Institut Mérieux is a French holding company owned by the Mérieux family from Lyon .
110-460: It was created by Marcel Mérieux in 1897 under the name Institut Biologique Mérieux (Mérieux Biological Institute). The vaccine development branch of the institute was separated early on and is now part of Sanofi Pasteur . The current name was changed in 2009 from Mérieux Alliance. The holding is owned through the Mérieux Alliance company at 68% by Alain and Alexandre Mérieux and at 32% by
220-423: A chemist , beginning at the École Normale Supérieure , and continuing at Strasbourg and Lille, he examined the chemical, optical and crystallographic properties of a group of compounds known as tartrates . He resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid in 1848. A solution of this compound derived from living things rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The problem
330-456: A 10–11-year study of 657,461 children found that the MMR vaccine does not cause autism and actually reduced the risk of autism by seven percent. Beside the active vaccine itself, the following excipients and residual manufacturing compounds are present or may be present in vaccine preparations: Various fairly standardized abbreviations for vaccine names have developed, although the standardization
440-435: A broad immune response. Although most attenuated vaccines are viral, some are bacterial in nature. Examples include the viral diseases yellow fever , measles , mumps , and rubella , and the bacterial disease typhoid . The live Mycobacterium tuberculosis vaccine developed by Calmette and Guérin is not made of a contagious strain but contains a virulently modified strain called " BCG " used to elicit an immune response to
550-550: A complete clinical cycle of development and trials proves the vaccine is safe and has long-term effectiveness, following scientific review by a multinational or national regulatory organization, such as the European Medicines Agency (EMA) or the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Upon developing countries adopting WHO guidelines for vaccine development and licensure, each country has its own responsibility to issue
660-534: A contract research company, is then bought by the Mérieux family holding company. In 2010, the institute structured its nutrition and health division around Silliker and Biofortis under the name of Mérieux NutriSciences. In January 2020, Institut Mérieux co-founded the Hub VPH, the first global hub in veterinary public health, whose objective is to catalyze the driving forces of research, innovation, education and industry in
770-416: A disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and recognize further and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or alleviate
880-415: A given immune reaction. In some cases vaccines may result in partial immune protection (in which immunity is less than 100% effective but still reduces risk of infection) or in temporary immune protection (in which immunity wanes over time) rather than full or permanent immunity. They can still raise the reinfection threshold for the population as a whole and make a substantial impact. They can also mitigate
990-407: A mutton stew, which students had refused to eat, would be served and eaten every Monday. On another occasion he threatened to expel any student caught smoking, and 73 of the 80 students in the school resigned. In 1863, he was appointed professor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts , a position he held until his resignation in 1867. In 1867, he became
1100-507: A national licensure, and to manage, deploy, and monitor the vaccine throughout its use in each nation. Building trust and acceptance of a licensed vaccine among the public is a task of communication by governments and healthcare personnel to ensure a vaccination campaign proceeds smoothly, saves lives, and enables economic recovery. When a vaccine is licensed, it will initially be in limited supply due to variable manufacturing, distribution, and logistical factors, requiring an allocation plan for
1210-615: A new disease that was decimating silkworm farms from the south of France and Europe, the pébrine , characterized on a macroscopic scale by black spots and on a microscopic scale by the " Cornalia corpuscles". Pasteur accepted and made five long stays in Alès , between 7 June 1865 and 1869. Arriving in Alès, Pasteur familiarized himself with pébrine and also with another disease of the silkworm, known earlier than pebrine: flacherie or dead-flat disease. Contrary, for example, to Quatrefages , who coined
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#17331155052201320-406: A note published on 27 August 1866 by Balbiani , which Pasteur at first seemed to welcome favourably had no effect, at least immediately. "Pasteur is mistaken. He would only change his mind in the course of 1867". At a time where Pasteur had not yet understood the cause of the pébrine, he propagated an effective process to stop infections: a sample of chrysalises was chosen, they were crushed and
1430-554: A profound effect on structural chemistry, with eventual implications for many areas including medicinal chemistry . He was the director of the Pasteur Institute , established in 1887, until his death, and his body was interred in a vault beneath the institute. Although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies. Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals. Louis Pasteur
1540-400: A strong immune response. When two or more vaccines are mixed in the same formulation, the two vaccines can interfere. This most frequently occurs with live attenuated vaccines, where one of the vaccine components is more robust than the others and suppresses the growth and immune response to the other components. This phenomenon was first noted in the trivalent Sabin polio vaccine , where
1650-406: A vaccine for anthrax , which affected cattle . In 1877, Pasteur had earlier directed his laboratory to culture the bacteria from the blood of infected animals, following thediscovery of the bacterium by Robert Koch. When animals were infected with the bacteria, anthrax occurred, proving that the bacteria was the cause of the disease. Many cattle were dying of anthrax in "cursed fields". Pasteur
