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161-651: Inshushinak's name can be translated as "lord of Susa ". It is a loanword which originated in Sumerian , with apheresis , otherwise rarely attested in this language, resulting in the shift from nin -šušinak to Inshushinak. As suggested by Frans Wiggermann, Inshushinak's name might have originally developed in the Uruk period , when according to him Mesopotamians established a colony in Susa. He proposes that alongside Ninazu , Ningishzida , Ishtaran and Tishpak he can be considered one of

322-573: A language isolate unrelated to any other languages. According to Daniel T. Potts , Walther Hinz was less cautious in suggesting that the Elamites were ‘Proto-Lurs’, that is, the ancestors of inhabitants of modern-day Lurestan in western Iran. The Elamite language endonym of Elam as a country appears to have been Hatamti ( [REDACTED] in Linear Elamite ), or Haltamti ( Cuneiform Elamite : 𒁹𒄬𒆷𒁶𒋾 halatamti ). Exonyms included

483-504: A slave . Inshushinak appears in the so-called Susa Funerary Texts . They were written in Akkadian typical for the late Old Babylonian period , c. 1600-1500 BCE, though a slightly more recent date, c. 1400 BCE, is also not impossible. Inshushinak is the only strictly Elamite deity mentioned in them, and it has been argued that their language, form and content reflect the well attested phenomenon of integration of scribes from Susa into

644-511: A Sumerian writing of the Elamite term kukunnum . It has been proposed that it referred to the temple on the top of a ziggurat , possibly with funerary connotations. It was rebuilt by Indattu-Inshushinak and Indattu II from the Shimashki dynasty . It is agreed that it should be considered separate from the "old temple" (É.GAR 8 GIBIL) restored by the sukkalmah Kuk-Kirwaš, but it remains uncertain if

805-399: A compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation. Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years. Cyrus' conquest of Susa and the rest of Babylonia commenced a fundamental shift, bringing Susa under Persian control for the first time. Strabo stated that Cyrus made Susa an imperial capital though there

966-663: A connection between Inshushinak and snakes is not confirmed by textual sources, it has nonetheless been proposed that he was associated with these animals in Elamite art  [ de ] . It has been argued that a god depicted alongside a snake and a spring depicted on Elamite seals and reliefs from the beginning of the second millennium BCE up to the reign of Untrash-Napirisha might be him, though identification with Napirisha has also been proposed. Jan Tavernier goes as far as stating that snakes constituted his main symbol. Javier Álvarez-Mon instead suggests he might have been associated with

1127-561: A couple. It is possible that Inshushinak was associated, though not necessarily equated, with Mesopotamian Ea and Dilmunite Inzak in Elamite context. It has been argued that an Akkadian text attributed to Temti-Agun uses both of the latter names as epithets of Inshushinak. Furthermore, it has been proposed that the fact a single inscription states that Puzur-Inshushinak 's father was named Šu-Ea rather than Šimbi-išuk-Inšušinak might be an indication that these two gods were syncretised. The earliest Elamite source mentioning Inshushinak

1288-560: A creature common in Elamite art which he describes as the "bird-headed griffin ", though he stresses it is not impossible it was linked to other Elamite deities as well. Representations of these beings inscribed with a dedication to Inshushinak are known from Chogha Zanbil , but their native name is not preserved. Yasmina Wicks suggests that a fish-woman depicted on the aforementioned stele of Untash-Napirisha, who she compares to other similar hybrids attested in Elamite art, might have been an apotropaic being associated with him. The figures on

1449-524: A designation for the gods of the underworld, and subsequently being escorted by Lagamal and Ishmekarab to receive Inshushinak's judgment. Wasserman notes it is possible the encounter with Inshushinak is described as taking place in a dream, which would offer a close parallel to a passage in the Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince involving the appearance of Ereshkigal in a similar context. It has been proposed that an additional figure involved in

1610-479: A given deity as related to the underworld; even in Inshushinak’s case it might have been used to refer to his other qualities. Yasmina Wicks on this basis translates it as "the lord who is hidden in the kukkunum ". Inshushinak's iconography remains uncertain. It is assumed that the god handing the rod-and-ring symbol to a king on a stele of Untash-Napirisha from Susa is likely to be a depiction of him. While

1771-524: A grant from the Shelby White Levy Program. Roman Ghirshman took over direction of the French efforts in 1946, after the end of the war. Together with his wife Tania Ghirshman , he continued there until 1967. The Ghirshmans concentrated on excavating a single part of the site, the hectare sized Ville Royale, taking it all the way down to bare earth. The pottery found at the various levels enabled

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1932-418: A group of five rulers of uncertain affiliation. They are identified by their use of the older title, "king of Susa and of Anshan", and by calling themselves "servant of Kirwashir ", an Elamite deity, thereby introducing the pantheon of the highlands to Susiana. The city of Susa itself is one of the oldest in the world dating back to around 4200 BC. Since its founding Susa was known as a central power location for

2093-419: A large palace . During this time he describes his new capital in an inscription: "This palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some 40 cubits in depth, another part 20 cubits in depth. On that rubble the palace was constructed." The city forms

2254-543: A large portion of the current structure is actually a much later construction dated to the late nineteenth century, c.  1871 . Susa is further mentioned in the Book of Jubilees (8:21 & 9:2) as one of the places within the inheritance of Shem and his eldest son Elam ; and in 8:1, "Susan" is also named as the son (or daughter, in some translations) of Elam. The site was examined in 1836 by Henry Rawlinson and then by A. H. Layard . In 1851, some modest excavation

2415-491: A male deity variously interpreted as either of them by modern authors, might have been a product of this process. Milad Jahangirfar states that most likely both of them nonetheless maintained separate identities, though Inshushinak likely acquired some traits from Napirisha. In the past attempts have been made to present Kiririsha as the spouse of both Inshushinak and Napirisha, but this view is not considered plausible anymore. Primary sources commonly recognize her and Napirisha as

