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90-677: Investigator Marine Park is a marine protected area in the Australian state of South Australia located in the state's coastal waters in its west adjoining the west coast of Eyre Peninsula and islands in the Investigator Group respectively to the south-east and south-west of the town of Elliston . The marine park was established on 29 January 2009 by proclamation under the Marine Parks Act 2007 . The Investigator Marine Park consists of four parts which extend from ‘median high water’ to

180-747: A cetacean sanctuary in the Ligurian Sea named the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals . This sanctuary includes both national and international waters. Both the CBD and IUCN recommended a variety of management systems for use in a protected area system. They advocated that MPAs be seen as one of many "nodes" in a network of protected areas. The following are the most common management systems: Seasonal and temporary management —Activities, most critically fishing, are restricted seasonally or temporarily, e.g., to protect spawning/nursing grounds or to let

270-518: A large number of organisms and support very high productivity. Estuaries provide habitats for salmon and sea trout nurseries, as well as migratory bird populations. Two of the main characteristics of estuarine life are the variability in salinity and sedimentation . Many species of fish and invertebrates have various methods to control or conform to the shifts in salt concentrations and are termed osmoconformers and osmoregulators . Many animals also burrow to avoid predation and to live in

360-411: A mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove forests at high tide level and sea grass meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of silt , fresh water and pollutants . This additional level of variety in

450-465: A network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional environmental protocols .It recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30% of the world's oceans by the goal date of 2012. The Convention on Biological Diversity considered these recommendations and recommended requiring countries to set up marine parks controlled by a central organization before merging them. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed to

540-564: A preventive measure or to avoid direct disturbance to individual species. The degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether MPAs are located in territorial waters , exclusive economic zones , or the high seas . The law of the sea regulates these limits. Most MPAs have been located in territorial waters, where the appropriate government can enforce them. However, MPAs have been established in exclusive economic zones and in international waters . For example, Italy, France and Monaco in 1999 jointly established

630-403: A range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve. At the 2004 Convention on Biological Diversity , the agency agreed to use " network " on a global level, while adopting system for national and regional levels. The network is a mechanism to establish regional and local systems, but carries no authority or mandate, leaving all activity within

720-566: A rapidly reducing species recover. Multiple-use MPAs —These are the most common and arguably the most effective. These areas employ two or more protections. The most important sections get the highest protection, such as a no take zone and are surrounded with areas of lesser protections. Multiple-use MPAs can make use of very diverse fisheries regulations to balance fisheries extraction with nature protection. Community involvement and related approaches —Community-managed MPAs empower local communities to operate partially or completely independent of

810-476: A result, estuaries are suffering degradation by many factors, including sedimentation from soil erosion from deforestation; overgrazing and other poor farming practices; overfishing; drainage and filling of wetlands; eutrophication due to excessive nutrients from sewage and animal wastes; pollutants including heavy metals, PCBs, radionuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs; and diking or damming for flood control or water diversion. Estuaries provide habitats for

900-516: A unique three-dimensional habitat for marine organisms and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in trophic ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal oceanographic patterns and provide many ecosystem services . However, humans have contributed to kelp forest degradation . Of particular concern are

990-460: Is 3.6 cu km of ocean space available somewhere for marine habitats. Intertidal zones , those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's tides . A huge array of life lives within this zone. Shore habitats range from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently. Many species here are scavengers, living off of sea life that

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1080-648: Is a 100% no take zone. Related terms include; specially protected area (SPA), Special Area of Conservation (SAC), the United Kingdom's marine conservation zones (MCZs), or area of special conservation (ASC) etc. which each provide specific restrictions. Stressors that affect oceans include the impact of extractive industries , marine pollution , and changes to the ocean's chemistry ( ocean acidification ) resulting from elevated carbon dioxide levels, due to our greenhouse gas emissions (see also effects of climate change on oceans ). MPAs have been cited as

1170-481: Is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea . Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and ocean environments and are subject to both marine influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and riverine influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflow of both seawater and freshwater provide high levels of nutrients in both

