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73-651: The ITIA assumed responsibility for administering the Tennis Anti-Corruption Program on its formation and for the Tennis Anti-Doping Programme on 1 January 2022. In addition to prevention, education and drug testing activities, it gathers intelligence and investigates competition manipulation, most notably match fixing in tennis . It has the ability to impose fines and sanctions, and ban players, umpires , and other tennis officials from participating in sanctioned tournaments. The organisation

146-539: A pulmonary embolism or stroke. Per the WADA, it is a banned substance. Urine samples can be tested via electrophoresis , and blood samples via indirect markers. Gene doping agents are a relatively recently described class of athletic performance-enhancing substances. These drug therapies, which involve viral vector -mediated gene transfer , are not known to currently be in use as of 2020 . Also known as anabolic steroid precursors, they promote lean body mass . Once in

219-603: A syringe and came to his aid as his runner began to struggle. The use of strychnine, at the time, was thought necessary to survive demanding races, according to sports historians Alain Lunzenfichter and historian of sports doping, Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, who said: Hicks was, in the phrase of the time, "between life and death" but recovered, collected his gold medal a few days later, and lived until 1952. Nonetheless, he never again took part in athletics. In 1977 one of East Germany's best sprinters, Renate Neufeld , fled to

292-494: A thymoleptic before being phased out by the appearance of newer agents in the 1950s. Everton , one of the top clubs in the English football league, were champions of the 1962–63 season, and it was done, according to a national newspaper investigation, with the help of Benzedrine. Word spread after Everton's win that the drug had been involved. The newspaper investigated, cited where the reporter believed it had come from, and quoted

365-572: A desire among athletes to use testosterone. In 1967, the first prohibited substance list and anti-doping measures were implemented at the 1968 Olympics. In the 1980s, the main PEDs were cortisone and anabolic steroids . In 1988, the United States Congress established the Anti-Drug Abuse Act to criminalize the distribution and possession of non-medical anabolic steroids. In 1999, WADA

438-726: A diet consisting of dried figs which was thought, at the time, to be a significant factor in winning the 200-yard stade race. Ancient Greek athletes at the time also incorporated substances such as wine and brandy into their training routines. Stimulants derived from plants (e.g., Cola nitida , Bufotein , etc.) were used by the Roman gladiators to overcome injuries and fatigue. In the late 19th century as modern medicine and pharmacology were developing, PEDs saw an increase in use. Supplements were now exclusively being used to enhance muscular work capacity. The main substances being used included alcoholic drinks , caffeine, and mixtures created by

511-691: A doctor who treated American athletes, went to Vienna with the American weightlifting team. There he met a Russian physician who, over "a few drinks", repeatedly asked "What are you giving your boys?" When Ziegler returned the question, the Russian said that his own athletes were being given testosterone. Returning to America, Ziegler tried low doses of testosterone on himself, on the American trainer Bob Hoffman and on two lifters, Jim Park and Yaz Kuzahara. All gained more weight and strength than any training programme would produce but there were side-effects. Ziegler sought

584-613: A drug that would guarantee them success in sport, but cause them to die after five years. In his research, as in previous research by Mirkin, approximately half the athletes responded that they would take the drug, but modern research by James Connor and co-workers has yielded much lower numbers, with athletes having levels of acceptance of the dilemma that were similar to the general population of Australia. The most common prohibited substances for doping in sport are: Examples of well known stimulants include caffeine , cocaine , amphetamine , modafinil , and ephedrine . Caffeine, although

657-631: A drug without after-effects and hit upon the anabolic steroid methandrostenolone , first made in the US in 1958 by Ciba and marketed as Dianabol (colloquially known as "d-bol"). The results were so impressive that lifters began taking more, and steroids spread to other sports. Paul Lowe , a former running back with the San Diego Chargers American football team, told a California legislative committee on drug abuse in 1970: "We had to take them [steroids] at lunchtime. He [an official] would put them on