1760-434: A vaccine for all infectious diseases that have repeatedly afflicted humanity, and are a major burden on agriculture and breeding of domestic animals. In fact, Pasteur's vaccine against chicken cholera did not consistently produce immunity, and has subsequently been proven to be ineffective. Following the results with chicken cholera, Pasteur eventually utilized the immunization method developed for chicken cholera to create
1870-537: Is a novel type of vaccine which is composed of the nucleic acid RNA, packaged within a vector such as lipid nanoparticles . Among the COVID-19 vaccines are a number of RNA vaccines to combat the COVID-19 pandemic and some have been approved or have received emergency use authorization in some countries. For example, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine and Moderna mRNA vaccine are approved for use in adults and children in
1980-416: Is an alcoholic ferment, the yeast of beer, which is found everywhere that sugar is decomposed into alcohol and carbonic acid, so also there is a particular ferment, a lactic yeast , always present when sugar becomes lactic acid ." Pasteur also wrote about alcoholic fermentation. It was published in full form in 1858. Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Justus von Liebig had proposed the theory that fermentation
2090-516: Is at the CDC's page called "Vaccine Acronyms and Abbreviations", with abbreviations used on U.S. immunization records. The United States Adopted Name system has some conventions for the word order of vaccine names, placing head nouns first and adjectives postpositively . This is why the USAN for " OPV " is "poliovirus vaccine live oral" rather than "oral poliovirus vaccine". A vaccine licensure occurs after
2200-494: Is by no means centralized or global. For example, the vaccine names used in the United States have well-established abbreviations that are also widely known and used elsewhere. An extensive list of them provided in a sortable table and freely accessible is available at a US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention web page. The page explains that "The abbreviations [in] this table (Column 3) were standardized jointly by staff of
2310-440: Is called herd immunity . Polio, which is transmitted only among humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries (Afghanistan, Nigeria, and Pakistan). However, the difficulty of reaching all children, cultural misunderstandings, and disinformation have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times. Vaccines also help prevent
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#17331155052202420-454: Is designed to immunize against a single antigen or single microorganism. A multivalent or polyvalent vaccine is designed to immunize against two or more strains of the same microorganism, or against two or more microorganisms. The valency of a multivalent vaccine may be denoted with a Greek or Latin prefix (e.g., bivalent , trivalent , or tetravalent/quadrivalent ). In certain cases, a monovalent vaccine may be preferable for rapidly developing
2530-466: Is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases such as polio , measles , and tetanus from much of the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that licensed vaccines are currently available for twenty-five different preventable infections . The first recorded use of inoculation to prevent smallpox occurred in the 16th century in China, with
2640-524: Is more effective against bacteria, has a better shelf-life, and improves vaccine stability, potency, and safety; but, in the U.S., the European Union , and a few other affluent countries, it is no longer used as a preservative in childhood vaccines, as a precautionary measure due to its mercury content. Although controversial claims have been made that thiomersal contributes to autism , no convincing scientific evidence supports these claims. Furthermore,
2750-539: Is rarely associated with complications in immunodeficient individuals, and rotavirus vaccines are moderately associated with intussusception . At least 19 countries have no-fault compensation programs to provide compensation for those with severe adverse effects of vaccination. The United States' program is known as the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act , and the United Kingdom employs
2860-424: Is termed vaccinology . There is overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines are a very safe and effective way to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. The immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and "remembers" them. When the virulent version of an agent is encountered, the body recognizes the protein coat on the agent, and thus is prepared to respond, by first neutralizing
2970-464: Is the crucial point of my subject. I ask the Academy not to criticize, for the time being, the confidence of my proceedings that permit me to determine the microbe's attenuation, in order to save the independence of my studies and to better assure their progress... [In conclusion] I would like to point out to the Academy two main consequences to the facts presented: the hope to culture all microbes and to find
3080-462: Is the subunit vaccine against hepatitis B , which is composed of only the surface proteins of the virus (previously extracted from the blood serum of chronically infected patients but now produced by recombination of the viral genes into yeast ). Other examples include the Gardasil virus-like particle human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase subunits of
3190-470: The baccalauréat scientifique (general science) degree from Dijon , where he earned his Bachelor of Science in Mathematics degree (Bachelier ès Sciences Mathématiques) in 1842, but with a mediocre grade in chemistry. Later in 1842, Pasteur took the entrance test for the École Normale Supérieure . During the test, he had to fight fatigue and only felt comfortable with physics and mathematics. He passed
