. It is argued this is when the first signs of agriculture started to show, leading to
18396-436: The vital railway junction of Amiens , would have occurred more by chance than by design. The German army had concentrated many of its best troops into stormtrooper units, trained in infiltration tactics to infiltrate and bypass enemy front line units, leaving these strong points to be "mopped-up" by follow-up troops. The stormtrooper tactic was to attack and disrupt enemy headquarters, artillery units and supply depots in
18542-431: The wall and believing in the justice of our cause, each one of us must fight on to the end." However, the German offensive had stalled because of logistical problems and exposed flanks. Counterattacks by British, French and Anzac forces slowed and stopped the German advance. Ludendorff ended Georgette on 29 April. As with Michael , losses were roughly equal, approximately 110,000 men wounded or killed, each. Again,
18688-524: The west side of the salient on 18 July, threatening to cut off the Germans in the salient. Ludendorff had to evacuate most of the Blücher–Yorck salient by 7 August and Hagen was finally cancelled. The initiative had clearly passed to the Allies, who were shortly to begin the Hundred Days Offensive which ended the war. The Kaiserschlacht offensives had yielded large territorial gains for
18834-465: The year. In this sector, the defences had not been developed in depth, mainly due to the obstinacy of the commander of the French Sixth Army, General Denis Auguste Duchêne . As a result, the German creeping barrage was very effective and the Allied front, with a few notable exceptions, collapsed. Duchêne's massing of his troops in the forward trenches also meant there were no local reserves to delay
18980-631: Was King John, who visited Ireland in 1185 and 1210 and helped consolidate the Norman-controlled areas while ensuring that the many Irish kings swore fealty to him. Throughout the thirteenth century, the policy of the English Kings was to weaken the power of the Norman Lords in Ireland. For example, King John encouraged Hugh de Lacy to destabilise and then overthrow the Lord of Ulster, before naming him as
19126-577: Was Muircherteach's increasing power in the Isles that led Magnus Barefoot , King of Norway , to lead campaigns against the Irish in 1098 and again in 1102 to bring Norse areas back under Norwegian control, while also raiding the various British kingdoms. Although direct conflict with the Kingdom of Norway seemed imminent, the two Kings formed an alliance by the marriage of Muircherteach's daughter to Magnus' son. The two would campaign together in Ulster , until Magnus
19272-483: Was a movement away from the construction of communal megalithic tombs to the burial of the dead in small stone cists or simple pits, which could be situated in cemeteries or in circular earth or stone-built burial mounds known respectively as barrows and cairns . As the period progressed, inhumation burial gave way to cremation and by the Middle Bronze Age, remains were often placed beneath large burial urns. During
19418-466: Was also a line of least resistance as the British and French armies were weak in the sector. The intention was not to reach the English Channel coast, but to break through the Allied lines and roll up the flank of the British army from the south, pushing it back toward the Channel ports or destroying it if the British chose to stand and fight. Further operations such as Operation Georgette and Operation Mars were designed to strike further north to seize
19564-652: Was consulting with the Northern Ireland Executive and the Irish government, saying "All these discussions underpin the need to promote tolerance and mutual understanding to ensure that these anniversaries are commemorated with tolerance, dignity and respect for all." In a debate on the programme in the Seanad in June 2012, Martin McAleese said "It may be more accurate to regard not alone the decade from 1912 to 1922 but rather
19710-442: Was developed in the centuries after his death. Irish scholars excelled in the study of Latin learning and Christian theology in the monasteries that flourished shortly thereafter. Missionaries from Ireland to England and Continental Europe spread the news of the flowering of learning, and scholars from other nations came to Irish monasteries. The excellence and isolation of these monasteries helped preserve Latin learning during
19856-527: Was finally achieved with the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. What is known of pre-Christian Ireland comes from references in Roman writings, Irish poetry , myth, and archaeology. While some possible Paleolithic tools have been found, none of the finds is convincing of Paleolithic settlement in Ireland. However a bear bone found in Alice and Gwendoline Cave , County Clare, in 1903 may push back dates for
20002-630: Was killed in an ambush by the Ulaid in August 1103, under mysterious circumstances (it is possible Muircherteach ordered his killing). Muircherteach was also politically involved in the Kingdoms of Scotland and England , as well as Wales . One of the most prosperous reigns of any High King was the reign of Toirdelbach Ua Conchobhair , who had overthrown Muircherteach and partitioned Munster in 1118. As King of Connacht and then King of Ireland , Ireland underwent
20148-411: Was limited and concentrated along coasts and rivers, and ceased to be a major threat to Gaelic culture after the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. The Norman invasion in 1169 resulted again in a partial conquest of the island and marked the beginning of more than 800 years of English political and military involvement in Ireland. Initially successful, Norman gains were rolled back over succeeding centuries as
20294-589: Was never a part of the Roman Empire , but Roman influence was often projected well beyond its borders. Tacitus writes that an exiled Irish prince was with Agricola in Roman Britain and would return to seize power in Ireland. Juvenal tells us that Roman "arms had been taken beyond the shores of Ireland". In recent years, some experts have hypothesized that Roman-sponsored Gaelic forces (or perhaps even Roman regulars) mounted some kind of invasion around CE 100, but
20440-418: Was of little strategic value and hard to defend. The offensive failed to deliver a blow that could save Germany from defeat, which has led some historians to describe it as a Pyrrhic victory . In July 1918, the Allies regained their numerical advantage with the arrival of American troops. In August, they used this and improved tactics to launch a counteroffensive. The ensuing Hundred Days Offensive resulted in
20586-659: Was organised by Universities Ireland starting in June 2012. Century Ireland is a website launched in May 2013 to track events as their centenaries pass, using both period documents and modern commentary. It is produced by Boston College 's 'Center for Irish Programs', and is funded by the Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht and hosted by RTÉ.ie . Irish history The first evidence of human presence in Ireland dates to around 34,000 years ago, with further findings dating
20732-454: Was planned to draw forces further away from the Channel and allow renewed German progress in the north. The strategic objective remained to split the British and the French and gain victory before American forces could make their presence felt on the battlefield. The Americans were originally deployed in the quiet Saint-Mihiel sector in Lorraine where they had their first significant engagement in
20878-523: Was poorly organized by the British First Army 's command, and the Portuguese 1st Division had been withdrawn to the rear on 6 April, leaving the Portuguese 2nd Division to defend the entire sector alone. They were left with an extensive 7 mi (11 km) front, without natural obstacles which might benefit the defence. Hit hard by the bombardment and under the assault of eight German divisions,
21024-643: Was sent to Ireland by the Pope in 431 as "first Bishop to the Irish believing in Christ" , which demonstrates that there were already Christians living in Ireland. Palladius seems to have worked purely as Bishop to Irish Christians in the Leinster and Meath kingdoms, while Patrick – who may have arrived as late as 461 – worked first and foremost as a missionary to the pagan Irish, in the more remote kingdoms in Ulster and Connacht. Patrick
21170-423: Was that the most important parts of the Allied line were also the most strongly held. Much of the German advance was achieved where it was not strategically significant. Because of this, Ludendorff continually exhausted his forces by attacking strongly entrenched British units. At Arras on 28 March, he launched a hastily prepared attack (Operation Mars) against the left wing of the British Third Army, to try to widen
21316-420: Was thwarted by the French defence in depth. In many sectors, the Germans, deprived of any surprise as their fuel-starved air force had lost air superiority to the Allies, advanced no further than the French Forward Zone, and nowhere did they break the French Battle (Second) Zone. Although German troops southwest of Rheims succeeded in crossing the River Marne, the French launched a major offensive of their own on
#662337