730-600: A finding that an Anti-Doping Rule Violation has been committed, sanctions are imposed under the Programme in compliance with the requirements of the World Anti-Doping Code . The ITIA also administers the Tennis Integrity Protection Programme (TIPP). TIPP is an interactive online e-learning programme designed to inform participants in the sport and thus to protect the integrity of the sport. TIPP

803-751: A first instance hearing. There are currently seven AHOs. Appeals of first instance decisions are heard de novo at the Court of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne , Switzerland. Another main responsibility of the ITIA is to administer the Tennis Anti-Doping Programme (TADP) on behalf of the IGBs. Professional tennis players are tested for substances prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (‘WADA’) and, upon

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876-651: A little saucer and prescribed them for us to take them and if not he would suggest there might be a fine." Olympic statistics show the weight of shot putters increased 14 percent between 1956 and 1972, whereas steeplechasers weight increased 7.6 percent. The gold medalist pentathlete Mary Peters said: "A medical research team in the United States attempted to set up extensive research into the effects of steroids on weightlifters and throwers, only to discover that there were so few who weren't taking them that they couldn't establish any worthwhile comparisons." Brand name Dianabol

949-685: A mixture called "butotens" to greatly improve their physical power at the risk of insanity, which is thought to have been prepared using the Amanita muscaria mushroom. The ancient Olympics in Greece have been alleged to have had forms of doping. In ancient Rome , where chariot racing had become a huge part of their culture, athletes drank herbal infusions to strengthen them before chariot races. From that moment, people started to introduce their specific diets to improve their performance. Lots of athletes were mainly focusing on achieving superiority and winning

1022-615: A professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. Linford Christie of Great Britain

1095-579: A stimulant, has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004. It has a positive effect on various physical parameters, most of all endurance, but also on velocity, strength, reaction time and specific actions like throwing performance. Other ways of cheating that change the body without using foreign substances include injecting one's own red blood cells as done with doping at

1168-604: A study commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), actually 44% of them had used them. Nevertheless, only 0.5% of those tested were caught. The entire Russian track and field team was banned from the 2016 Olympic Games, as the Russian State had sponsored and essentially sanctioned their doping program. Goldman's dilemma, or the Goldman dilemma, is a question that was posed to elite athletes by physician, osteopath and publicist Bob Goldman, asking whether they would take

1241-570: A year for the sake of her family. But when her father then lost his job and her sister was expelled from her handball club, she decided to tell her story. East Germany closed itself to the sporting world in May 1965. In 1977 the shot-putter Ilona Slupianek, who weighed 93 kg, failed a test for anabolic steroids at the European Cup meeting in Helsinki and thereafter athletes were tested before they left

1314-579: Is a trade name for amphetamine. The Council of Europe says it first appeared in sport at the Berlin Olympics in 1936. It was produced in 1887 and the derivative, Benzedrine, was isolated in the U.S. in 1934 by Gordon Alles . Its perceived effects gave it the street name "speed". British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the Second World War and the RAF got through so many that "Methedrine won

1387-576: Is an initiative from the International Governing Bodies (IGBs) of professional tennis: the ITF , ATP , WTA , and the four Grand Slam tournaments (the Australian Open , French Open , Wimbledon and US Open ). The ITIA is legally independent of the IGBs and makes its own decisions on investigations and prosecutions. In this respect it is unusual in global sports. The ITIA is supervised by

1460-856: Is considered cheating by organized athletic organizations. This usage is often referred to as doping . Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred to as ergogenic aids . Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called nootropics , are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance. The classifications of substances as performance-enhancing substances are not entirely clear-cut and objective. As in other types of categorization , certain prototype performance enhancers are universally classified as such (like anabolic steroids ), whereas other substances (like vitamins and protein supplements) are virtually never classified as performance enhancers despite their effects on performance. As

1533-581: Is considered unethical and is prohibited by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee . Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbate the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating. The origins of doping in sports go back to the creation of the sport itself. From ancient usage of substances in chariot racing to more recent controversies in doping in baseball , doping in tennis , doping at