1260-688: Is also found in Sustainable Development Goal 14 (which is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity ) and which sets this 10% goal to a later date (2020). In 2017, the UN held the United Nations Ocean Conference aiming to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. In that 2017 conference, it was clear that just between 3.6 and 5.7% of the world's oceans were protected, meaning another 6.4 to 4.3% of

1350-432: Is an ecological or environmental area inhabited by one or more living species . The marine environment supports many kinds of these habitats. Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from as far as the tide comes in on the shoreline out to the edge of the continental shelf . Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though

1440-501: Is common to all marine habitats. Beyond that many other things determine whether a marine area makes a good habitat and the type of habitat it makes. For example: There are five major oceans, of which the Pacific Ocean is nearly as large as the rest put together. Coastlines fringe the land for nearly 380,000 kilometres. Altogether, the ocean occupies 71 percent of the world surface, averaging nearly four kilometres in depth. By volume,

1530-408: Is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean. Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and

1620-406: Is moved along the coastline by the waves. Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline. The sedimentologist Francis Shepard classified coasts as primary or secondary . Continental coastlines usually have a continental shelf , a shelf of relatively shallow water, less than 200 metres deep, which extends 68 km on average beyond

1710-428: Is nearby, there are large discharges of nutrient rich land runoff into coastal waters. Further, periodic upwellings from the deep ocean can provide cool and nutrient rich currents along the edge of the continental shelf. As a result, coastal marine life is the most abundant in the world. It is found in tidal pools , fjords and estuaries , near sandy shores and rocky coastlines, around coral reefs and on or above

1800-595: Is no defined long-term goal for conservation and ecological recovery and extraction of marine resources occurs, a region is not a marine protected area. "Marine protected area (MPA)" is a term for protected areas that include marine environment and biodiversity . Other definitions by the IUCN include (2010): Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of

1890-432: Is not easily shifted by waves and currents, and when it dries out, cakes into a solid. By contrast, sand is easily shifted by waves and currents, and when sand dries out it can be blown in the wind, accumulating into shifting sand dunes . Beyond the high tide mark, if the beach is low-lying, the wind can form rolling hills of sand dunes. Small dunes shift and reshape under the influence of the wind while larger dunes stabilise

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1980-417: Is washed up on the shore. Many land animals also make much use of the shore and intertidal habitats. A subgroup of organisms in this habitat bores and grinds exposed rock through the process of bioerosion . Sandy shores, also called beaches , are coastal shorelines where sand accumulates. Waves and currents shift the sand, continually building and eroding the shoreline. Longshore currents flow parallel to

2070-809: The Cook Islands passed the Marae Moana Act designating the whole of the country's marine exclusive economic zone , which has an area of 1.9 million square kilometers as a zone with the purpose of protecting and conserving the "ecological, biodiversity and heritage values of the Cook Islands marine environment". Other large marine conservation areas include those around Antarctica, New Caledonia, Greenland, Alaska, Ascension Island, and Brazil. As areas of protected marine biodiversity expand, there has been an increase in ocean science funding, essential for preserving marine resources . In 2020, only around 7.5 to 8% of

2160-581: The Red Sea , Gulf of Aden and Mexico. To be truly representative of the ocean and its range of marine resources, marine conservation parks should encompass the great variety of ocean geological and geographical terrains, as these, in turn, influence the biosphere around them. As time progresses it would be strategically advantageous to develop parks that include oceanic features such as ocean ridges , ocean trenches , island arc systems, ocean seamounts , ocean plateaus , and abyssal plains , which occupy half

2250-767: The Ross Sea . Other large MPAs are in the Indian , Pacific , and Atlantic Oceans , in certain exclusive economic zones of Australia and overseas territories of France , the United Kingdom and the United States , with major (990,000 square kilometres (380,000 sq mi) or larger) new or expanded MPAs by these nations since 2012—such as Natural Park of the Coral Sea , Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument , Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve and South Georgia and

2340-411: The marine ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land. Ocean deoxygenation poses a threat to marine habitats, due to the growth of low oxygen zones. In marine systems, ocean currents have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life. Plankton are the life forms that inhabit