3300-549: The licencié ès sciences degree. In 1846, he was appointed professor of physics at the Collège de Tournon (now called Lycée Gabriel-Faure ) in Ardèche . But the chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard wanted him back at the École Normale Supérieure as a graduate laboratory assistant ( agrégé préparateur ). He joined Balard and simultaneously started his research in crystallography and in 1847, he submitted his two theses, one in chemistry and
3410-566: The Christophe and Rodolphe Mérieux foundation (different from the Mérieux foundation ). Alongside diagnostic activities, Alain Mérieux develops new complementary bio-industrial activities. The holding company then took in 1994, the control of Transgene, specialized in gene therapy, then of Silliker (specialized in food security), in 1998. In 2001, Biomérieux acquired the diagnostic company Organon Teknika. Its Advanced Bioscience Laboratories Inc. sector,
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3520-507: The Pasteur effect . Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 °C. This killed most bacteria and moulds already present within them. Pasteur and Claude Bernard completed tests on blood and urine on 20 April 1862. Pasteur patented
3630-641: The Vaccine Damage Payment . Vaccines typically contain attenuated, inactivated or dead organisms or purified products derived from them. There are several types of vaccines in use. These represent different strategies used to try to reduce the risk of illness while retaining the ability to induce a beneficial immune response. Some vaccines contain live, attenuated microorganisms. Many of these are active viruses that have been cultivated under conditions that disable their virulent properties, or that use closely related but less dangerous organisms to produce
3740-845: The influenza virus, and edible algae vaccines . A subunit vaccine is being used for plague immunization. Certain bacteria have a polysaccharide outer coat that is poorly immunogenic . By linking these outer coats to proteins (e.g., toxins), the immune system can be led to recognize the polysaccharide as if it were a protein antigen. This approach is used in the Haemophilus influenzae type B vaccine . Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are naturally immunogenic and can be manipulated to produce potent vaccines. The best known OMV vaccines are those developed for serotype B meningococcal disease . Heterologous vaccines also known as "Jennerian vaccines", are vaccines that are pathogens of other animals that either do not cause disease or cause mild disease in
3850-413: The 17th and 18th centuries, respectively. Spallanzani's experiments in 1765 suggested that air contaminated broths with bacteria. In the 1860s, Pasteur repeated Spallanzani's experiments, but Pouchet reported a different result using a different broth. Pasteur performed several experiments to disprove spontaneous generation. He placed boiled liquid in a flask and let hot air enter the flask. Then he closed
3960-498: The Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region around this activity. Through creations and acquisitions, the holding is managing the following companies: Vaccine A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles
4070-518: The CDC further explains that "Upper-case letters in these abbreviations denote full-strength doses of diphtheria (D) and tetanus (T) toxoids and pertussis (P) vaccine. Lower-case "d" and "p" denote reduced doses of diphtheria and pertussis used in the adolescent/adult-formulations. The 'a' in DTaP and Tdap stands for 'acellular', meaning that the pertussis component contains only a part of the pertussis organism." Another list of established vaccine abbreviations
4180-701: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, ACIP Work Groups, the editor of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), the editor of Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (the Pink Book), ACIP members, and liaison organizations to the ACIP." Some examples are " DTaP " for diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine, "DT" for diphtheria and tetanus toxoids, and "Td" for tetanus and diphtheria toxoids. At its page on tetanus vaccination,
4290-602: The Collège d'Arbois. In October 1838, he left for Paris to enroll in a boarding school , but became homesick and returned in November. In 1839, he entered the Collège Royal at Besançon to study philosophy and earned his Bachelor of Letters degree in 1840. He was appointed a tutor at the Besançon college while continuing a degree science course with special mathematics. He failed his first examination in 1841. He managed to pass
4400-510: The Cévennes. In 1878, at the Congrès international séricicole , Pasteur admitted that "if pébrine is overcome, flacherie still exerts its ravages". He attributed the persistence of flacherie to the fact that the farmers had not followed his advice. In 1884, Balbiani , who disregarded the theoretical value of Pasteur's work on silkworm diseases, acknowledged that his practical process had remedied
4510-585: The Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg , where he met and courted Marie Laurent , daughter of the university's rector in 1849. They were married on 29 May 1849, and together had five children, only two of whom survived to adulthood; the other three died of typhoid . Pasteur was appointed professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg in 1848, and became
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4620-603: The Doctrine of Spontaneous Generation ). Pasteur won the Alhumbert Prize in 1862. He concluded that: Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow of this simple experiment. There is no known circumstance in which it can be confirmed that microscopic beings came into the world without germs, without parents similar to themselves. In 1865, Jean-Baptiste Dumas , chemist, senator and former Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, asked Pasteur to study
