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55-473: Interaction design borrows from a wide range of fields like psychology, human-computer interaction , information architecture , and user research to create designs that are tailored to the needs and preferences of users. This involves understanding the context in which the product will be used, identifying user goals and behaviors, and developing design solutions that are responsive to user needs and expectations. While disciplines such as software engineering have

110-421: A computer is known as a " Human-computer Interface ". As a field of research, human–computer interaction is situated at the intersection of computer science , behavioral sciences , design , media studies , and several other fields of study . The term was popularized by Stuart K. Card , Allen Newell , and Thomas P. Moran in their 1983 book, The Psychology of Human–Computer Interaction. The first known use

165-497: A computer with a man's name to cost more than a machine with a woman's name. Other research finds that individuals perceive their interactions with computers more negatively than humans, despite behaving the same way towards these machines. In human and computer interactions, a semantic gap usually exists between human and computer's understandings towards mutual behaviors. Ontology , as a formal representation of domain-specific knowledge, can be used to address this problem by solving

220-688: A current user interface , or designing a new user interface: The iterative design process is repeated until a sensible, user-friendly interface is created. Various strategies delineating methods for human–PC interaction design have developed since the conception of the field during the 1980s. Most plan philosophies come from a model for how clients, originators, and specialized frameworks interface. Early techniques treated clients' psychological procedures as unsurprising and quantifiable and urged plan specialists to look at subjective science to establish zones, (for example, memory and consideration) when structuring UIs. Present-day models, in general, center around

275-669: A display is designed, the task that the display is intended to support must be defined (e.g., navigating, controlling, decision making, learning, entertaining, etc.). A user or operator must be able to process whatever information a system generates and displays; therefore, the information must be displayed according to principles to support perception, situation awareness, and understanding. Christopher Wickens et al. defined 13 principles of display design in their book An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering . These human perception and information processing principles can be utilized to create an effective display design. A reduction in errors,

330-406: A fifth dimension, behaviour. This dimension defines interactions: words are the element that users interact with. Visual representations are the elements of an interface that the user perceives; these may include but are not limited to "typography, diagrams, icons, and other graphics". This dimension defines the objects or space "with which or within which users interact". The time during which

385-423: A fundamental part of usability design. An example of a design maneuver is reducing the viscosity of a notation by adding abstraction mechanisms. This can be done by incorporating style sheets , an abstraction that represent the common styling attributes of items in a document, to a notation where each item in a document has defined its own individual style. After this design maneuver is made, an editor that changes

440-450: A heavy focus on designing for technical stakeholders, interaction design is focused on meeting the needs and optimizing the experience of users, within relevant technical or business constraints. The term interaction design was coined by Bill Moggridge and Bill Verplank in the mid-1980s, but it took 10 years before the concept started to take hold. To Verplank, it was an adaptation of the computer science term user interface design for

495-487: A manual). The use of knowledge in a user's head and knowledge in the world must be balanced for an effective design. 12. Principle of predictive aiding . Proactive actions are usually more effective than reactive actions. A display should eliminate resource-demanding cognitive tasks and replace them with simpler perceptual tasks to reduce the user's mental resources. This will allow the user to focus on current conditions and to consider possible future conditions. An example of

550-456: A predictive aid is a road sign displaying the distance to a certain destination. 13. Principle of consistency . Old habits from other displays will easily transfer to support the processing of new displays if they are designed consistently. A user's long-term memory will trigger actions that are expected to be appropriate. A design must accept this fact and utilize consistency among different displays. Topics in human–computer interaction include

605-442: A reduction in required training time, an increase in efficiency, and an increase in user satisfaction are a few of the many potential benefits that can be achieved by utilizing these principles. Certain principles may not apply to different displays or situations. Some principles may also appear to be conflicting, and there is no simple solution to say that one principle is more important than another. The principles may be tailored to