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1606-491: Is important that tests are conducted by independent organizations that treat each athlete equally, indifferent of fame or nationality. A famous case of AAS use in a competition was Canadian Ben Johnson 's victory in the 100 m at the 1988 Summer Olympics . He subsequently failed the drug test when stanozolol was found in his urine. He later admitted to using the steroid as well as Dianabol , testosterone, Furazabol , and human growth hormone amongst other things. Johnson

1679-539: Is mandatory for all players and officials and must be completed every 2 years. The ITIA also recommend that all those working in tennis such as coaches, tournament staff and agents complete the programme. Last updated on: 7 January 2022. *Appeal dismissed from The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). * Suspension contested and paused for Royal Spanish Tennis Association events, pending CAS ruling, by Superior Court of Justice of Madrid , Spain. Doping in sport In competitive sports, doping

1752-611: Is no longer produced but the drug methandrostenolone itself is still made in many countries and other, similar drugs are made elsewhere. The use of anabolic steroids is now banned by all major sporting bodies, including the ATP , WTA , ITF , International Olympic Committee , FIFA , UEFA , all major professional golf tours , the National Hockey League , Major League Baseball , the National Basketball Association ,

1825-586: Is the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) by athletes, as a way of cheating . As stated in the World Anti-Doping Code by WADA, doping is defined as the occurrence of one or more of the anti-doping rule violations outlined in Article 2.1 through Article 2.11 of the Code. The term doping is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of drugs to enhance performance

1898-399: Is to use new designer stimulants, which have not previously been officially prohibited, but have similar chemical structures or biological effects. Designer stimulants that attracted media attention in 2010 included mephedrone , ephedrone , and fluoroamphetamines , which have chemical structures and effects similar to ephedrine and amphetamine . These "de facto experiments investigating

1971-486: Is usual with categorization, there are borderline cases; caffeine , for example, is considered a performance enhancer by some but not others. The phrase has been used to refer to several distinct classes of drugs: Anabolic steroids are synthetically derived from testosterone and modified to have greater anabolic effects. They work by increasing the concentration of nitrogen in the muscle which inhibits catabolic glucocorticoid binding to muscle. This ultimately prohibits

2044-898: The European Athletic Association , WWE , the NFL , and the UCI . However, drug testing can be wildly inconsistent and, in some instances, has gone unenforced. A number of studies measuring anabolic steroid use in high school athletes found that out of all 12th grade students, 6.6 percent of them had used anabolic steroids at some point in their high school careers or were approached and counseled to use them. Of those students who acknowledged doping with anabolic–androgenic steroids, well over half participated in school-sponsored athletics, including football, wrestling, track and field, and baseball. A second study showed 6.3 percent of high school student Football players admitted to current or former AAS use. At

2117-674: The Troubles and the Iraq War . Appointed in 2019, it was announced in 2022 that he would step down having made a 'significant contribution to integrity in tennis'. In late 2022 it was announced that he would be succeeded by Karen Moorhouse, an executive with the Rugby Football League . It has three Senior Directors. These are: The ITIA has around 35 staff across intelligence , investigations, anti-doping, education & training, legal/case management, communications and administration. One of

2190-898: The World Anti-Doping Agency 's banned list. Nootropics, or "cognition enhancers", are substances that are claimed to benefit overall cognition by improving memory (e.g., increasing working memory capacity or updating) or other aspects of cognitive control (e.g., inhibitory control , attentional control , attention span , etc.). Allows performance beyond the usual pain threshold. Some painkillers raise blood pressure , increasing oxygen supply to muscle cells . Painkillers used by athletes range from common over-the-counter medicines such as NSAIDs (such as ibuprofen ) to powerful prescription narcotics . Sedatives and anxiolytics are used in sports like archery which require steady hands and accurate aim, and also to overcome excessive nervousness or discomfort for more dangerous sports. Diazepam , nicotine, and propranolol are common examples. Ethanol ,