2576-479: A mountains part of modern Khuzestan . The oldest known Mesopotamian reference to Inshushinak has been identified in an Early Dynastic god list from Abu Salabikh . It has been dated to 2500 BCE, and predates the treaty of Naram-Sin , which makes it the first known reference to this god. In the Ur III period , king Shulgi of Ur rebuilt a temple dedicated to him located in Susa which according to his inscriptions bore

2737-546: A new army to help the Babylonians and Chaldeans against the Assyrians at the battle of Halule in 691. Both sides claimed the victory in their annals, but Babylon was destroyed by Sennacherib only two years later, and its Elamite allies defeated in the process. The reigns of Humban-Haltash I (688–681 BC) and Humban-Haltash II (680–675 BC) saw a deterioration of Elamite-Babylonian relations, and both of them raided Sippar . At

2898-408: A parallel can be seen between Sraosha and Ishmekarab due to both of them bearing names which go back to terms meaning "hearing, hearkening". However, it is not impossible that this semantic parallel is accidental, as words referring to hearing are not an uncommon component of theonyms, as evidenced for example by the goddess Tashmetum , unrelated to either of these figures. Tavernier himself admits that

3059-486: A petty king in the first half of the 6th century). Elamite royalty in the final century preceding the Achaemenids was fragmented among different small kingdoms, the united Elamite nation having been destroyed and colonised by the Assyrians. The three kings at the close of the 7th century (Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, Khallutush-In-Shushinak and Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak) still called themselves "king of Anzan and of Susa" or "enlarger of

3220-461: A positive role as figures capable of releasing a patient from trouble. Inshushinak is mentioned in the account of Ashurbanipal 's campaign against Elam (646 BCE). In this context he is described as a "mysterious god who dwells in seclusion, (the god) whose divine features nobody was allowed to see", which according to Jan Tavernier offers a parallel to his Elamite epithets highlighting his "secret" or "hidden" nature. Reettakaisa Sofia Salo argues that

3381-439: A practice in sources from Elam. It is possible that the meat of the sheep offered to him at dawn and dusk was then consumed by religious personnel. The inscription commemorating this event invokes Inshushinak alongside Shamash , Enlil , Enki , Ishtar , Sin , Ninhursag , Narunte and "the totality of the gods" in a curse formula. Most likely multiple temples dedicated to Inshushinak existed in Susa. Most likely they stood near

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3542-469: A response to invasion from Sumer during the Old Elamite period. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through a federated governmental structure. The Proto-Elamite city of Susa was founded around 4000 BC in the watershed of

3703-641: A secular alliance, to an alliance between worshipers and deities, or to one between the four deities worshiped together in it. However, it is assumed that Inshushinak was not commonly venerated in Anshan, and he is otherwise only attested there in a small number of theophoric names. Inshushinak continued to be worshiped in Neo-Elamite times. In one of the oldest texts possible to date to this period, Shutruk-Nahhunte III  [ de ] (716–699 BCE) states that he reinstalled three statues representing deceased kings in

3864-459: A series of bitter internal civil wars which also spread to Babylonia. The Iranian Medes , Parthians , Persians and Sagartians , who had been largely subject to Assyria since their arrival in the region around 1000 BC, quietly took full advantage of the anarchy in Assyria, and in 616 BC freed themselves from Assyrian rule. The Medians took control of Elam during this period. Cyaxares the king of

4025-483: A serving dish, and a small jar—implies the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion of the vessels from the cemetery. Others are coarse cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children. The pottery

4186-448: A stratigraphy to be developed for Susa. From 1969 until 1979 excavations were conducted under Jean Perrot . In 2019 the Susa salvage project was launched to counter the construction of a transportation underpass in the vicinity of the site. In urban history , Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of the region. Based on calibrated carbon-14 dating , the foundation of a settlement there occurred as early as 4395 BC. In

4347-528: A treaty forced upon them by Ashur-Dan I . Kutir-Nakhkhunte's son Khutelutush-In-Shushinak was probably born of Kutir-Nakhkhunte and his own daughter, Nakhkhunte-utu. He was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon, who sacked Susa and returned the statue of Marduk , but who was then himself defeated by the Assyrian king Ashur-resh-ishi I . He fled to Anshan, but later returned to Susa, and his brother Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar may have succeeded him as last king of

4508-527: A triad with Napirisha and Kiririsha . It originally formed no earlier than in the first half of the nineteenth century BCE, with references only starting to appear commonly in texts from the Middle Elamite period . These three deities are invoked together in Untash-Napirisha 's inscriptions from Chogha Zanbil and in texts attributed to Shilhak-Inshushinak . It has been suggested that since Inshushinak

4669-412: Is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed, the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was done freehand. Copper metallurgy is also attested during this period, which was contemporary with metalwork at some highland Iranian sites such as Tepe Sialk . As many as 40 copper axes have been found at

4830-598: Is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-Elamite period: Proto-Elamite civilization grew up east of the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plains; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. At least three proto-Elamite states merged to form Elam: Anshan , Awan , and Shimashki. References to Awan are generally older than those to Anshan, and some scholars suggest that both states encompassed

4991-750: Is coterminous with Elam is to misunderstand the artificiality and indeed the alienness of Elam as a construct imposed from without on the peoples of the southwestern highlands of the Zagros mountain range, the coast of Fars and the alluvial plain drained by the Karun-Karkheh river system. Prehistorically the area was well settled during the Ubaid period and shared many aspects of Ubaid cultures. Knowledge of Elamite history remains largely fragmentary, reconstruction being based on mainly Mesopotamian ( Sumerian , Akkadian , Assyrian and Babylonian ) sources. The history of Elam

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5152-407: Is found at Susa. According to some scholars, Susa may have been a colony of Uruk. There is some dispute about the comparative periodization of Susa and Uruk at this time, as well as about the extent of Uruk influence in Susa. Recent research indicates that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period. Daniel T. Potts, argues that the influence from the highland Iranian Khuzestan area in Susa