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660-402: A specific design or situation. Striking a functional balance among the principles is critical for an effective design. 1.Make displays legible (or audible) . A display's legibility is critical and necessary for designing a usable display. If the characters or objects being displayed cannot be discernible, the operator cannot effectively use them. 2.Avoid absolute judgment limits . Do not ask

715-404: A steady input and discussion between clients, creators, and specialists and push for specialized frameworks to be folded with the sorts of encounters clients need to have, as opposed to wrapping user experience around a finished framework. Displays are human-made artifacts designed to support the perception of relevant system variables and facilitate further processing of that information. Before

770-524: A vocabulary to evaluate and modify design solutions. Cognitive dimensions offer a lightweight approach to analysis of a design quality, rather than an in-depth, detailed description. They provide a common vocabulary for discussing notation, user interface or programming language design. Dimensions provide high-level descriptions of the interface and how the user interacts with it: examples include consistency , error-proneness , hard mental operations , viscosity and premature commitment . These concepts aid

825-1010: Is an associated cost in time or effort. A display design should minimize this cost by allowing frequently accessed sources to be located at the nearest possible position. However, adequate legibility should not be sacrificed to reduce this cost. 9. Proximity compatibility principle . Divided attention between two information sources may be necessary for the completion of one task. These sources must be mentally integrated and are defined to have close mental proximity. Information access costs should be low, which can be achieved in many ways (e.g., proximity, linkage by common colors, patterns, shapes, etc.). However, close display proximity can be harmful by causing too much clutter. 10. Principle of multiple resources . A user can more easily process information across different resources. For example, visual and auditory information can be presented simultaneously rather than presenting all visual or all auditory information. 11. Replace memory with visual information: knowledge in

880-460: Is best served by a different trade-off in the usability on each dimension. For example, a high viscosity (resistance to change) is harmful for modification and exploration activities, but less severe for the one-off tasks performed in transcription and incrementation. A design maneuver is a change made by the designer in the notation design, to alter its position within a particular dimension. Dimensions are created to be pairwise independent, so that

935-851: Is for example, the use of dynamic icons, animations and sound to help communicate, creating a sense of interactivity. Interface aspects such as fonts, color palettes and graphical layouts can influence acceptance. Studies showed that affective aspects can affect perceptions of usability. Emotion and pleasure theories exist to explain interface responses. These include Don Norman 's emotional design model, Patrick Jordan's pleasure model and McCarthy and Wright's Technology as Experience framework. The concept of dimensions of interaction design were introduced in Moggridge's book Designing Interactions. Crampton Smith wrote that interaction design draws on four existing design languages, 1D, 2D, 3D, 4D. Kevin Silver later proposed

990-415: Is more similar to A423B8 than 92 is to 93. Unnecessarily similar features should be removed, and dissimilar features should be highlighted. 6. Principle of pictorial realism . A display should look like the variable that it represents (e.g., the high temperature on a thermometer shown as a higher vertical level). If there are multiple elements, they can be configured in a manner that looks like they would in

1045-603: Is quite broad in scope. It is attended by academics, practitioners, and industry people, with company sponsors such as Google, Microsoft, and PayPal. There are also dozens of other smaller, regional, or specialized HCI-related conferences held around the world each year, including: Cognitive dimensions Cognitive dimensions or cognitive dimensions of notations are design principles for notations , user interfaces and programming languages , described by researcher Thomas R.G. Green and further researched with Marian Petre . The dimensions can be used to evaluate

1100-525: Is the Three Mile Island accident , a nuclear meltdown accident, where investigations concluded that the design of the human-machine interface was at least partly responsible for the disaster. Similarly, accidents in aviation have resulted from manufacturers' decisions to use non-standard flight instruments or throttle quadrant layouts: even though the new designs were proposed to be superior in basic human-machine interaction, pilots had already ingrained