2263-467: The adrenergic receptors . Examples of stimulants include caffeine , ephedrine , methylphenidate and amphetamine . Potential side effects include hypertension, insomnia , headaches , weight loss , arrhythmia , tremors , anxiety , addiction, and strokes . Some stimulants are allowed in competitive sports and are widely accessible, though may also be monitored by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), such as caffeine. Others are banned as per

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2336-558: The 25th anniversary of the race, stated 20 athletes tested positive for drugs but were cleared by the IOC at this 1988 Seoul Olympics. An IOC official stated that endocrine profiles done at those games indicated that 80 percent of the track and field athletes tested showed evidence of long-term steroid use, although not all were banned. Stimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement, decreasing

2409-463: The Battle of Britain" according to one report. The problem was that amphetamine leads to a lack of judgement and a willingness to take risks, which in sport could lead to better performances but in fighters and bombers led to more crash landings than the RAF could tolerate. The drug was withdrawn but large stocks remained on the black market. Amphetamine was also used legally as an aid to slimming and also as

2482-690: The CIBA Pharmaceutical Company to develop an oral anabolic steroid. This resulted in the creation of methandrostenolone , which appeared on the market in 1960 under the brand name Dianabol . During the Olympics that year, the Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed and died while competing in the 100-kilometer (62-mile) race. An autopsy later revealed the presence of amphetamines and a drug called nicotinyl tartrate in his system. The American specialist in doping, Max M. Novich, wrote: "Trainers of

2555-527: The IAAF hoped, sending her home to East Germany meant she was free to train unchecked with anabolic steroids, if she wanted to, and then compete for another gold medal, which she won. After that, almost nothing emerged from the East German sports schools and laboratories. A rare exception was the visit by the sports-writer and former athlete, Doug Gilbert of the Edmonton Sun , who said: Other reports came from

2628-527: The Olympic Games , and doping at the Tour de France , popular views among athletes have varied widely from country to country over the years. The general trend among authorities and sporting organizations over the past several decades has been to regulate the use of drugs in sports strictly. The reasons for the ban are mainly the health risks of performance-enhancing drugs, the equality of opportunity for athletes, and

2701-503: The Olympic Games in Rome and died later in hospital. The autopsy showed he had taken amphetamine and another drug, Ronicol , which dilates the blood vessels. The chairman of the Dutch cycling federation, Piet van Dijk, said of Rome that "dope – whole cartloads – [were] used in such royal quantities." The 1950s British cycling professional Jock Andrews would joke: "You need never go off-course chasing

2774-559: The Tennis Integrity Supervisory Board (TISB) which has 5 independent members and 4 tennis members, representing the IGBs. The TISB is currently chaired by Jennie Price CBE , former CEO of Sport England . The ITIA was founded by its first CEO Jonny Gray, a former Senior Partner and Global Head of Sport at Control Risks . And a former commanding officer of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders , decorated for service in

2847-954: The Tour de France , treating blood with UV light or the use of a hyperbaric chamber (not currently banned), and, potentially, gene doping . Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased low-density lipoprotein and decreased high-density lipoprotein ), acne , high blood pressure , and liver damage . Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs. AAS use in American sports began in October 1954 when John Ziegler ,

2920-498: The United States was John Ziegler (1917–1983), a physician for the U.S. weightlifting team in the mid-20th century. In 1954, on his tour to Vienna with his team for the world championship, Ziegler learned from his Russian colleague that the Soviet weightlifting team's success was due to their use of testosterone as a performance-enhancing drug. Deciding that U.S. athletes needed chemical assistance to remain competitive, Ziegler worked with

2993-708: The WADA (e.g., cocaine , amphetamines , ephedrine, etc.). Ergogenic aids, or athletic performance-enhancing substances, include a number of drugs with various effects on physical performance. Drugs such as amphetamine and methylphenidate increase power output at constant levels of perceived exertion and delay the onset of fatigue, among other athletic-performance-enhancing effects; bupropion also increases power output at constant levels of perceived exertion, but only during short-term use. Adaptogens are plants that support health through nonspecific effects, neutralize various environmental and physical stressors while being relatively safe and free of side effects. As of 2008,