5313-632: Is hard to think of any colonial system lasting that long. The spread of Uruk material is not evidence of Uruk domination; it could be local choice". Susa III (3100–2700 BC) is also known as the ' Proto-Elamite ' period. At this time, Banesh period pottery is predominant. This is also when the Proto-Elamite tablets first appear in the record. Subsequently, Susa became the centre of Elam civilization. Ambiguous reference to Elam ( Sumerian : 𒉏 , romanized:  NIM ) appear also in this period in Sumerian records. Susa enters recorded history in

5474-517: Is identified as the "lord of the dead in the siyan kuk ", a term referring to the local temple complex. A sanctuary dedicated jointly to him and Napirisha was located on top of it. He also had a sanctuary in this location referred to with the term likrin , a hapax legomenon whose translation remains uncertain. Attestations of temples of Inshushinak are largely limited to texts from Susa and Chogha Zanbil. However, an inscription of Untash-Napirisha from Tappeh Deylam preserved in six copies also mentions

5635-458: Is located on the site of ancient Susa. The English name Susa is derived from Ancient Greek Soûsa ( Σοῦσα ), which is ultimately derived from an original Elamite name, which was written as Šušen ( 𒀸𒋗𒊺𒂗 ) in its Middle Elamite form, Šušun ( 𒋢𒋢𒌦 ) in its Middle and Neo-Elamite forms, Šušan ( 𒀸𒋗𒐼𒀭 ) in its Neo- Elamite and Achaemenid forms, and Šuša ( 𒀸𒋗𒐼 ) in its Achaemenid Elamite form. Susa

5796-621: Is nonetheless recognized that even if this characterization is accepted, the Susa Funerary Texts would constitute the only example of funerary texts written in Akkadian, "a unit which is unique in the Mesopotamian literature." According to Jan Tavernier's interpretation, the Susa Funerary Texts describe the deceased presenting themselves to the Anunnaki , in this context to be understood as

5957-526: Is possible that Tepti-Huban-Inšušinak II, who might have reigned in the Achaemenid period as a vassal of Cyrus II , mentions Inshushinak (as well as Pinikir ) in his inscriptions. Atta-hamiti-Inšušinak II  [ de ] , the last attested Neo-Elamite ruler, also invoked Inshushinak in an inscription meant to highlight his dedication to the god of Susa and to the city's population, though it has been noted he most likely reigned from elsewhere, possibly from

6118-459: Is the treaty between Naram-Sin of Akkad and an Elamite ruler, possibly Khita of Awan . This identification is commonly cited in modern literature, though it ultimately remains uncertain, and it is not clear if the Elamite signatory, who is left nameless, hailed from Awan at all. While Inshushinak is only listed sixth among the gods invoked as its divine witnesses, after Pinikir , Humban , Amba, Zit and Nahhunte , he appears multiple times through

6279-409: Is ultimately uncertain, though as pointed out by De Graef, it is possible that it was represented symbolically by a statue or an emblem, as indicated by the references to touching it. In the Neo-Elamite period the concept of kitin started to appear in royal inscription too, and one such text, attributed to Shutruk-Nahhunte , invokes Inshushinak as the deity responsible for bestowing kitin alongside

6440-478: The Achaemenid state, but Wouter Henkelman points out in a more recent publication that while there is no source from Achaemenid Susa which would make it possible to evaluate whether he remained the main god of this city, based on parallels with the cults of Napirisha and Humban it is likely that he continued to be worshiped in the lowlands, and his cult might have enjoyed royal patronage. Yasmina Wicks notes that it

6601-676: The Ancient Near East . In classical literature , Elam was also known as Susiana ( US : / ˌ s uː ʒ i ˈ æ n ə / UK : / ˌ s uː z i ˈ ɑː n ə / ; Ancient Greek : Σουσιανή Sousiānḗ ), a name derived from its capital Susa . Elam was part of the early urbanization of the Near East during the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. In

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6762-566: The Babylonian empire plundered Susa around fifty years later. In 647 BC, Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal leveled the city during a war in which the people of Susa participated on the other side. A tablet unearthed in 1854 by Austen Henry Layard in Nineveh reveals Ashurbanipal as an "avenger", seeking retribution for the humiliations that the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians over

6923-548: The Early Dynastic period of Sumer . A battle between Kish and Susa is recorded in 2700 BC, when En-me-barage-si is said to have "made the land of Elam submit". In the Sumerian period, Susa was the capital of a state called Susiana (Šušan), which occupied approximately the same territory of modern Khūzestān Province centered on the Karun River . Control of Susiana shifted between Elam , Sumer, and Akkad . During

7084-456: The Elamite monarchy , many riches and materials were brought to Susa from the plundering of other cities. This was mainly due to the fact of Susa's location on Iran's South Eastern region, closer to the city of Babylon and cities in Mesopotamia. The use of the Elamite language as an administrative language was first attested in texts of ancient Ansan, Tall-e Mal-yan, dated 1000 BC. Previous to

7245-578: The Hittite Empire in 1595 BC. The Kassite king of Babylon Kurigalzu II who had been installed on the throne by Ashur-uballit I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1366–1020 BC), temporarily occupied Elam around 1320 BC, and later (c. 1230 BC) another Kassite king, Kashtiliash IV , fought Elam unsuccessfully. Kassite-Babylonian power waned, as they became dominated by the northern Mesopotamian Middle Assyrian Empire . Kiddin-Khutran of Elam repulsed

7406-472: The Kassite period and modeled after An = Anum . However, neither its full name nor location are preserved. Andrew R. George suggests that Inshushinak's placement in it might reflect an association between him and Ninurta known from late Mesopotamian sources. A direct equation between them is also attested. The god list An = Anum ša amēli explains Inshushinak as "Ninurta of silence" ( Ninurta ša qūlti ), though

7567-523: The Medes , Persians , Parthians and Sagartians entered into an alliance with a coalition of fellow former vassals of Assyria, including Nabopolassar of Babylon and Chaldea , and also the Scythians and Cimmerians , against Sin-shar-ishkun of Assyria, who was faced with unremitting civil war in Assyria itself. This alliance then attacked a disunited and war weakened Assyria, and between 616 BC and 599 BC at