2430-431: The nature of the rocks they are made of – the harder the rocks the less likely they are to erode, so variations in rock hardness result in coastlines with different shapes. Tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range

2520-414: The primary producers in the ocean, at the start of the food chain . In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for zooplankton , which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates . If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves,

2610-492: The tides . Their productivity is largely dependent on the turbidity of the water. The main phytoplankton present are diatoms and dinoflagellates which are abundant in the sediment. Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp . They form some of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds . Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. Kelp forests provide

2700-444: The " system ". No take zones (NTZs), are areas designated in a number of the world's MPAs, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities. These no take zones can cover an entire MPA, or specific portions. For example, the 1,150,000 square kilometres (440,000 sq mi) Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , the world's largest MPA (and largest protected area of any type, land or sea),

2790-581: The Antarctic Treaty and CCAMLR, make up part the broader system of international agreements called the Antarctic Treaty System. Since 1982, the CCAMLR meets annually to implement binding conservations measures like the creation of 'protected areas' at the suggestion of the convention's scientific committee. In 2009, the CCAMLR created the first 'high-seas' MPA entirely within international waters over

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2880-551: The Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current late of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, national, and sub-national levels and contribute to poverty reduction and the pursuit of sustainable development ." The UN later endorsed another decision, Decision VII/15, in 2006: Effective conservation of 10% of each of the world's ecological regions by 2010. – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Decision VII/15 The 10% conservation goal

2970-462: The Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Cook Islands who have individual EEZ areas of between 1.9 and 3.5 million km . The national EEZ's are the ones where governance is easier, and agreements to create marine parks are within national jurisdictions, such as is the case with Marae Moana and the Cook Islands. One alternative to imposing MPAs on an indigenous population is through

3060-524: The Great Lakes of North America. The form of marine protected areas trace the origins to the World Congress on National Parks in 1962. In 1976, a process was delivered to the excessive rights to every sovereign state to establish marine protected areas at over 200 nautical miles. Over the next two decades, a scientific body of evidence marked the utility in the designation of marine protected areas. In

3150-584: The Ross Sea after several years of failed negotiations. Establishment of the Ross Sea MPA required unanimity of the commission members and enforcement will begin in December 2017. However, due to a sunset provision inserted into the proposal, the new marine park will only be in force for 35 years. Many countries have established national targets, accompanied by action plans and implementations. The UN Council identified

3240-764: The South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area . When counted with MPAs of all sizes from many other countries, as of April 2023 there are more than 16,615 MPAs, encompassing 7.2% of the world's oceans (26,146,645 km ), with less than half of that area – encompassing 2.9% of the world's oceans – assessed to be fully or highly protected according to the MPA Guide Framework. Several types of compliant MPA can be distinguished: IUCN offered seven categories of protected area , based on management objectives and four broad governance types. Related protected area categories include

3330-606: The aftermath of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , an international target was established with the encompassment of ten percent of the world's marine protected areas. On 28 October 2016 in Hobart , Australia , the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources agreed to establish the first Antarctic and largest marine protected area in the world encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in

3420-461: The beaches, making waves break obliquely on the sand. These currents transport large amounts of sand along coasts, forming spits , barrier islands and tombolos . Longshore currents also commonly create offshore bars , which give beaches some stability by reducing erosion. Sandy shores are full of life, The grains of sand host diatoms , bacteria and other microscopic creatures. Some fish and turtles return to certain beaches and spawn eggs in

3510-419: The body of an individual organism is known as a thallus rather than as a plant (Kingdom: Plantae ). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units: In addition, many kelp species have pneumatocysts , or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in

3600-493: The coast. Worldwide, continental shelves occupy a total area of about 24 million km (9 million sq mi), 8% of the ocean's total area and nearly 5% of the world's total area. Since the continental shelf is usually less than 200 metres deep, it follows that coastal habitats are generally photic , situated in the sunlit epipelagic zone . This means the conditions for photosynthetic processes so important for primary production , are available to coastal marine habitats. Because land