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3066-563: The West with the Bulgarian she later married. A year later she said that she had been told to take drugs supplied by coaches while training to represent East Germany at the 1980 Summer Olympics. She brought with her to the West grey tablets and green powder she said had been given to her, to members of her club, and to other athletes. The West German doping analyst Manfred Donike reportedly identified them as anabolic steroids. She said she stayed quiet for

3139-476: The athletic trainers (e.g., strychnine tablets made of cocaine and brandy ). In the 20th century, testosterone was isolated and characterized by scientists. In 1941, the first record of synthesized testosterone use occurred when a horse was given testosterone which successfully improved its race performance. Sports trainers soon after began advocating for testosterone use. Images of bodybuilders with massive muscles began circulating which further perpetuated

3212-517: The banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight loss). Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for

3285-409: The body, these precursors are converted to testosterone and increase endogenous testosterone. The desired effects of steroid precursors however, are often not seen as they do not bind well to androgen receptors . Examples of prohormones include norandrostendione , androstenediol , and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) . These steroids have little desired effect compared to anabolic steroids, but have

3358-1006: The breakdown of muscle and preserves muscle mass. Examples of anabolic steroids include: oxandrolone , stanozolol and nandrolone . Anabolic steroids can be taken through a transdermal method, orally, or through injection. Injectable forms of the steroid are the most potent and long-lasting. In general, potential side effects include: muscle hypertrophy , acne , hypertension , elevated cholesterol , thrombosis , decreased high-density lipoproteins , altered libido , hepatic carcinoma , cholestasis , peliosis hepatitis , septic arthritis , Wilm's tumor , psychosis , aggression , addiction , and depression . Potential side effects specifically in males include: male pattern baldness , oligospermia , prostate hypertrophy , testicular atrophy , and prostate cancer . Potential side specifically in females include: hirsutism , uterine atrophy , amenorrhea , breast atrophy , and thickening of vocal cords (voice deepening). Urine samples are tested to determine

3431-435: The collegiate level, surveys show that AAS use among athletes range from 5 percent to 20 percent and continues to rise. The study found that skin changes were an early marker of steroid use in young athletes, and underscored the important role that dermatologists could play in the early detection and intervention in these athletes. There are two different types of controls that can be conducted in competition or in training. It

3504-689: The competition by increasing muscle strength capacity, and endurance. Charmis, the Spartan winner of the Stade race in the Olympic Games of 668BC, introduced the special diet of consuming enough dried figs during the training period. A participant in an endurance walking race in Britain, Abraham Wood, said in 1807 that he had used laudanum (which contains opiates ) to keep him awake for 24 hours while competing against Robert Barclay Allardyce. By April 1877, walking races had stretched to 800 kilometres (500 mi) and

3577-555: The country. At the same time, the Kreischa testing laboratory near Dresden passed into government control; it reputedly made around 12,000 tests a year on East German athletes but without any being penalised. The International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) suspended Slupianek for 12 months, a penalty that ended two days before the European championships in Prague . In the reverse of what

3650-506: The crowds in America as well. And the more spectators paid at the gate, the higher the prizes could be and the greater was the incentive of riders to stay awake—or be kept awake—to ride the greatest distance. Their exhaustion was countered by soigneurs (the French word for "healers"), helpers akin to seconds in boxing . Among the treatments they supplied was nitroglycerine , a drug used to stimulate

3723-400: The drug was not on the prohibited list at the time of their offence, however, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains it is a substance related to those already banned, so the decisions stand. Modafinil was added to the list of prohibited substances on 3 August 2004, ten days before the start of the 2004 Summer Olympics . One approach of athletes to get around regulations on stimulants

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3796-515: The exemplary effect of drug-free sports for the public. Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the "spirit of sport". The use of drugs in sports goes back centuries, about back to the very invention of the concept of sports. In ancient times, when the fittest of a nation were selected as athletes or combatants, they were fed diets and given treatments considered beneficial to help increase muscle. For instance, Scandinavian mythology says Berserkers could drink