7728-619: The Median dominated Iranian peoples , and was incorporated into the Median Empire (612–546 BC) and then the succeeding Achaemenid Empire (546–332 BC), with Assyria suffering the same fate. (see Achaemenid Assyria , Athura). The prophet Ezekiel describes the status of their power in the 12th year of the Hebrew Babylonian Captivity in 587 BC: There is Elam and all her multitude, All around her grave, All of them slain, fallen by

7889-400: The Middle Elamite reliefs from the walls of the temple of Inshushinak are presumed to depict intercessory minor goddesses ( LAMA ) and bull-men ( kusarikku ). Lagamal and Ishmekarab , who both originated as Mesopotamian deities , were regarded as Inshushinak's assistants, and like him played a role in the journey of the dead to the afterlife in Elamite religion . During the judgment of

8050-582: The Neo-Assyrian Empire until the late 7th century. More details are known from the late 8th century BC, when the Elamites were allied with the Chaldean chieftain Merodach-baladan to defend the cause of Babylonian independence from Assyria. Humban-nikash I (743–717 BC) supported Merodach-baladan against Sargon II , apparently without success; while his successor, Shutruk-Nahhunte II (716–699 BC),

8211-738: The Sukkalmah dynasty (c. 1970 – c. 1770 BC) after "Great regents", the title borne by its members, also called the Epartid dynasty after the name of its founder Ebarat/ Eparti, was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian Empire , and Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia, being younger by approximately sixty years than the Akkadian-speaking Old Assyrian Empire in Upper Mesopotamia , and almost seventy-five years older than

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8372-548: The Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia . Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of Awan (or Avan ; c. 2400–2100 BC) and Simashki (c. 2100–1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period . Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi ; and likewise, several of

8533-560: The Sumerian names ELAM.MA 𒉏𒈠𒆠 and ELAM , the Akkadian Elamû (masculine/neuter) and Elamītu (feminine) meant "resident of Susiana, Elamite". The Sumerian term elam also referred to the highlands. In prehistory, Elam was centered primarily in modern Khuzestān and Ilam . The name Khuzestān is derived ultimately from Old Persian : 𐎢𐎺𐎩 ( hūja ) meaning Susa/Elam. This became Middle Persian : 𐭧𐭥𐭰 ( hūz ) "Susiana", and in modern Persian : خوز ( xuz ), compounded with

8694-548: The Sumerian king list . Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to beginning of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) onwards. The Proto-Elamite states in Jiroft and Zabol (not universally accepted), present a special case because of their great antiquity. In ancient Luristan , bronze-making tradition goes back to the mid-3rd millennium BC, and has many Elamite connections. Bronze objects from several cemeteries in

8855-627: The Sumerians of Mesopotamia and also Gutians from northwestern Iran, alternating with periods of peace and diplomatic approaches. The Elamite state of Simashki at this time also extended into northern Iran, and possibly even as far as the Caspian Sea. Shu-Sin of Ur gave one of his daughters in marriage to a prince of Anshan . But the power of the Sumerians was waning; Ibbi-Sin in the 21st century did not manage to penetrate far into Elam, and in 2004 BC,

9016-474: The Uruk period . Proto-Elamite influence from Mesopotamia in Susa becomes visible from about 3200 BC, and texts in the still undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system continue to be present until about 2700 BC. The Proto-Elamite period ends with the establishment of the Awan dynasty . The earliest known historical figure connected with Elam is the king Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 2650 BC?), who subdued it, according to

9177-403: The acropolis ( alumelu , a loanword from Akkadian ālu elû , "high city") of Susa, its most elevated section, and he could be accordingly referred to as its lord ( temti alimelu ). An inscription from a stele of Shilhak-Inshushinak invoked him under this title and implored him to listen to his prayers and grant him his various requests. Another well attested aspect of Inshushinak's character

9338-462: The kukkunum of Inshushinak. These included his father Huban-mena as well as two earlier rulers from the Shutrukid dynasty , Hutelutush-Inshushinak and Šilhina-hamru-Lagamar. The goal of this act might have been to link his own rule with an earlier Elamite dynasty. The same ruler also apparently relocated a kukunnum of Inshushinak from Susa to Karintaš, possibly to be identified with Kerend-e Gharb on

9499-422: The ruler of the gods . He was also considered a royal god by Elamite rulers . An early Elamite source, the treaty with Naram-Sin of Akkad , states that "to the god Inshushinak a king is subject" ( Inšušinak hurtur zukir ), while in later times he was frequently invoked in royal theophoric names and epithets. For example, Atta-hushu referred to himself as the "shepherd of Inshushinak". Shutrukids commonly used

9660-632: The 12th century BC, gold and silver figurines of Elamite worshippers are shown carrying a sacrificial goat. These divine and royal statues were meant to assure the king of the enduring protection of the deity, well-being and a long life. Works which showed a ruler and his performance of a ritual action were intended to eternalize the effectiveness of such deeds. Found near the Temple of Inshushinak in Susa , these statuettes would have been considered charged with beneficial power. While archaeologists cannot be certain that

9821-470: The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC), who sent wheat to Susiana during a famine. But these friendly relations were only temporary, and Urtaku was killed in battle during a failed Elamite attack on Assyria. His successor Tepti-Humban-Inshushinak (664–653 BC) attacked Assyria, but was defeated and killed by Ashurbanipal following the battle of the Ulaï in 653 BC; and Susa itself was sacked and occupied by

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9982-451: The Assyrians. In this same year the Assyrian vassal Median state to the north fell to the invading Scythians and Cimmerians under Madyes , and displacing another Assyrian vassal people, the Parsu ( Persians ) to Anshan which their king Teispes captured that same year, turning it for the first time into an Indo-Iranian kingdom under Assyrian dominance that would a century later become