3690-514: The continental shelf. Coastal fish include small forage fish as well as the larger predator fish that feed on them. Forage fish thrive in inshore waters where high productivity results from upwelling and shoreline run off of nutrients. Some are partial residents that spawn in streams, estuaries and bays, but most complete their life cycle in the zone. There can also be a mutualism between species that occupy adjacent marine habitats. For example, fringing reefs just below low tide level have

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3780-414: The current becomes a candidate habitat for the forage fish that feed on them. And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger predatory fish and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life. Ocean currents can be generated by differences in

3870-501: The density of the water. How dense water is depends on how saline or warm it is. If water contains differences in salt content or temperature, then the different densities will initiate a current. Water that is saltier or cooler will be denser, and will sink in relation to the surrounding water. Conversely, warmer and less salty water will float to the surface. Atmospheric winds and pressure differences also produces surface currents, waves and seiches . Ocean currents are also generated by

3960-884: The earth's surface. Another factor that will influence the development of marine conservation areas is ownership. Who owns the world's oceans? Approximately 64% of the world's oceans are " international waters " and subject to regulations such as the Law of the Sea and the governance of UN bodies such as the International Seabed Authority . The remaining 36% of the ocean is under the governance of individual countries within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). Some individual national EEZ's cover very large areas , such as France and USA (>11 million km ), and Australia, Russia, UK, and Indonesia (>6 million km ). Some states have very small land areas but extremely large EEZ's such as Kiribati,

4050-593: The edge of coastal waters. The first part extends along the coastland of Eyre Peninsula from Point Drummond in the south-east to just south of Elliston in the north-west including Cap Island, the second part surrounding Flinders Island and the Topgallant Islands and the third and fourth parts respectively surrounding the Ward Islands and the Pearson Isles . The marine park is divided into zones to managing

4140-435: The effects of overfishing nearshore ecosystems, which can release herbivores from their normal population regulation and result in the over-grazing of kelp and other algae. This can rapidly result in transitions to barren landscapes where relatively few species persist. Frequently considered an ecosystem engineer , kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities. In algae (Kingdom: Protista ),

4230-535: The enclosed environment. United States Executive Order 13158 in May 2000 established MPAs, defining them as: Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein. The Convention on Biological Diversity defined the broader term of marine and coastal protected area (MCPA): Any defined area within or adjacent to

4320-411: The environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals, which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding. Coastal habitats are the most visible marine habitats, but they are not the only important marine habitats. Coastlines run for 380,000 kilometres, and the total volume of the ocean is 1,370 million cu km. This means that for each metre of coast, there

4410-420: The equator, where currents curve left. Seabed topography (ocean topography or marine topography) refers to the shape of the land ( topography ) when it interfaces with the ocean. These shapes are obvious along coastlines, but they occur also in significant ways underwater. The effectiveness of marine habitats is partially defined by these shapes, including the way they interact with and shape ocean currents , and

4500-488: The fabric of nation states. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area as: A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. This definition is intended to make it more difficult to claim MPA status for regions where exploitation of marine resources occurs. If there

4590-490: The following; While "area" refers to a single contiguous location, terms such as " network ", " system ", and " region " that group MPAs are not always consistently employed." System " is more often used to refer to an individual MPA, whereas " region " is defined by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre as: A collection of individual MPAs operating cooperatively, at various spatial scales and with

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4680-652: The global ocean area falls under a conservation designation. This area is equivalent to 27 million square kilometres, equivalent to the land areas of Russia and Canada combined, although some argue that the effective conservation zones (ones with the strictest regulations) occupy only 5% of the ocean area (about equivalent to the land area of Russia alone). Marine conservation zones, as with their terrestrial equivalents, vary in terms of rules and regulations. Few zones rule out completely any sort of human activity within their area, as activities such as fishing, tourism, and transport of essential goods and services by ship, are part of

4770-505: The governmental jurisdictions they occupy. Empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and enlist the support of diverse groups that rely on the resource such as subsistence and commercial fishers, scientists, recreation, tourism businesses, youths and others. Mistrust between fishermen and regulating authorities is of central importance there, and needs to be addressed. Recent evidence from regions like Scandinavia, Spain, Portugal or Canada reveals success stories based on