4730-563: The French Academy of Sciences a report from Henry Toussaint , a veterinary surgeon , who was not a member of the academy. Toussaint had developed anthrax vaccine by killing the bacilli by heating at 55 °C for 10 minutes. He tested his vaccine on eight dogs and 11 sheep, half of which died after inoculation. It was not a great success. Upon hearing the news, Pasteur immediately wrote to the academy that he could not believe that dead vaccine would work and that Toussaint's claim "overturns all
4840-502: The Société d'agriculture de Melun organize an experiment to test Pasteur's vaccine. Pasteur signed an agreement accepting the challenge on 28 April. Pasteur's assistants, Roux and Chamberland, who were assigned the task of conducting the trial, were concerned about the unreliability of the attenuated vaccine, and therefore Chamberland secretly prepared an alternative vaccine using chemical inactivation. Without divulging their method of preparing
4950-486: The US. A DNA vaccine uses a DNA plasmid (pDNA)) that encodes for an antigenic protein originating from the pathogen upon which the vaccine will be targeted. pDNA is inexpensive, stable, and relatively safe, making it an excellent option for vaccine delivery. This approach offers a number of potential advantages over traditional approaches, including the stimulation of both B- and T-cell responses, improved vaccine stability,
5060-469: The absence of any infectious agent and the relative ease of large-scale manufacture. Many innovative vaccines are also in development and use. While most vaccines are created using inactivated or attenuated compounds from microorganisms, synthetic vaccines are composed mainly or wholly of synthetic peptides, carbohydrates, or antigens. Vaccines may be monovalent (also called univalent ) or multivalent (also called polyvalent ). A monovalent vaccine
5170-400: The academy awarded him the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs in 1862. Pasteur is also regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory of diseases , which was a minor medical concept at the time. His many experiments showed that diseases could be prevented by killing or stopping germs, thereby directly supporting the germ theory and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to
5280-475: The amount of serotype 2 virus in the vaccine had to be reduced to stop it from interfering with the "take" of the serotype 1 and 3 viruses in the vaccine. It was also noted in a 2001 study to be a problem with dengue vaccines, where the DEN-3 serotype was found to predominate and suppress the response to DEN-1, -2 and -4 serotypes. Vaccines typically contain one or more adjuvants , used to boost
5390-596: The bacteria samples (later called Pasteurella multocida after him) from Henry Toussaint . Being unnable to conduct the experiments himself due to a stroke in 1868, Pasteur relied heavily on his assistants Emile Roux and Charles Chamberland. The work with chicken cholera was initiated in 1877, and by the next year, Roux was able to maintain a stable culture using broths. As documented later by Pasteur in his notebook in March of 1880, in October of 1879, being delayed in returning to
5500-407: The bacteria were weakened by contact with oxygen. He explained that bacteria kept in sealed containers never lost their virulence, and only those exposed to air in culture media could be used as vaccine. Pasteur introduced the term "attenuation" for this weakening of virulence as he presented before the academy, saying: We can diminish the microbe's virulence by changing the mode of culturing. This
5610-509: The chair of chemistry in 1852. In February 1854, so that he would have time to carry out work that could earn him the title of correspondent of the Institute, he got three months' paid leave with the help of a medical certificate of convenience. He extended the leave until 1 August, the date of the start of the exams. "I tell the Minister that I will go and do the examinations so as not to increase
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#17331155052205720-519: The chair of organic chemistry at the Sorbonne, but he later gave up the position because of poor health. In 1867, the École Normale's laboratory of physiological chemistry was created at Pasteur's request, and he was the laboratory's director from 1867 to 1888. In Paris, he established the Pasteur Institute in 1887, in which he was its director for the rest of his life. In Pasteur's early work as
5830-559: The concept of vaccines and created the first vaccine) to denote cowpox . He used the phrase in 1798 for the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae Known as the Cow Pox , in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox. In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed. The science of vaccine development and production
5940-400: The corpuscles were searched for in the crushed material; if the proportion of corpuscular pupae in the sample was very low, the chamber was considered good for reproduction. This method of sorting "seeds" (eggs) is close to a method that Osimo had proposed a few years earlier, but whose trials had not been conclusive. By this process, Pasteur curbs pébrine and saves many of the silk industry in
6050-503: The development of antibiotic resistance. For example, by greatly reducing the incidence of pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae , vaccine programs have greatly reduced the prevalence of infections resistant to penicillin or other first-line antibiotics. The measles vaccine is estimated to prevent a million deaths every year. Vaccinations given to children, adolescents, or adults are generally safe. Adverse effects, if any, are generally mild. The rate of side effects depends on
6160-538: The diseases of wine, and he published Études sur la Bière in 1876, concerning the diseases of beer. In the early 19th century, Agostino Bassi had shown that muscardine was caused by a fungus that infected silkworms. Since 1853, two diseases called pébrine and flacherie had been infecting great numbers of silkworms in southern France, and by 1865 they were causing huge losses to farmers. In 1865, Pasteur went to Alès and worked for five years until 1870. Silkworms with pébrine were covered in corpuscles. In