10143-659: The Awan dynasty collapsed as Elam was temporarily overrun by the Guti , another pre-Iranic people from what is now north west Iran who also spoke a language isolate . About a century later, the Sumerian king Shulgi of the Neo-Sumerian Empire retook the city of Susa and the surrounding region. During the first part of the rule of the Simashki dynasty, Elam was under intermittent attack from

10304-812: The Elamite dynasty were referred to as "great king" and "father" by kings in Syria and Mesopotamia and were the only kings that the Mesopotamian Kings considered to be higher in status than themselves. Siwe-Palar-Khuppak , who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimrilim of Mari , Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria , and even Hammurabi of Babylon. During his reign alone, Elam interfered extensively with Mesopotamian politics, allowing messengers and envoys to travel far west to Emar and Qatna in Syria. His messenger reached Emar and sent his three servants to King Amut-piʾel II of Qatna (1772–1762 BC), and

10465-602: The Elamites and for later Persian dynasties. Susa's power would peak during the Middle Elamite period, when it would be the region's capital. Of the Igehalkids (c. 1400 – 1210 BC), ten rulers are known, though their number was possibly larger. Some of them married Kassite princesses. The Kassites were also a language isolate speaking people from the Zagros Mountains who had taken Babylonia shortly after its sacking by

10626-540: The Elamites defeated the Kassites permanently, killing the Kassite king of Babylon, Zababa-shuma-iddin , and replacing him with his eldest son, Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who held it no more than three years before being ejected by the native Akkadian-speaking Babylonians . The Elamites then briefly came into conflict with Assyria , managing to take the Assyrian city of Arrapha (modern Kirkuk ) before being ultimately defeated and having

10787-415: The Elamites, allied with the people of Susa and led by king Kindattu , the sixth king of Simashki, managed to sack Ur and lead Ibbi-Sin into captivity, ending the third dynasty of Ur . The Akkadian kings of Isin , successor state to Ur, managed to drive the Elamites out of Ur, rebuild the city, and to return the statue of Nanna that the Elamites had plundered. The succeeding dynasty, often called

10948-478: The Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a short lived Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Little is known about the latter part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595 BC). Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago. Trade between the Indus Valley civilization and

11109-520: The Elymaei") as primarily the highland area of Khuzestan. Disagreements over the location also exist in the Jewish historical sources says Daniel T. Potts. Some ancient sources draw a distinction between Elam as the highland area of Khuzestan, and Susiana as the lowland area. Yet in other ancient sources 'Elam' and 'Susiana' seem equivalent. The uncertainty in this area extends also to modern scholarship. Since

11270-512: The Great during his conquest of Elam (Susiana), of which Susa was the capital. The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict over Susa had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BC. It is probable that Cyrus negotiated with the Babylonian generals to obtain

11431-572: The Indus were found in Susa in the excavation of the tell of the citadel. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the Harappans . Exchanges seem to have waned after 1900 BC, together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization. The Middle Elamite period began with

11592-527: The Iranian plateau, and military expeditions to the area became more common. With the collapse of Akkad under Sargon's great-great-grandson, Shar-kali-sharri , Elam declared independence under the last Awan king, Kutik-Inshushinak (c. 2240 – c. 2220 BC), and threw off the Akkadian language, promoting in its place the brief Linear Elamite script. Kutik-Inshushinnak conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity. Following his reign,

11753-627: The Iranian plateau. Assyrian sources beginning around 800 BC distinguish the "powerful Medes", i.e. the actual Medes , Persians , Parthians , Sagartians , etc. Among these pressuring tribes were the Parsu , first recorded in 844 BC as living on the southeastern shore of Lake Urmiah , but who by the end of this period would cause the Elamites' original home, the Iranian Plateau, to be renamed Persia proper. These newly arrived Iranian peoples were also conquered by Assyria, and largely regarded as vassals of

11914-556: The Kassites by defeating Enlil-nadin-shumi in 1224 BC and Adad-shuma-iddina around 1222–1217 BC. Under the Igehalkids, Akkadian inscriptions were rare, and Elamite highland gods became firmly established in Susa. Under the Shutrukids (c. 1210 – 1100 BC), the Elamite empire reached the height of its power. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte and his three sons, Kutir-Nakhkhunte II, Shilhak-In-Shushinak, and Khutelutush-In-Shushinak were capable of frequent military campaigns into Kassite Babylonia (which

12075-587: The Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While, previously, the Akkadian language was frequently used in inscriptions, the succeeding kings, such as the Igihalkid dynasty of c. 1400 BC, tried to use Elamite. Thus, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana. This

12236-701: The Museum of the Louvre throughout the late 1890s and early 1900s. De Morgan's most important work was the excavation of the Grande Tranchée in the Acropole mound, where he found the stele of Naram-Sin , a collection of Babylonian kudurrus (boundary stones), the stele bearing the Code of Hammurabi , an ornamented bronze table of snakes, the bronze statue of Queen Napir-Asu , and thousands of inscribed bricks. His finds showed Susa to be

12397-487: The Neo-Elamite period, Inshushinak's underworld aspect apparently overshadowed all his other functions. He could be referred to as temti kukunnum lahakra, which is commonly translated as "lord of the dead in the kukunnum", a type of temple. However, it has been pointed out that the Elamite word stem laha- can also be translated as "hidden" or "secret", and it is not certain that epithets including it necessarily designated

12558-503: The Old Babylonian Empire . This period is said by many to be confusing and difficult to reconstruct. It was apparently founded by Eparti I. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Around 1850 BC Kudur-Mabuk , apparently king of another Akkadian state to the north of Larsa, managed to install his son, Warad-Sin , on

12719-612: The Old Elamite period ( Middle Bronze Age ), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau , centered in Anshan , and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role during the Persian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally considered

12880-460: The Shutrukid dynasty. Following Khutelutush-In-Shushinak, the power of the Elamite empire began to wane seriously, as after the death of this ruler, Elam disappears into obscurity for more than three centuries. Very little is known of this period. Anshan was still at least partially Elamite. There appear to have been unsuccessful alliances of Elamites, Babylonians, Chaldeans and other peoples against

