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33-674: The Chilean Antarctic Institute , known as INACH ( Instituto Antártico Chileno ), is a public service institution in charge of managing and coordinating scientific activities in the Chilean Antarctic Territory . It is the national Antarctic operator and has an active role in Antarctic affairs. It was created by the Chilean government on September 10, 1963, and since 2003 it has had its main headquarters in Punta Arenas , capital of

66-582: A growing body within the field of alternative dispute resolution (ADR). In the United States, many states now have mediation or other ADR programs annexed to the courts, to facilitate settlement of lawsuits. Some use the term dispute resolution to refer only to alternative dispute resolution (ADR), that is, extrajudicial processes such as arbitration, collaborative law, and mediation used to resolve conflict and potential conflict between and among individuals, business entities, governmental agencies, and (in

99-446: A private corporation runs a natural monopoly , then the corporation is typically heavily regulated, to prevent abuse of monopoly power. Lastly, the government can buy the service on the free market. In many countries, medication is provided in this manner: the government reimburses part of the price of the medication. Also, bus traffic, electricity, healthcare and waste management are privatized in this way. One recent innovation, used in

132-469: A public service ethos who wish to give something to the wider public or community through their work. The process of assessing the needs of the people of an area, and then designing and securing an appropriate public service to meet those needs, is often referred to in the UK as commissioning . The commissioned services may be delivered by organisations in the public sector, private sector or third sector : when

165-408: A resolution. Perhaps more importantly, many people want a professional advocate when they become involved in a dispute, particularly if the dispute involves perceived legal rights, legal wrongdoing, or threat of legal action against them. The most common form of judicial dispute resolution is litigation. Litigation is initiated when one party files suit against another. In the United States, litigation

198-399: A special area in dispute resolution studies. Dispute resolution is an important requirement in international trade, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration and litigation. The legal system provides resolutions for many different types of disputes. Some disputants will not reach agreement through a collaborative process. Some disputes need the coercive power of the state to enforce

231-452: A theologically and ceremonially correct state religion . The widespread provision of public utilities as public services in developed countries usually began in the late nineteenth century, often with the municipal development of gas and water services. Later, governments began to provide other services such as electricity and health care . In most developed countries, local or national governments continue to provide such services,

264-633: A white paper published by the Cameron–Clegg coalition in the United Kingdom in July 2011, aimed to create a comprehensive policy framework for "good public services ". It set out the coalition's programme for reform of public services, described as a programme of "wide ambitions" expected to be implemented over a period of time, not all at once. Five principles were to underlie open public services: The journalist David Boyle conducted an independent review for

297-420: Is facilitated by the government within federal, state, and municipal courts. While litigation is often used to resolve disputes, it is strictly speaking a form of conflict adjudication and not a form of conflict resolution per se. This is because litigation only determines the legal rights and obligations of parties involved in a dispute and does not necessarily solve the disagreement between the parties involved in

330-613: The International Court of Arbitration (of the International Chamber of Commerce ) and the London Court of International Arbitration . Methods of dispute resolution include: One could theoretically include violence or even war as part of this spectrum, but dispute resolution practitioners do not usually do so; violence rarely ends disputes effectively, and indeed, often only escalates them. Also, violence rarely causes

363-1066: The International Court of Justice (formerly the Permanent Court of International Justice ); the United Nations Human Rights Committee (which operates under the ICCPR ) and European Court of Human Rights ; the Panels and Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization ; and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea . Half of all international agreements include a dispute settlement mechanism. States are also known to form their own arbitration tribunals to settle disputes. Prominent private international courts, which adjudicate disputes between commercial private entities, include

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396-508: The Magallanes Region and Chilean Antarctica. In 2018, the INACH scientific boat, Karpuj, whose name in yagon means black eyebrow albatrosses and which allows the development of oceanography studies, entered into operations. The Antarctic Policy Council, led by Foreign Affairs Minister Andrés Allamand , has approved the 2021–2025 Antarctic Strategic Plan, which contains 103 projects, including

429-470: The Warring States period (5th to 3rd centuries BCE) in ancient China with the institution of xiàn (prefectures) under the control of a centrally appointed prefect. Historical evidence of state provision of dispute resolution through a legal/justice system goes back at least as far as ancient Egypt. A primary public service in ancient history involved ensuring the general favor of the gods through

462-515: The World wars of the first half of the twentieth century. In parts of Europe , central planning was implemented in the belief that it would make production more efficient. Many public services, especially electricity, fossil fuels and public transport are products of this era. Following the Second World War, many countries also began to implement universal health care and expanded education under

495-454: The public international law context) states . ADR generally depends on agreement by the parties to use ADR processes, either before or after a dispute has arisen. ADR has experienced steadily increasing acceptance and utilization because of a perception of greater flexibility, costs below those of traditional litigation, and speedy resolution of disputes, among other perceived advantages. However, some have criticized these methods as taking away

528-991: The Chilean Antarctic Institute. The construction of this 2,581 square meter building began in July 2018 and ended in February 2022 with a cost of $ 10,135 million, financed by the regional Government. On September 30, 2021, the Magellan Regional Council approved by a majority funding for the construction of the International Antarctic Centre. 53°09′47″S 70°54′26″W  /  53.16307°S 70.90719°W  / -53.16307; -70.90719 Public services Even where public services are neither publicly provided nor publicly financed , they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors for social and political reasons. Public policy , when made in

561-710: The Polar Regions Department of the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office in the United Kingdom , together with representatives of the INACH and the British Antarctic Survey agreed to open bilateral dialogue to explore possibilities of increased collaboration. In 2017, an international competition was held for the design of the International Antarctic Centre ( Centro Antártico Internacional ), which would be built in Punta Arenas and would be managed by