1155-607: Is understood correctly. 4.Redundancy gain . If a signal is presented more than once, it is more likely to be understood correctly. This can be done by presenting the signal in alternative physical forms (e.g., color and shape, voice and print, etc.), as redundancy does not imply repetition. A traffic light is a good example of redundancy, as color and position are redundant. 5.Similarity causes confusion: Use distinguishable elements . Signals that appear to be similar will likely be confused. The ratio of similar features to different features causes signals to be similar. For example, A423B9

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1210-402: Is user satisfaction, also referred to as End-User Computing Satisfaction. It goes on to say: "Because human–computer interaction studies a human and a machine in communication, it draws from supporting knowledge on both the machine and the human side. On the machine side, techniques in computer graphics , operating systems , programming languages , and development environments are relevant. On

1265-723: The industrial design profession. To Moggridge, it was an improvement over soft-face , which he had coined in 1984 to refer to the application of industrial design to products containing software. The earliest programs in design for interactive technologies were the Visible Language Workshop, started by Muriel Cooper at MIT in 1975, and the Interactive Telecommunications Program founded at NYU in 1979 by Martin Elton and later headed by Red Burns. The first academic program officially named "Interaction Design"

1320-537: The usability of an existing information artifact , or as heuristics to guide the design of a new one, and are useful in Human-Computer Interaction design. Cognitive dimensions are designed to provide a lightweight approach to analyse the quality of a design, rather than an in-depth, detailed description. They provide a common vocabulary for discussing many factors in notation, UI or programming language design. Also, cognitive dimensions help in exploring

1375-508: The "standard" layout. Thus, the conceptually good idea had unintended results. The human–computer interface can be described as the point of communication between the human user and the computer. The flow of information between the human and computer is defined as the loop of interaction . The loop of interaction has several aspects to it, including: Human–computer interaction studies the ways in which humans make—or do not make—use of computational artifacts, systems, and infrastructures. Much of

1430-522: The Asylum that we need a new approach to solving interactive software-based problems. The problems with designing computer interfaces are fundamentally different from those that do not include software (e.g., hammers). Cooper introduces the concept of cognitive friction, which is when the interface of a design is complex and difficult to use, and behaves inconsistently and unexpectedly, possessing different modes. Alternatively, interfaces can be designed to serve

1485-753: The Interaction Design (IxD) track in the Visual and Multimedia Communication at the University of Venice , Italy. In 1998, the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research founded The Interactive Institute —a Swedish research institute in the field of interaction design. Goal-oriented design (or Goal-Directed design) "is concerned with satisfying the needs and desires of the users of a product or service." Alan Cooper argues in The Inmates Are Running

1540-559: The annual interaction design conference, and the Interaction Awards. Human%E2%80%93computer interaction Human–computer interaction ( HCI ) is research in the design and the use of computer technology , which focuses on the interfaces between people ( users ) and computers . HCI researchers observe the ways humans interact with computers and design technologies that allow humans to interact with computers in novel ways. A device that allows interaction between human being and

1595-457: The concepts of multimodality over unimodality, intelligent adaptive interfaces over command/action based ones, and active interfaces over passive interfaces. The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) defines human–computer interaction as "a discipline that is concerned with the design, evaluation, and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them". A key aspect of HCI

1650-433: The creation of new designs from existing ones through design maneuvers that alter the design within a particular dimension. Designers must be aware of elements that influence user emotional responses. For instance, products must convey positive emotions while avoiding negative ones. Other important aspects include motivational, learning, creative, social and persuasive influences. One method that can help convey such aspects

1705-456: The data obtained from affect-detection channels to improve decision models. A brain–computer interface (BCI), is a direct communication pathway between an enhanced or wired brain and an external device. BCI differs from neuromodulation in that it allows for bidirectional information flow. BCIs are often directed at researching, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions. Security interactions are

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1760-415: The design can be altered in one dimension while keeping a second one constant. But this usually results in a trade-off between dimensions. A modification increasing the usability of the notation in one dimension (while keeping a second one constant) will typically reduce its usability in a third dimension. This reflects an assumption in the framework that there is no perfect interface and that trade-offs are