6270-428: The earliest hints of the practice in China coming during the 10th century. It was also the first disease for which a vaccine was produced. The folk practice of inoculation against smallpox was brought from Turkey to Britain in 1721 by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu . The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Edward Jenner (who both developed
6380-415: The effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen ), or therapeutic (to fight a disease that has already occurred, such as cancer ). Some vaccines offer full sterilizing immunity , in which infection is prevented. The administration of vaccines is called vaccination . Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination
6490-406: The embarrassment of the service. It is also so as not to leave to another a sum of 6 or 700 francs". In this same year 1854, he was named dean of the new faculty of sciences at University of Lille , where he began his studies on fermentation. It was on this occasion that Pasteur uttered his oft-quoted remark: " dans les champs de l'observation, le hasard ne favorise que les esprits préparés " ("In
6600-425: The eradication of smallpox , one of the most contagious and deadly diseases in humans. Other diseases such as rubella, polio , measles, mumps, chickenpox , and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago thanks to widespread vaccination programs. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is much more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur, let alone spread. This effect
6710-539: The field of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind"). In 1857, he moved to Paris as the director of scientific studies at the École Normale Supérieure where he took control from 1858 to 1867 and introduced a series of reforms to improve the standard of scientific work. The examinations became more rigid, which led to better results, greater competition, and increased prestige. Many of his decrees, however, were rigid and authoritarian, leading to two serious student revolts. During "the bean revolt" he decreed that
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#17331155052206820-416: The finished product, as they may in the environment and population as a whole. Many vaccines need preservatives to prevent serious adverse effects such as Staphylococcus infection, which in one 1928 incident killed 12 of 21 children inoculated with a diphtheria vaccine that lacked a preservative. Several preservatives are available, including thiomersal, phenoxyethanol , and formaldehyde . Thiomersal
6930-477: The first explanation of isomerism . Some historians consider Pasteur's work in this area to be his "most profound and most original contributions to science", and his "greatest scientific discovery." Pasteur was motivated to investigate fermentation while working at Lille. In 1856 a local wine manufacturer, M. Bigot, whose son was one of Pasteur's students, sought for his advice on the problems of making beetroot alcohol and souring. Pasteur began his research in
7040-567: The first set of tests, but because his ranking was low, Pasteur decided not to continue and try again next year. He went back to the Parisian boarding school to prepare for the test. He also attended classes at the Lycée Saint-Louis and lectures of Jean-Baptiste Dumas at the Sorbonne . In 1843, he passed the test with a high ranking and entered the École Normale Supérieure . In 1845 he received
7150-399: The first three years, Pasteur thought that the corpuscles were a symptom of the disease. In 1870, he concluded that the corpuscles were the cause of pébrine (it is now known that the cause is a microsporidian ). Pasteur also showed that the disease was hereditary. Pasteur developed a system to prevent pébrine: after the female moths laid their eggs, the moths were turned into a pulp. The pulp
7260-407: The flask, and no organisms grew in it. In another experiment, when he opened flasks containing boiled liquid, dust entered the flasks, causing organisms to grow in some of them. The number of flasks in which organisms grew was lower at higher altitudes, showing that air at high altitudes contained less dust and fewer organisms. Pasteur also used swan neck flasks containing a fermentable liquid. Air
7370-604: The founders of modern bacteriology and has been honored as the "father of bacteriology" and the "father of microbiology " (together with Robert Koch ; the latter epithet also attributed to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ). Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation . Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences , his experiment demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks, nothing ever developed; conversely, in sterilized but open flasks, microorganisms could grow. For this experiment,
7480-541: The general population, a high standard of safety is required. As part of a multinational licensing of a vaccine, the World Health Organization Expert Committee on Biological Standardization developed guidelines of international standards for manufacturing and quality control of vaccines, a process intended as a platform for national regulatory agencies to apply for their own licensing process. Vaccine manufacturers do not receive licensing until
7590-436: The general public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination, a process now called pasteurization. Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals and racemization . Early in his career, his investigation of sodium ammonium tartrate initiated the field of optical isomerism . This work had
7700-434: The host can still become infected. Once antibodies are produced, they may promote immunity in any of several ways, depending on the class of antibodies involved. Their success in clearing or inactivating a pathogen will depend on the amount of antibodies produced and on the extent to which those antibodies are effective at countering the strain of the pathogen involved, since different strains may be differently susceptible to