594-825: The Post Office, transport, hospital services, and the provision of baths , parks and cemeteries . A public service may sometimes have the characteristics of a public good (being non rivalrous and non excludable), but most are services which may (according to prevailing social norms ) be under-provided by the market . In most cases public services are services , i.e. they do not involve manufacturing of goods . They may be provided by local or national monopolies, especially in sectors that are natural monopolies . They may involve outputs that are hard to attribute to specific individual effort or hard to measure in terms of key characteristics such as quality. They often require high levels of training and education. They may attract people with

627-551: The UK found that private sector hiring managers do not credit government experience as much as private sector experience. Public workers tend to make less in wages when adjusting for education, although that difference is reduced when benefits and hours are included. Public servants have other intangible benefits such as increased job security and high wages. A study concluded that public services are associated with higher human need satisfaction and lower energy requirements while contemporary forms of economic growth are linked with

660-496: The UK increasingly as well as Australia and Canada, is using public-private partnerships , which involve giving a long lease to private consortia in return for partly or fully funding infrastructure costs. Dispute resolution Dispute resolution or dispute settlement is the process of resolving disputes between parties . The term dispute resolution is conflict resolution through legal means. Prominent venues for dispute settlement in international law include

693-605: The UK's Treasury and the Cabinet Office on public demand for choice in public services which reported in 2013. The principle of choice where possible was embodied in the Choice Charter, published on 16 May 2013, where four choice principles were outlined: Between December 2012 and May 2013, "Choice Frameworks" were scheduled for publication covering NHS care, social housing , school education, early years education and adult social care . Nationalization took off following

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726-602: The biggest exceptions being the U.S. and the UK , where private provision is arguably proportionally more significant. Nonetheless, such privately provided public services are often strongly regulated, for example (in the US) by Public Utility Commissions . Examples noted in a history of public services in Oxford include street-repair, cleansing, and lighting , drainage and sewage disposal, water, gas and electricity supply, police and fire services,

759-404: The dispute. For example, supreme court cases can rule on whether US states have the constitutional right to criminalize abortion but will not cause the parties involved in the case to no longer disagree on whether states do indeed have the constitutional authority to restrict access to abortion as one of the parties may disagree with the supreme courts reasoning and still disagree with the party that

792-532: The finance potentially available for expansion to poorer communities. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is, however, a global initiative which aims to influence the provision of public services and infrastructure for marginalized demographics. Governing bodies have long provided core public services. The tradition of keeping citizens secure through organized military defense dates to at least four thousand years ago. Maintaining order through local delegated authority originated at least as early as

825-452: The funding and guidance of the state. There are several ways to privatize public services. A free-market corporation may be established and sold to private investors, relinquishing government control altogether. Thus it becomes a private (not public) service. Another option, used in the Nordic countries , is to establish a corporation, but keep ownership or voting power essentially in the hands of

858-513: The government. For example, the Finnish state owned 49% of Kemira until 2007, the rest being owned by private investors. A 49% share did not make it a "government enterprise", but it meant that all other investors together would have to oppose the state's opinion in order to overturn the state's decisions in the shareholder's meeting. A regulated corporation can also acquire permits on the agreement that they fulfill certain public service duties. When

891-478: The judgment to a higher court. Judicial dispute resolution is typically adversarial in nature, for example, involving antagonistic parties or opposing interests seeking an outcome most favorable to their position. Due to the antagonistic nature of litigation, collaborators frequently opt for solving disputes privately. Retired judges or private lawyers often become arbitrators or mediators; however, trained and qualified non-legal dispute resolution specialists form

924-479: The opposite. Authors find that the contemporary economic system is structurally misaligned with goals of sustainable development and that to date no nation can provide decent living standards at sustainable levels of energy and resource use. They provide analysis about factors in social provisioning and assess that improving beneficial provisioning-factors and infrastructure would allow for sustainable forms of sufficient need satisfaction. Open Public Services ,

957-545: The parties involved in the dispute to no longer disagree on the issue that caused the violence. For example, a country successfully winning a war to annex part of another country's territory does not cause the former waring nations to no longer seriously disagree to whom the territory rightly belongs to and tensions may still remain high between the two nations. Dispute resolution processes fall into two major types: Not all disputes, even those in which skilled intervention occurs, end in resolution. Such intractable disputes form

990-731: The private or third sector is involved the process of commissioning will usually be linked with a process of procurement , to determine who will provide the services, at what cost and on what terms. Commissioning is often seen as a cyclical process. Public services can be constructed, coordinated and operated in many ways or forms. They include government agencies, independent state -funded institutes, government-coordinated organizations, civil society, military agencies and volunteers. Government agencies are not profit-oriented and their employees are often motivated differently. Studies of their work have found contrasting results including both higher levels of effort and fewer hours of work. A survey in

1023-432: The public's interest and with its motivations, is a type of public service. In modern developed countries , the term "public services" (or "services of general interest") often includes: In developing countries , public services tend to be much less well developed. For example, water services might only be available to the wealthy middle class . For political reasons, the service is often subsidized , which reduces

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1056-611: The renovation of the scientific bases operated by the Chilean Antarctic Institute. In September 2021, the Chilean Antarctic Institute, Germany's International Cooperation Agency , and the Antarctica Foundation 21 have started working in energy options, assessing alternatives for the Chilean bases in Antarctica, avoiding CO2 emissions, such as green hydrogen . In 2023, Antarctic Division of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Chile and of

1089-404: The supreme court sided with. Litigation proceedings are very formal and are governed by rules, such as rules of evidence and procedure, which are established by the legislature. Outcomes are decided by an impartial judge and/or jury , based on the factual questions of the case and the application law. The verdict of the court is binding, not advisory; however, both parties have the right to appeal

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