13041-551: The Susa cemetery, as well as 10 round discs probably used as mirrors. Many awls and spatulas were also found. The cemetery of Chega Sofla , from the same timeframe, provides a lot of similar material, with many sophisticated metal objects. Chega Sofla is located in the same geographical area. Susa came within the Uruk cultural sphere during the Uruk period . An imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk, proto-writing , cylinder seals with Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture

13202-540: The University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia says, "they Susanians are participating entirely in an Uruk way of life. They are not culturally distinct; the material culture of Susa is a regional variation of that on the Mesopotamian plain". Gilbert Stein, director of the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute, says that "An expansion once thought to have lasted less than 200 years now apparently went on for 700 years. It

13363-517: The acropolis of Susa, as indicated by the discovery of numerous inscribed bricks and three houses of worship, one of which is known to have been dedicated to Inshushinak, during excavations. It is located in the southeast of this area. Textual sources indicate of the houses of worship dedicated to him bore the ceremonial Sumerian name Ekikununna (" house , princely pure place") or Ekikuanna ("house, pure place of heaven"). According to Françoise Grillot-Susini both of these names might be attempts at creating

13524-447: The author of this text must have possessed some knowledge of the local traditions pertaining to him. A man bearing the name Šibqat-Šušinak is mentioned in a single document from Seleucid Uruk . There is however no evidence for large-scale cult of Inshushinak in this location. Not much is also known about Šibqat-Šušinak beyond the fact that his daughter, who bore the Greek name Phanaia, was

13685-500: The beginning of Esarhaddon 's reign in Assyria (681–669 BC), Nabu-zer-kitti-lišir, an ethnically Elamite governor in the south of Babylonia, revolted and besieged Ur , but was routed by the Assyrians and fled to Elam where the king of Elam, fearing Assyrian repercussions, took him prisoner and put him to the sword. Urtaku (674–664 BC) for some time wisely maintained good relations with

13846-475: The books of Ezra (Ezra 4:9), Nehemiah (Nehemiah 1:1) and Daniel (Daniel 8:2). According to these texts, Nehemiah lived in Susa during the Babylonian captivity of the 6th century BC (Daniel mentions it in a prophetic vision), while Esther became queen there, married to King Ahasuerus , and saved the Jews from genocide . A tomb presumed to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known as Shush-Daniel . However,

14007-446: The centuries: "Susa, the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed. . . .I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to

14168-402: The cities of Mesopotamia and Elam, can be inferred from numerous find of Indus artifacts, particularly in the excavation at Susa . Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly Trubinella pyrum and Fasciolaria trapezium , have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia and Susa dating from around 2500–2000 BC. Carnelian beads from

14329-471: The city. However, Wouter Henkelman argues that sanctuaries of Inshushinak might have not been located only in the proximity of Susa, with siyan husame dedicated to him possibly serving as "markers of royal power" in other parts of Elam. A ziggurat dedicated to Inshushinak existed in Chogha Zanbil (Al-Untash-Napirisha), a city originally established by Untash-Napirisha . In inscriptions from this site he

14490-413: The construction of a sanctuary dedicated to him, Mašti  [ lt ] and Tepti. Near the end of the Middle Elamite period, around 1125 BCE, a temple dedicated jointly to him, Napirisha, Kiririsha and Simut was built in Anshan by king Hutelutush-Inshushinak . It was designated by the otherwise unattested term, siyan tarin , "temple of the alliance", though it is not known if this name refers to

14651-555: The course of excavation. Almost all of the excavations at Susa, post-1885, were organized and authorized by the French government. In two treaties in 1894 and 1899, the French gained a monopoly on all archaeological excavations in Iran indefinitely. Jacques de Morgan , after visiting the site in 1891, conducted major excavations from 1897 until 1911. The excavations that were conducted in Susa brought many artistic and historical artifacts back to France. These artifacts filled multiple halls in

14812-413: The dead, Lagamal most likely acted as the prosecutor and Ishmekarab as a defender , as suggested based on the respective meanings of their names, "who has no mercy" and “who hears the prayer”. Wouter Henkelman metaphorically describes them as advocatus diaboli and advocatus dei . They were also responsible for executing Inshushinak's judgments. In the past it was commonly assumed that Ishmekarab

14973-448: The discovery of ancient Anshan , and the realization of its great importance in Elamite history, the definitions were changed again. Some modern scholars argued that the center of Elam lay at Anshan and in the highlands around it, and not at Susa in lowland Khuzistan. Potts disagrees suggesting that the term 'Elam' was primarily constructed by the Mesopotamians to describe the area in general terms, without referring specifically either to

15134-410: The document, with four certain references and further five tentatively restored ones. Wouter Henkelman on this basis suggests that it is not impossible that the text reflects the cultural milieu of Susa , rather than Awan. The last king of the Awan dynasty , Puzur-Inshushinak (reigned c. 2100 BCE), instated daily offerings to Inshushinak in Susa, which constitutes the oldest known reference to such

15295-771: The entrance to the underworld. However, this conclusion is not certain, as they could be dedicated to various deities, not all of whom have been conclusively proven to be connected to beliefs pertaining to death and the afterlife. A stele of Shilhak-Inshushinak discovered in the temple of Inshushinak located at the acropole of Susa enumerates twenty siyan husame restored by this king, most of which were dedicated to Inshushinak, including these located in Tēttu, Ša Attata-mitik, Ekallat, Bīt Turni (restoration partially uncertain), Ša Attata-ekal-likrup, Marrut, Ša Hantallak and possibly Perraperra. Most of these toponyms are otherwise unattested, and it has been argued that they must have been located near

15456-417: The era of Elamites, the Akkadian language was responsible for most or all of the text used in ancient documents. Susiana was incorporated by Sargon the Great into his Akkadian Empire in approximately 2330 BC. The main goddess of the city was Nanaya , who had a significant temple in Susa. The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi ,