3869-562: The following year, also at the Agricultural Hall in Islington , London, to 840 kilometres (520 mi). The Illustrated London News chided: The event proved popular, however, with 20,000 spectators attending each day. Encouraged, the promoters developed the idea and soon held similar races for cyclists. The fascination with six-day bicycle races spread across the Atlantic and appealed to

3942-482: The goalkeeper, Albert Dunlop, as saying: The club agreed that drugs had been used but that they "could not possibly have had any harmful effect." Dunlop, however, said he had become an addict. In November 1942, the Italian cyclist Fausto Coppi took "seven packets of amphetamine" to beat the world hour record on the track. In 1960, the Danish rider Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed during the 100 km team time trial at

4015-543: The heart after cardiac attacks and which was credited with improving riders' breathing. Riders had hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion Major Taylor refused to continue the New York race, saying: "I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand." Public reaction turned against such trials, whether individual races or in teams of two. One report said: The father of anabolic steroids in

4088-499: The intensive training that they come out of it mentally blank [ lessivés – washed out], which is even more painful than a deformed spine." Performance-enhancing substance Performance-enhancing substances ( PESs ), also known as performance-enhancing drugs ( PEDs ), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans. Many substances, such as anabolic steroids , can be used to improve athletic performance and build muscle, which in most cases

4161-497: The main responsibilities of the ITIA is to administer the Tennis Anti-Corruption Program (TACP) on behalf of the IGBs. The TACP is sets out the various corruption offences in professional tennis, including those related to betting , match fixing and competition manipulation. The ITIA investigates possible offences of the TACP. When it has a sufficiency of evidence it submits a case to an independent Anti-Corruption Hearing Officer (AHO) for

4234-573: The most common gendered risk factors include being an adolescent female dissatisfied with their body weight or an adolescent male who perceives larger body sizes as the ideal. Having a negative body image or a history of depression can also be a significant risk factor. These are further exacerbated by parental pressures surrounding appearance, media influence, and peer pressure. Studies show that adolescent males who engage with fitness magazines are twice as likely to use performance-enhancing substances. Adolescents who partake in competitive sports are at

4307-588: The most commonly used substance by athletes, can be used for cardiovascular improvements though has significant detrimental effects. Ethanol was formerly banned by WADA during performance for athletes performing in aeronautics, archery, automobile, karate, motorcycling and powerboating, but was taken off the ban list in 2017. It is detected by breath or blood testing . Cannabis is banned at all times for an athlete by WADA, though performance-enhancing effects have yet to be studied. Cannabis and nicotine are detected through urine analysis . Blood doping agents increase

4380-497: The occasional athlete who fled to the West – 15 of them between 1976 and 1979. One, the ski-jumper Hans-Georg Aschenbach , said: "Long-distance skiers start having injections to their knees from the age 14 because of their intensive training." He said: "For every Olympic champion, there are at least 350 invalids. There are gymnasts among the girls who have to wear corsets from the age of 18 because their spine and their ligaments have become so worn... There are young people so worn out by

4453-719: The old school who supplied treatments which had cocaine as their base declared with assurance that a rider tired by a six-day race would get his second breath after absorbing these mixtures." John Hoberman, a professor at the University of Texas in Austin, Texas, said six-day races were "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion." Over 30% of athletes participating in 2011 World Championships in Athletics admitted having used banned substances during their careers. According to

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4526-428: The oxygen-carrying capacity of blood beyond the individual's natural capacity. They are used in endurance sports like long-distance running, cycling, and Nordic skiing. Recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) is one of the most widely known drugs in this class. The Athlete Biological Passport is the only indirect testing method for detection of blood doping. Erythropoietin, or EPO, is a hormone that helps increase