7810-414: The host's immune system does not respond adequately or at all. Host-related lack of response occurs in an estimated 2-10% of individuals, due to factors including genetics, immune status, age, health and nutritional status. One type of primary immunodeficiency disorder resulting in genetic failure is X-linked agammaglobulinemia , in which the absence of an enzyme essential for B cell development prevents
7920-411: The host's immune system from generating antibodies to a pathogen . Host–pathogen interactions and responses to infection are dynamic processes involving multiple pathways in the immune system. A host does not develop antibodies instantaneously: while the body's innate immunity may be activated in as little as twelve hours, adaptive immunity can take 1–2 weeks to fully develop. During that time,
8030-574: The ideas I had on viruses, vaccines, etc." Following Pasteur's criticism, Toussaint switched to carbolic acid (phenol) to kill anthrax bacilli and tested the vaccine on sheep in August 1880. Pasteur thought that this type of killed vaccine should not work because he believed that attenuated bacteria used up nutrients that the bacteria needed to grow. He thought oxidizing bacteria when sitting in culture broth for prolonged periods made them less virulent. However, Pasteur's laboratory found that anthrax bacillus
8140-417: The immune response. Tetanus toxoid, for instance, is usually adsorbed onto alum . This presents the antigen in such a way as to produce a greater action than the simple aqueous tetanus toxoid. People who have an adverse reaction to adsorbed tetanus toxoid may be given the simple vaccine when the time comes for a booster. In the preparation for the 1990 Persian Gulf campaign, the whole cell pertussis vaccine
8250-430: The immunodominant antigen of the pathogen or a surface protein that enables the formation of neutralizing antibodies. The subgroup of genetic vaccines encompass viral vector vaccines, RNA vaccines and DNA vaccines. Viral vector vaccines use a safe virus to insert pathogen genes in the body to produce specific antigens , such as surface proteins , to stimulate an immune response . An mRNA vaccine (or RNA vaccine )
8360-446: The laboratory due to his daughter’s wedding and ill health, he instructed Roux to start a new chicken cholera culture using bacteria from a culture that had sat since July. The two chickens inoculated with this new culture showed some symptoms of infection, but instead of the infections being fatal, as they usually were, the chickens recovered completely. After further incubation of the culture for an additional 8 days, Roux again inoculated
8470-399: The last of which was named after him. His research in chemistry led to remarkable breakthroughs in the understanding of the causes and preventions of diseases , which laid down the foundations of hygiene, public health and much of modern medicine. Pasteur's works are credited with saving millions of lives through the developments of vaccines for rabies and anthrax . He is regarded as one of
8580-421: The left-handed one was levorotatory. Pasteur determined that optical activity related to the shape of the crystals, and that an asymmetric internal arrangement of the molecules of the compound was responsible for twisting the light. The (2 R ,3 R )- and (2 S ,3 S )- tartrates were isometric, non-superposable mirror images of each other. This was the first time anyone had demonstrated molecular chirality , and also
8690-464: The limited supply and which population segments should be prioritized to first receive the vaccine. Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur ForMemRS ( / ˈ l uː i p æ ˈ s t ɜːr / , French: [lwi pastœʁ] ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist , pharmacist , and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination , microbial fermentation , and pasteurization ,
8800-448: The microorganism. Examples of toxoid-based vaccines include tetanus and diphtheria . Not all toxoids are for microorganisms; for example, Crotalus atrox toxoid is used to vaccinate dogs against rattlesnake bites. Rather than introducing an inactivated or attenuated microorganism to an immune system (which would constitute a "whole-agent" vaccine), a subunit vaccine uses a fragment of it to create an immune response. One example
8910-477: The most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. Pasteur gave a series of five presentations of his findings before the French Academy of Sciences in 1881, which were published in 1882 as Mémoire Sur les corpuscules organisés qui existent dans l'atmosphère: Examen de la doctrine des générations spontanées ( Account of Organized Corpuscles Existing in the Atmosphere: Examining
9020-520: The new word pébrine , Pasteur made the mistake of believing that the two diseases were the same and even that most of the diseases of silkworms known up to that time were identical with each other and with pébrine. It was in letters of 30 April and 21 May 1867 to Dumas that he first made the distinction between pébrine and flacherie. He made another mistake: he began by denying the "parasitic" (microbial) nature of pébrine, which several scholars (notably Antoine Béchamp ) considered well established. Even
9130-440: The number of cases dropped to fewer than 150 per year (median of 56). In early 2008, there were 64 suspected cases of measles. Fifty-four of those infections were associated with importation from another country, although only thirteen percent were actually acquired outside the United States; 63 of the 64 individuals either had never been vaccinated against measles or were uncertain whether they had been vaccinated. Vaccines led to