15617-1188: The fact Sraosha only became a popular figure in the Parthian period, roughly in the first century BCE, which might indicate a time gap too significant to permit presenting him as analogous to Ishmekarab. He ultimately concludes the similarities might be accidental. Wasserman evaluated his treatment of the Susa Funerary Texts as a whole critically, and argues that it detaches them from their historical context, with Zoroastrian sources separated from them by two millennia treated as closer to them than contemporary Akkadian literature. Susa Susa ( / ˈ s uː s ə / SOO -sə ; Middle Elamite : 𒀸𒋗𒊺𒂗 , romanized:  Šušen ; Middle and Neo- Elamite : 𒋢𒋢𒌦 , romanized:  Šušun ; Neo- Elamite and Achaemenid Elamite : 𒀸𒋗𒐼𒀭 , romanized:  Šušan ; Achaemenid Elamite : 𒀸𒋗𒐼 , romanized:  Šuša ; Persian : شوش Šuš [ʃuʃ] ; Hebrew : שׁוּשָׁן Šūšān ; Ancient Greek : Σοῦσα Soûsa ; Syriac : ܫܘܫ Šuš ; Middle Persian : 𐭮𐭥𐭱𐭩 Sūš or 𐭱𐭥𐭮 Šūs ; Old Persian : 𐏂𐎢𐏁𐎠 Çūšā )

15778-413: The fate of the dead in the underworld, and states referring to them as "funerary" might be a misnomer, even though they do allude to the land of the dead. He proposes interpreting them as magical texts comparable to later Greco-Roman curse tablets instead. However, Yasmina Wicks in an earlier publication notes that questioning the funerary context of these texts has historically been a minority position. It

15939-511: The first two dynasties, those of Awan (or Avan ; c. 2400 – c. 2100 BC) and Simashki (c. 2100 – c. 1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period . Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi ; and likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab , are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam. The Awan dynasty (2350–2150 BC)

16100-492: The four days of tašritu , the feast of the deity Kirwašir, and the day of the new moon" might have been a temple or another "edifice with a funerary function" dedicated to Inshushinak, though the term has also been alternatively interpreted as referring to a tomb or as a vague designation for a construction project. The structure was restored by Inshushinak-shar-Ilani in the Middle Elamite period. Inshushinak could also be venerated in sanctuaries known as siyan husame , "temple in

16261-636: The group consisting of Inshushinak, Ishmekarab and Lagamal can be compared to the Zoroastrian grouping of the yazatas Mithra , Sraosha and Rashnu . It is attested chiefly in Pahlavi texts, and does not appear in earlier Avesta . Similar comparisons have been made by other authors as well. However, this proposal did not find universal support. Tavernier admits that Inshushinak's and Mitra's names are dissimilar and Rashnu's ("justice") and Lagamal's ("who has no mercy") outright contradict each other, though he argues

16422-515: The grove", which as indicated by their name were located within sacred groves , well attested in Elamite sources. However, they are not attested in sources from Susa predating the Middle Elamite period. They might have played a role in a funerary cult. It has been suggested that this might have been true for the siyan husame in general, but while multiple deities for whom such structures are attested, including Inshushinak, Ishmekarab , Lagamal , Kiririsha and possibly Napirisha , were associated with

16583-516: The implications of this passage remain poorly understood. An incantation which mentions Inshushinak, Saĝkud and Mes-sanga-Unug in sequence according to George might treat all three as forms of Ninurta. In the Epic of Anzû , Inshushinak ("Shushinak") is one of the names of Ninurta, said to designate him in Susa. Walther Hinz  [ de ] instead argued that in Mesopotamia Inshushinak

16744-567: The judgment is a "weigher". However, this translation has not been universally accepted, and the concept of weighing of souls is not attested in any other cuneiform text. Tavernier, while he agrees that the Susa Funerary Texts should be placed within the context of Mesopotamian literature and afterlife beliefs, suggests it could constitute a strictly Elamite concept incorporated into them, despite not being attested in any other Elamite sources either. He proposes comparisons with later Iranian beliefs as supplementary evidence, specifically arguing that

16905-488: The king of Qatna also sent two messengers to Elam. The Elamite rulers had become increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics during the Sukkalmah dynasty . In fact, Rim-Sin of Larsa himself was of Elamite descent, notwithstanding his Akkadian name. Kudur-Nahhunte , who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia, the north being under the control of the Old Assyrian Empire . But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out

17066-756: The king. Inshushinak was also associated with the underworld and textual sources from Susa indicate that he was believed to reside in it. He was considered its lord in local tradition as well. Furthermore, his judicial authority was believed to extend to the land of the dead. However, it is not certain if he was recognized as the god of the underworld in the entirety of Elam , and it is possible individual areas had their own deities fulfilling an analogous role in local pantheons. Jan Tavernier notes an analogous role has been proposed for Kiririsha in Liyan and for Upurkupak in Choga Pahn, though he stresses this remains speculative. In

17227-614: The kingdom of Anzan and of Susa", at a time when the Achaemenid Persians were already ruling Anshan under Assyrian dominance. The various Assyrian Empires , which had been the dominant force in the Near East , Asia Minor , the Caucasus , North Africa , Arabian peninsula and East Mediterranean for much of the period from the first half of the 14th century BC, began to unravel after the death of Ashurbanipal in 631 BC, descending into

17388-467: The last Elamite to claim the old title "king of Anshan and Susa", was murdered by his brother Hallutash-Inshushinak I , who managed to briefly capture the Assyrian governor of Babylonia Ashur-nadin-shumi and the city of Babylon in 694 BC. Sennacherib soon responded by invading and ravaging Elam. Khallushu was in turn assassinated by Kutir-Nahhunte III , who succeeded him but soon abdicated in favor of Humban-numena III (692–689 BC). Khumma-Menanu recruited