4860-463: The gravitational pull of the sun and moon ( tides ), and seismic activity ( tsunami ). The rotation of the Earth affects the direction ocean currents take, and explains which way the large circular ocean gyres rotate in the image above left. Suppose a current at the equator is heading north. The Earth rotates eastward, so the water possesses that rotational momentum. But the further the water moves north,

4950-409: The humans live by the coast, putting pressure on coastal habitats. Mudflats are coastal wetlands that form when mud is deposited by tides or rivers. They are found in sheltered areas such as bays , bayous , lagoons , and estuaries . Mudflats may be viewed geologically as exposed layers of bay mud , resulting from deposition of estuarine silts , clays and marine animal detritus . Most of

5040-975: The leaves are long and narrow and are very often green, and because the plants often grow in large meadows which look like grassland. Since seagrasses photosynthesize and are submerged, they must grow submerged in the photic zone , where there is enough sunlight. For this reason, most occur in shallow and sheltered coastal waters anchored in sand or mud bottoms. Seagrasses form extensive beds or meadows , which can be either monospecific (made up of one species) or multispecific (where more than one species co-exist). Seagrass beds make highly diverse and productive ecosystems . They are home to phyla such as juvenile and adult fish, epiphytic and free-living macroalgae and microalgae , mollusks , bristle worms , and nematodes . Few species were originally considered to feed directly on seagrass leaves (partly because of their low nutritional content), but scientific reviews and improved working methods have shown that seagrass herbivory

5130-431: The marine environment to ensure varying degrees of “protection for habitats and biodiversity” and varying levels of “ecologically sustainable development and use” as follows: As of 2016, the marine park has been classified under International Union for Conservation of Nature system of protected area categories with the “sanctuary zones” being IUCN Category II , the “habitat protection zones” being IUCN Category IV and

5220-550: The marine environment to the point where they create further habitat for other organisms. By volume the ocean provides most of the habitable space on the planet. In contrast to terrestrial habitats, marine habitats are shifting and ephemeral . Swimming organisms find areas by the edge of a continental shelf a good habitat, but only while upwellings bring nutrient rich water to the surface. Shellfish find habitat on sandy beaches, but storms, tides and currents mean their habitat continually reinvents itself. The presence of seawater

5310-418: The marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings. An apparently unique extension of the meaning is used by NOAA to refer to protected areas on

5400-425: The more stable sedimental environment. However, large numbers of bacteria are found within the sediment which have a very high oxygen demand. This reduces the levels of oxygen within the sediment often resulting in partially anoxic conditions, which can be further exacerbated by limited water flux. Phytoplankton are key primary producers in estuaries. They move with the water bodies and can be flushed in and out with

5490-454: The need for countries to collaborate with each other to establish effective regional conservation plans. Some national targets are listed in the table below Marine environment A marine habitat is a habitat that supports marine life . Marine life depends in some way on the saltwater that is in the sea (the term marine comes from the Latin mare , meaning sea or ocean). A habitat

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5580-402: The ocean contains more than 99 percent of the Earth's liquid water. The science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke has pointed out it would be more appropriate to refer to the planet Earth as the planet Sea or the planet Ocean. Marine habitats can be broadly divided into pelagic and demersal habitats. Pelagic habitats are the habitats of the open water column , away from the bottom of

5670-421: The ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called phytoplankton . These tiny plants are

5760-421: The ocean which partially shape them. The Earth's natural processes, including weather and sea level change , result in the erosion , accretion and resculpturing of coasts as well as the flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys . The main agents responsible for deposition and erosion along coastlines are waves , tides and currents . The formation of coasts also depends on

5850-543: The ocean's single greatest hope for increasing the resilience of the marine environment to such stressors. Well-designed and managed MPAs developed with input and support from interested stakeholders can conserve biodiversity and protect and restore fisheries . MPAs can help sustain local economies by supporting fisheries and tourism. For example, Apo Island in the Philippines made protected one quarter of their reef, allowing fish to recover, jump-starting their economy. This