1815-440: The effectiveness of human–computer interaction. The influence of emotions in human–computer interaction has been studied in fields such as financial decision-making using ECG and organizational knowledge sharing using eye-tracking and face readers as affect-detection channels. In these fields, it has been shown that affect-detection channels have the potential to detect human emotions and those information systems can incorporate

1870-417: The emerging multi-modal and Graphical user interfaces (GUI) allow humans to engage with embodied character agents in a way that cannot be achieved with other interface paradigms. The growth in human–computer interaction field has led to an increase in the quality of interaction, and resulted in many new areas of research beyond. Instead of designing regular interfaces, the different research branches focus on

1925-718: The field seek to achieve might vary. When pursuing a cognitivist perspective, researchers of HCI may seek to align computer interfaces with the mental model that humans have of their activities. When pursuing a post-cognitivist perspective, researchers of HCI may seek to align computer interfaces with existing social practices or existing sociocultural values. Researchers in HCI are interested in developing design methodologies, experimenting with devices, prototyping software, and hardware systems, exploring interaction paradigms, and developing models and theories of interaction. The following experimental design principles are considered, when evaluating

1980-514: The following : Social computing is an interactive and collaborative behavior considered between technology and people. In recent years, there has been an explosion of social science research focusing on interactions as the unit of analysis, as there are a lot of social computing technologies that include blogs, emails, social networking, quick messaging, and various others. Much of this research draws from psychology, social psychology, and sociology. For example, one study found out that people expected

2035-444: The following are common reasons: Traditionally, computer use was modeled as a human–computer dyad in which the two were connected by a narrow explicit communication channel, such as text-based terminals. Much work has been done to make the interaction between a computing system and a human more reflective of the multidimensional nature of everyday communication. Because of potential issues, human–computer interaction shifted focus beyond

2090-507: The human side, communication theory , graphic and industrial design disciplines, linguistics , social sciences , cognitive psychology , social psychology , and human factors such as computer user satisfaction are relevant. And, of course, engineering and design methods are relevant." Due to the multidisciplinary nature of HCI, people with different backgrounds contribute to its success. Poorly designed human-machine interfaces can lead to many unexpected problems. A classic example

2145-455: The interface between the two is crucial to facilitating this interaction. HCI is also sometimes termed human–machine interaction (HMI), man-machine interaction (MMI) or computer-human interaction (CHI). Desktop applications, internet browsers, handheld computers, and computer kiosks make use of the prevalent graphical user interfaces (GUI) of today. Voice user interfaces (VUI) are used for speech recognition and synthesizing systems, and

2200-431: The interface to respond to observations as articulated by D. Engelbart: "If ease of use were the only valid criterion, people would stick to tricycles and never try bicycles." How humans interact with computers continues to evolve rapidly. Human–computer interaction is affected by developments in computing. These forces include: As of 2010 the future for HCI is expected to include the following characteristics: One of

2255-471: The main conferences for new research in human–computer interaction is the annually held Association for Computing Machinery 's (ACM) Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , usually referred to by its short name CHI (pronounced kai , or Khai ). CHI is organized by ACM Special Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction ( SIGCHI ). CHI is a large conference, with thousands of attendants, and

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2310-483: The needs of the service/product provider. User needs may be poorly served by this approach. Usability answers the question "can someone use this interface?". Jakob Nielsen describes usability as the quality attribute that describes how usable the interface is. Shneiderman proposes principles for designing more usable interfaces called "Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design"—which are well-known heuristics for creating usable systems. Personas are archetypes that describe

2365-466: The represented environment. 7. Principle of the moving part . Moving elements should move in a pattern and direction compatible with the user's mental model of how it actually moves in the system. For example, the moving element on an altimeter should move upward with increasing altitude. 8. Minimizing information access cost or interaction cost . When the user's attention is diverted from one location to another to access necessary information, there