4599-429: The peloton in a big race – just follow the trail of empty syringes and dope wrappers." The Dutch cycling team manager Kees Pellenaars told of a rider in his care: Currently modafinil is being used throughout the sporting world, with many high-profile cases attracting press coverage as prominent United States athletes have failed tests for this substance. Some athletes who were found to have used modafinil protested as

4672-528: The physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion" were not unknown outside cycling. Thomas Hicks , an American born in England on 7 January 1875, won the Olympic marathon in 1904. He crossed the line behind a fellow American Fred Lorz , who had been transported for 11 miles of the course by his trainer, leading to his disqualification. However, Hicks's trainer Charles Lucas, pulled out

4745-867: The position of the European Medicines Agency was that "The principle of an adaptogenic action needs further clarification and studies in the pre-clinical and clinical area. As such, the term is not accepted in pharmacological and clinical terminology that is commonly used in the EU." Actoprotectors or synthetic adaptogens are compounds that enhance an organism's resilience to physical stress without increasing heat output. Actoprotectors are distinct from other doping compounds in that they increase physical and psychological resilience via non-exhaustive action. Actoprotectors such as bemethyl and bromantane have been used to prepare athletes and enhance performance in Olympic competition. However, only bromantane has been placed on

4818-407: The production of red blood cells which increases the delivery of oxygen to muscles. It is commonly used among endurance athletes such as cyclists. It functions by protecting red blood cells against destruction whilst simultaneously stimulating bone marrow cells to produce more red blood cells. Potential side effects include: dehydration and an increase in blood viscosity which could result in

4891-840: The ratio of testosterone glucuronide to epitestosterone glucuronide, which should be 3:1. Any ratio of 4:1 or greater is considered a positive test. The 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Act and 1990 Anabolic Steroid Act both deemed anabolic steroids as an illegal substance when not used for disease treatment. Stimulants improve focus and alertness. Low (therapeutic) doses of dopaminergic stimulants (e.g., reuptake inhibitors and releasing agents ) also promote mental and athletic performance, as cognitive enhancers and ergogenic aids respectively, by improving muscle strength and endurance while decreasing reaction time and fatigue. Stimulants are commonly used in lengthy exercises that require short bursts (e.g., tennis, team sports, etc.). Stimulants work by increasing catecholamine levels and agonistic activity at

4964-458: The same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988. Now it is regarded as negative test; the acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz,

5037-473: The same side effects. Androstenedione in 2005 became classified as a controlled substance by WADA, however DHEA can still be obtained legally as an over-the-counter nutritional supplement. While the use of PEDs has expanded in recent times, the practice of using substances to improve performance has been around since the Ancient Olympic Games . In the Olympic Games of 668 BC, Charmis had consumed

5110-479: The sensation of fatigue and improving motor coordination. The latter happens via improvement of the interaction between nervous system and musculature. It has greater effect when an athlete is already exhausted - the period when the coordination suffers the most. In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids. Benzedrine

5183-444: Was formed to address the escalating use of substances in sports, particularly after the 1998 doping scandal in cycling. Adolescents are the most vulnerable group when it comes to taking performance-enhancing substances. This is in part due to the significance placed on physical appearance by this age group as well as feelings of invincibility combined with a lack of knowledge surrounding long-term consequences. Studies have shown that

5256-536: Was found to have metabolites of pseudoephedrine in his urine after a 200m heat at the same Olympics, but was later cleared of any wrongdoing. Of the top five competitors in the race, only former world record holder and eventual bronze medalist Calvin Smith of the US never failed a drug test during his career. Smith later said: "I should have been the gold medalist." The CBC radio documentary, Rewind , "Ben Johnson: A Hero Disgraced" broadcast on 19 September 2013, for

5329-559: Was stripped of his gold medal as well as his world-record performance. Carl Lewis was then promoted one place to take the Olympic gold title. Lewis had also run under the current world record time and was therefore recognized as the new record holder. Johnson was not the only participant whose success was questioned: Lewis had tested positive at the Olympic Trials for pseudoephedrine , ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine . Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed

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