5940-493: The ocean. An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a pelagic organism, as in pelagic fish . Similarly, an organism living in a demersal habitat is said to be a demersal organism, as in demersal fish . Pelagic habitats are intrinsically shifting and ephemeral, depending on what ocean currents are doing. Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms, like corals , kelp , mangroves and seagrasses , are ecosystem engineers which reshape

6030-459: The ocean. Demersal habitats are the habitats that are near or on the bottom of the ocean. An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a pelagic organism, as in pelagic fish . Similarly, an organism living in a demersal habitat is said to be a demersal organism, as in demersal fish . Pelagic habitats are intrinsically ephemeral, depending on what ocean currents are doing. The land-based ecosystem depends on topsoil and fresh water, while

6120-505: The open ocean, they include underwater and deep sea features such as ocean rises and seamounts . The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea volcanoes , oceanic trenches , submarine canyons , oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains . One measure of the relative importance of different marine habitats is the rate at which they produce biomass . Marine coasts are dynamic environments which constantly change, like

6210-471: The perspective of resource users, intended to address both environmental and socio-economic needs, complementary ecological and social goals and designs need greater research and policy support". Filipino communities connect with one another to share information about MPAs, creating a larger network through the social communities' support. Emerging or established MPA networks can be found in Australia , Belize,

6300-547: The region while protecting ecosystem integrity south of the Antarctic Convergence and 60 S latitude . In so doing, it also established a commission of the original signatories and acceding parties called the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to advance these aims through protection, scientific study, and rational use, such as harvesting, of those marine resources. Though separate,

6390-566: The rocks. Competition can develop for the rocky spaces. For example, barnacles can compete successfully on open intertidal rock faces to the point where the rock surface is covered with them. Barnacles resist desiccation and grip well to exposed rock faces. However, in the crevices of the same rocks, the inhabitants are different. Here mussels can be the successful species, secured to the rock with their byssal threads . Rocky and sandy coasts are vulnerable because humans find them attractive and want to live near them. An increasing proportion of

6480-648: The salinity of ocean seawater (up to 90 ppt). There are many mangrove species, not all closely related. The term "mangrove" is used generally to cover all of these species, and it can be used narrowly to cover just mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora . Mangroves form a distinct characteristic saline woodland or shrubland habitat, called a mangrove swamp or mangrove forest . Mangrove swamps are found in depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangroves dominate three quarters of tropical coastlines. An estuary

6570-410: The sand with vegetation. Ocean processes grade loose sediments to particle sizes other than sand, such as gravel or cobbles . Waves breaking on a beach can leave a berm , which is a raised ridge of coarser pebbles or sand, at the high tide mark. Shingle beaches are made of particles larger than sand, such as cobbles, or small stones. These beaches make poor habitats. Little life survives because

6660-552: The sand. Birds habitat beaches, like gulls , loons , sandpipers , terns and pelicans . Aquatic mammals , such sea lions, recuperate on them. Clams , periwinkles , crabs , shrimp , starfish and sea urchins are found on most beaches. Sand is a sediment made from small grains or particles with diameters between about 60 μm and 2 mm. Mud (see mudflats below) is a sediment made from particles finer than sand. This small particle size means that mud particles tend to stick together, whereas sand particles do not. Mud

6750-614: The sediment within a mudflat is within the intertidal zone , and thus the flat is submerged and exposed approximately twice daily. Mangrove swamps and salt marshes form important coastal habitats in tropical and temperate areas respectively. Mangroves are species of shrubs and medium size trees that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics – mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S. The saline conditions tolerated by various species range from brackish water , through pure seawater (30 to 40 ppt ), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice

6840-401: The shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided into pelagic and demersal zones . Pelagic habitats are found near the surface or in the open water column , away from the bottom of the ocean. Demersal habitats are near or on the bottom of

6930-514: The slower the earth moves eastward. If the current could get to the North Pole, the earth would not be moving eastward at all. To conserve its rotational momentum, the further the current travels north the faster it must move eastward. So the effect is that the current curves to the right. This is the Coriolis effect . It is weakest at the equator and strongest at the poles. The effect is opposite south of