2420-458: The research in this field seeks to improve the human–computer interaction by improving the usability of computer interfaces. How usability is to be precisely understood, how it relates to other social and cultural values, and when it is, and when it may not be a desirable property of computer interfaces is increasingly debated. Much of the research in the field of human–computer interaction takes an interest in: Visions of what researchers in

2475-439: The same element?), indexing (are there elements to guide finding a specific part?), synopsis (" Gestalt view " of the whole annotated structure) or unevenness (some creation paths are easier than others, which bias the expressed ideas in a developed artifact). The authors identify four main user activities with interactive artifacts: incrementation [creation], transcription , modification and exploratory design . Each activity

2530-400: The semantic ambiguities between the two parties. In the interaction of humans and computers, research has studied how computers can detect, process, and react to human emotions to develop emotionally intelligent information systems. Researchers have suggested several 'affect-detection channels'. The potential of telling human emotions in an automated and digital fashion lies in improvements to

2585-437: The space of possible designs through design maneuvers , changes intended to improve the design along one dimension. Thomas Green originally defined 14 cognitive dimensions: In addition to the above, new dimensions are sometimes proposed in the HCI research field, with different levels of adoption and refinement. Such candidate dimensions include creative ambiguity (does the notation encourage interpreting several meanings of

2640-534: The study of interaction between humans and computers specifically as it pertains to information security . Its aim, in plain terms, is to improve the usability of security features in end user applications. Unlike HCI, which has roots in the early days of Xerox PARC during the 1970s, HCISec is a nascent field of study by comparison. Interest in this topic tracks with that of Internet security , which has become an area of broad public concern only in very recent years. When security features exhibit poor usability,

2695-420: The user interacts with the interface. An example of this includes "content that changes over time such as sound, video or animation". Behavior defines how users respond to the interface. Users may have different reactions in this interface. The Interaction Design Association was created in 2003 to serve the community. The organization has over 80,000 members and more than 173 local groups. IxDA hosts Interaction

2750-433: The user to determine the level of a variable based on a single sensory variable (e.g., color, size, loudness). These sensory variables can contain many possible levels. 3.Top-down processing . Signals are likely perceived and interpreted by what is expected based on a user's experience. If a signal is presented contrary to the user's expectation, more physical evidence of that signal may need to be presented to assure that it

2805-439: The various goals and observed behaviour patterns among users. A persona encapsulates critical behavioural data in a way that both designers and stakeholders can understand, remember, and relate to. Personas use storytelling to engage users' social and emotional aspects, which helps designers to either visualize the best product behaviour or see why the recommended design is successful. The cognitive dimensions framework provides

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2860-425: The world . A user should not need to retain important information solely in working memory or retrieve it from long-term memory. A menu, checklist, or another display can aid the user by easing the use of their memory. However, memory use may sometimes benefit the user by eliminating the need to reference some knowledge globally (e.g., an expert computer operator would rather use direct commands from memory than refer to

2915-608: Was established at Carnegie Mellon University in 1994, as a Master of Design in Interaction Design. At the outset, the program focused mainly on screen interfaces, before shifting to a greater emphasis on the "big picture" aspects of interaction—people, organizations, culture, service and system. In 1990, Gillian Crampton Smith founded the Computer-Related Design MA at the Royal College of Art (RCA) in London, which in 2005

2970-428: Was in 1975 by Carlisle. The term is intended to convey that, unlike other tools with specific and limited uses, computers have many uses which often involve an open-ended dialogue between the user and the computer. The notion of dialogue likens human–computer interaction to human-to-human interaction: an analogy that is crucial to theoretical considerations in the field. Humans interact with computers in many ways, and

3025-775: Was renamed Design Interactions, headed by Anthony Dunne. In 2001, Crampton Smith helped found the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII), a specialized institute in Olivetti's hometown in Northern Italy, dedicated solely to interaction design. In 2007, after IDII closed due to a lack of funding, some of the people originally involved with IDII set up the Copenhagen Institute of Interaction Design (CIID), in Denmark. After Ivrea, Crampton Smith and Philip Tabor added

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