9240-491: The only childhood vaccine in the U.S. that contains thiomersal in greater than trace amounts is the influenza vaccine, which is currently recommended only for children with certain risk factors. Single-dose influenza vaccines supplied in the UK do not list thiomersal in the ingredients. Preservatives may be used at various stages of the production of vaccines, and the most sophisticated methods of measurement might detect traces of them in
9350-400: The organism being treated. The classic example is Jenner's use of cowpox to protect against smallpox. A current example is the use of BCG vaccine made from Mycobacterium bovis to protect against tuberculosis . Genetic vaccines are based on the principle of uptake of a nucleic acid into cells, whereupon a protein is produced according to the nucleic acid template. This protein is usually
9460-424: The other in physics: (a) Chemistry Thesis: "Recherches sur la capacité de saturation de l'acide arsénieux. Etudes des arsénites de potasse, de soude et d'ammoniaque."; (b) Physics Thesis: "1. Études des phénomènes relatifs à la polarisation rotatoire des liquides. 2. Application de la polarisation rotatoire des liquides à la solution de diverses questions de chimie." After serving briefly as professor of physics at
9570-404: The presence of over 200 spectators, with Pasteur himself in attendance. The results were as Pasteur had bravely predicted: "I hypothesized that the six vaccinated cows would not become very ill, while the four unvaccinated cows would perish or at least become very ill." However, all vaccinated sheep and goats survived, while unvaccinated ones had died or were dying before the viewers. His report to
9680-452: The process, to fight the "diseases" of wine, in 1865. The method became known as pasteurization , and was soon applied to beer and milk. Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro-organisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery. In 1866, Pasteur published Études sur le Vin , about
9790-458: The ravages of pébrine, but added that this result tended to be counterbalanced by the development of flacherie, which was less well known and more difficult to prevent. Despite Pasteur's success against pébrine, French sericulture had not been saved from damage. (See fr:Sériciculture in the French Misplaced Pages.) Pasteur's first work on vaccine development was on chicken cholera . He received
9900-404: The same two chickens. As was also noted by Pasteur in his notebook in March of 1880, and contrary to some accounts, this time the chickens died. Thus, although the attenuated bacteria did not provide immunity, these experiments provided important clues as to how bacteria could be artificially attenuated in the laboratory. As a result, upon Pasteur’s return to the laboratory, the focus of the research
10010-437: The severity of infection and response to a vaccine. Elderly (above age 60), allergen-hypersensitive , and obese people have susceptibility to compromised immunogenicity , which prevents or inhibits vaccine effectiveness, possibly requiring separate vaccine technologies for these specific populations or repetitive booster vaccinations to limit virus transmission . Severe side effects are extremely rare. Varicella vaccine
10120-457: The severity of infection, resulting in a lower mortality rate , lower morbidity , faster recovery from illness, and a wide range of other effects. Those who are older often display less of a response than those who are younger, a pattern known as Immunosenescence . Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people whose immune response to a simple vaccine may have weakened. The efficacy or performance of
10230-459: The skin of grapes was the natural source of yeasts, and that sterilized grapes and grape juice never fermented. He drew grape juice from under the skin with sterilized needles, and also covered grapes with sterilized cloth. Both experiments could not produce wine in sterilized containers. His findings and ideas were against the prevailing notion of spontaneous generation . He received a particularly stern criticism from Félix Archimède Pouchet , who
10340-496: The successful conclusion of the development cycle and further the clinical trials and other programs involved through Phases I–III demonstrating safety, immunoactivity, immunogenetic safety at a given specific dose, proven effectiveness in preventing infection for target populations, and enduring preventive effect (time endurance or need for revaccination must be estimated). Because preventive vaccines are predominantly evaluated in healthy population cohorts and distributed among
10450-402: The target agent before it can enter cells, and secondly by recognizing and destroying infected cells before that agent can multiply to vast numbers. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist. Sometimes, protection fails for vaccine-related reasons such as failures in vaccine attenuation, vaccination regimens or administration. Failure may also occur for host-related reasons if
10560-476: The topic by repeating and confirming works of Theodor Schwann , who demonstrated a decade earlier that yeast were alive. According to his son-in-law, René Vallery-Radot, in August 1857 Pasteur sent a paper about lactic acid fermentation to the Société des Sciences de Lille, but the paper was read three months later. A memoire was subsequently published on 30 November 1857. In the memoir, he developed his ideas stating that: "I intend to establish that, just as there
10670-574: The vaccine in question. Some common side effects include fever, pain around the injection site, and muscle aches. Additionally, some individuals may be allergic to ingredients in the vaccine. MMR vaccine is rarely associated with febrile seizures . Host-("vaccinee")-related determinants that render a person susceptible to infection, such as genetics , health status (underlying disease, nutrition, pregnancy, sensitivities or allergies ), immune competence , age, and economic impact or cultural environment can be primary or secondary factors affecting