7020-613: The southern shelf of the South Orkney Islands . This area encompasses 94,000 square kilometres (36,000 sq mi) and all fishing activity including transshipment, and dumping or discharge of waste is prohibited with the exception of scientific research endeavors. On 28 October 2016, the CCAMLR, composed of 24 member countries and the European Union at the time, agreed to establish the world's largest marine park encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in

7110-477: The spillover of the marine protected area. Typical MPAs restrict fishing , oil and gas mining and/or tourism . Other restrictions may limit the use of ultrasonic devices like sonar (which may confuse the guidance system of cetaceans ), development, construction and the like. Some fishing restrictions include "no-take" zones, which means that no fishing is allowed. Less than 1% of US MPAs are no-take. Ship transit can also be restricted or banned, either as

7200-403: The stones are churned and pounded together by waves and currents. The relative solidity of rocky shores seems to give them a permanence compared to the shifting nature of sandy shores. This apparent stability is not real over even quite short geological time scales, but it is real enough over the short life of an organism. In contrast to sandy shores, plants and animals can anchor themselves to

7290-403: The terms laid out by the convention, and in 2004, its member nations committed to the following targets; "The establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through a global network, contribute to achieving the three objectives of

7380-448: The tested cooperation between marine scientists and fishermen in jointly managing coastal marine reserves. Marine Protected Area Networks or MPA networks have been defined as "A group of MPAs that interact with one another ecologically and/or socially form a network". These networks are intended to connect individuals and MPAs and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and user groups. "MPA networks are, from

7470-807: The use of Indigenous Protected Areas , such as those in Australia. The 17th International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) General Assembly in San Jose , California, the 19th IUCN assembly and the fourth World Parks Congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas. The World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 called for the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012. The Evian agreement, signed by G8 Nations in 2003, agreed to these terms. The Durban Action Plan, developed in 2003, called for regional action and targets to establish

7560-410: The water column and sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. Most estuaries were formed by the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when sea level began to rise about 10,000-12,000 years ago. They are amongst the most heavily populated areas throughout the world, with about 60% of the world's population living along estuaries and the coast. As

7650-517: The water column. The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual irradiance dose > 50 E m ). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic upwelling , a process that delivers cool nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean's mixed surface layer . Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across kelp fronds throughout

7740-694: The water column. Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp ( Macrocystis spp. ) can grow as much as 30-60 centimetres vertically per day. Some species such as Nereocystis are annual while others like Eisenia are perennial , living for more than 20 years. In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods and increased storm frequency. Seagrasses are flowering plants from one of four plant families which grow in marine environments. They are called seagrasses because

7830-426: The way sunlight diminishes when these landforms occupy increasing depths. Tidal networks depend on the balance between sedimentary processes and hydrodynamics however, anthropogenic influences can impact the natural system more than any physical driver. Marine topographies include coastal and oceanic landforms ranging from coastal estuaries and shorelines to continental shelves and coral reefs . Further out in

7920-616: The world's oceans needed to be protected within 3 years. The 10% protection goal is described as a "baby step" as 30% is the real amount of ocean protection scientists agree on that should be implemented. On 7 April 1982, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention) came into force after discussions began in 1975 between parties of the then-current Antarctic Treaty to limit large-scale exploitation of krill by commercial fisheries. The Convention bound contracting nations to abide by previously agreed upon Antarctic territorial claims and peaceful use of

8010-529: The “general managed use zones” being IUCN Category VI . Marine protected area There are a number of global examples of large marine conservation areas. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , is situated in the central Pacific Ocean, around Hawaii , occupying an area of 1.5 million square kilometers. The area is rich in wild life, including the green turtle and the Hawaiian monkfish, alongside 7,000 other species, and 14 million seabirds. In 2017

8100-571: Was shown in the film, Resources at Risk: Philippine Coral Reef . A 2016 report by the Center for Development and Strategy found that programs like the United States National Marine Sanctuary system can develop considerable economic benefits for communities through Public–private partnerships . They can be self-financed through a surrounding "conservation finance area" in which a limited number licenses are granted to benefit from

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