10780-413: The vaccine is dependent on several factors: If a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against ( breakthrough infection ), the disease is likely to be less virulent than in unvaccinated cases. Important considerations in an effective vaccination program: In 1958, there were 763,094 cases of measles in the United States; 552 deaths resulted. After the introduction of new vaccines,
10890-420: The vaccine to anyone but Pasteur, Roux and Chamberland performed the public experiment on May at Pouilly-le-Fort. 58 sheep, 2 goats and 10 cattle were used, half of which were given the vaccine on 5 and 17 May; while the other half was untreated. On 31 May, Roux and Chamberland next injected the animals with the fresh virulent culture of anthrax bacillus. The official result was observed and analyzed on 2 June in
11000-772: The vaccine. The live attenuated vaccine containing strain Yersinia pestis EV is used for plague immunization. Attenuated vaccines have some advantages and disadvantages. Attenuated, or live, weakened, vaccines typically provoke more durable immunological responses. But they may not be safe for use in immunocompromised individuals, and on rare occasions mutate to a virulent form and cause disease. Some vaccines contain microorganisms that have been killed or inactivated by physical or chemical means. Examples include IPV ( polio vaccine ), hepatitis A vaccine , rabies vaccine and most influenza vaccines . Toxoid vaccines are made from inactivated toxic compounds that cause illness rather than
11110-412: Was allowed to enter the flask via a long curving tube that made dust particles stick to it. Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks were tilted, making the liquid touch the contaminated walls of the neck. This showed that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, on dust, rather than spontaneously generating within the liquid or from the action of pure air. These were some of
11220-609: Was born on 27 December 1822, in Dole, Jura , France, to a Catholic family of a poor tanner . He was the third child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui. The family moved to Marnoz in 1826 and then to Arbois in 1827. Pasteur entered primary school in 1831. He was dyslexic and dysgraphic . He was an average student in his early years, and not particularly academic, as his interests were fishing and sketching . He drew many pastels and portraits of his parents, friends and neighbors. Pasteur attended secondary school at
11330-456: Was caused by decomposition. Pasteur demonstrated that this theory was incorrect, and that yeast was responsible for fermentation to produce alcohol from sugar. He also demonstrated that, when a different microorganism contaminated the wine, lactic acid was produced, making the wine sour. In 1861, Pasteur observed that less sugar fermented per part of yeast when the yeast was exposed to air. The lower rate of fermentation aerobically became known as
11440-477: Was directed at creating a vaccine through attenuation. In February of 1880, Pasteur presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences as " Sur les maladies virulentes et en particulier sur la maladie appelée vulgairement choléra des poules (On virulent diseases, and in particular on the disease commonly called chicken cholera)" and published it in the academy's journal ( Comptes-Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences ). He attributed that
11550-638: Was director of the Rouen Museum of Natural History . To settle the debate between the eminent scientists, the French Academy of Sciences offered the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs to whoever could experimentally demonstrate for or against the doctrine. Pouchet stated that air everywhere could cause spontaneous generation of living organisms in liquids. In the late 1850s, he performed experiments and claimed that they were evidence of spontaneous generation. Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani had provided some evidence against spontaneous generation in
11660-519: Was examined with a microscope, and if corpuscles were observed, the eggs were destroyed. Pasteur concluded that bacteria caused flacherie. The primary cause is currently thought to be viruses. The spread of flacherie could be accidental or hereditary. Hygiene could be used to prevent accidental flacherie. Moths whose digestive cavities did not contain the microorganisms causing flacherie were used to lay eggs, preventing hereditary flacherie. Following his fermentation experiments, Pasteur demonstrated that
11770-467: Was not easily weakened by culturing in air as it formed spores – unlike chicken cholera bacillus. In early 1881, his laboratory discovered that growing anthrax bacilli at about 42 °C made them unable to produce spores, and he described this method in a speech to the French Academy of Sciences on 28 February. On 21 March, despite inconsistent results, he announced successful vaccination of sheep. To this news, veterinarian Hippolyte Rossignol proposed that
11880-421: Was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same. Pasteur noticed that crystals of tartrates had small faces. Then he observed that, in racemic mixtures of tartrates, half of the crystals were right-handed and half were left-handed. In solution, the right-handed compound was dextrorotatory , and
11990-417: Was told that sheep that died from anthrax were buried in the field. Pasteur thought that earthworms might have brought the bacteria to the surface. He found anthrax bacteria in earthworms' excrement, showing that he was correct. He told the farmers not to bury dead animals in the fields. Pasteur's interest in creating a vaccine for anthrax was greatly stimulated when on 12 July 1880, Henri Bouley read before
12100-448: Was used as an adjuvant for anthrax vaccine. This produces a more rapid immune response than giving only the anthrax vaccine, which is of some benefit if exposure might be imminent. Vaccines may also contain preservatives to prevent contamination with bacteria or fungi . Until recent years, the preservative thiomersal ( a.k.a. Thimerosal in the US and Japan) was used in many vaccines that did not contain live viruses. As of 2005,
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