17549-519: The latter can also be distinguished from the temples mentioned in inscriptions of Puzur-Inshushinak and Shulgi of Ur . Another of the temples of Inshushinak was referred to as haštu , "tomb". Presumably this naming choice reflected the worship of Inshushinak's underworld aspect. It has been argued that the É.DÙ.A (reading uncertain), a structure mentioned in an inscription on a stela of Tepti-ahar according to which its six guards were supposed to provide specific commodities during "the festivals of abu ,

17710-402: The latter is MÚŠ. In Neo-Elamite sources the variant MÚŠ.LAM is attested, with the last sign presumed to be derived from the Akkadian term lammu , used to designate the underworld . Further logographic spellings include MÚŠ.EREN, NIN.MÚŠ.EREN and MÚŠ.ḪU.LAM. It is assumed that Inshushinak's original role was that of tutelary god of Susa . He was also the main deity of the local pantheon,

17871-503: The literary culture of Mesopotamia. Nathan Wasserman points out his presence in Akkadian literature from Susa can be compared to analogous cases of other locally popular gods, like Dagan or Itūr-Mēr in texts from Mari , Marduk in Babylon or Ashur in Assur . The Susa Funerary Texts are considered unique because they constitute the only known examples of Akkadian compositions dealing with

18032-411: The location where these figures were found indicates a date before or in the time of the Elamite king Shilhak-Inshushinak, stylistic features can help ground the figures in a specific time period. The hairstyle and costume of the figures which are strewn with dots and hemmed with short fringe at the bottom, and the precious metals point to a date in the latter part of the second millennium BC rather than to

18193-405: The lowlanders or the highlanders, Elam is not an Iranian term and has no relationship to the conception which the peoples of highland Iran had of themselves. They were Anshanites, Marhashians, Shimashkians, Zabshalians, Sherihumians, Awanites, etc. That Anshan played a leading role in the political affairs of the various highland groups inhabiting southwestern Iran is clear. But to argue that Anshan

18354-460: The members of a category of deities he refers to as the " Transtigridian snake gods", who likely developed on the border between the cultural spheres of Mesopotamia and Elam. The most common spelling of Inshushinak's name in cuneiform was In-šu-ši-na-ak , though other phonetic syllabic variants such as In-su-uš-na-ak , In-sú-uš-nak , In-šu-uš-na-ak and Šu-ši-na-ak are also attested, in addition to logographic ones. A well attested example of

18515-454: The most important center of Elamite civilization , which was effectively discovered by the French mission at Susa. Excavation efforts continued under Roland De Mecquenem until 1914, at the beginning of World War I . French work at Susa resumed after the war, led by De Mecquenem, continuing until World War II in 1940. To supplement the original publications of De Mecquenem the archives of his excavation have now been put online thanks to

18676-554: The name A’arkeš. Daniel Potts concludes that its name has no clear etymology and points out it is not attested in any other sources. Inshushinak is attested in the god list An = Anum (tablet V, line 286). He appears in it as a member of a group of deities associated with the underworld and with snakes alongside Ereshkigal , Ninazu , Ningishzida , Tishpak , Ishtaran and their courtiers, such as Irnina or Nirah . However, no courtiers or family members are attributed to him. Marten Stol states that this text designates him as one of

18837-700: The neighbouring territories and became the king of Elam . He encouraged the use of the Linear Elamite script, that remains undeciphered. The city was subsequently conquered by the neo-Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur and held until Ur finally collapsed at the hands of the Elamites under Kindattu in ca. 2004 BC. At this time, Susa was ruled by Elam again and became its capital under the Shimashki dynasty. Numerous artifacts of Indus Valley civilization origin have been found in Susa from this period, especially seals and etched carnelian beads , pointing to Indus-Mesopotamia relations during this period. Around 1500 BC,

18998-453: The nucleus of the Achaemenid dynasty . The Assyrians successfully subjugated and drove the Scythians and Cimmerians from their Iranian colonies, and the Persians , Medes and Parthians remained vassals of Assyria. A brief respite to the Elamites was provided by the civil war between Ashurbanipal and his own brother Shamash-shum-ukin , whom their father Esarhaddon had installed as

19159-549: The organization of the society that commissioned them. Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style are a late, regional version of the Mesopotamian Ubaid ceramic tradition that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium BC. Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a drinking goblet or beaker,

19320-463: The powerful Neo Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC); the Babylonian king Mar-biti-apla-ushur (984–979 BC) was of Elamite origin, and Elamites are recorded to have fought unsuccessfully with the Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi against the Assyrian forces under Shamshi-Adad V (823–811 BC). The later Neo-Elamite period is characterized by a significant migration of Indo-European speaking Iranians to

19481-461: The region around Susa were a number of towns (with their own platforms) and villages that maintained a trading relationship with the city, especially those along the Zagro frontier. The founding of Susa corresponded with the abandonment of nearby villages. Potts suggests that the settlement may have been founded to try to reestablish the previously destroyed settlement at Chogha Mish , about 25 km to

19642-500: The region date to the Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) I, and to Ur-III period c. 2900–2000 BC. These excavations include Kalleh Nisar, Bani Surmah, Chigha Sabz, Kamtarlan, Sardant, and Gulal-i Galbi. The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi , the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia . Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of

19803-535: The rise of the Anshanite dynasties around 1500 BC. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While the first of these dynasties, the Kidinuids continued to use the Akkadian language frequently in their inscriptions, the succeeding Igihalkids and Shutrukids used Elamite with increasing regularity. Likewise, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana. The Kidinuids (c. 1500 – 1400 BC) are

19964-417: The river Karun . It is considered to be the site of Proto-Elamite cultural formation. During its early history, it fluctuated between submission to Mesopotamian and Elamite power. The earliest levels (22–17 in the excavations conducted by Le Brun, 1978) exhibit pottery that has no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but for the succeeding period, the excavated material allows identification with the culture of Sumer of

20125-410: The road from Baghdad and Kermanshah , to protect it. A new temple dedicated to him was built in Susa by Hallutash-Inshushinak  [ de ] . A late administrative archive from Susa mentions the otherwise unattested phenomenon of local manifestations of Inshushinak, linked to Amperi, Halumirashi and Haran. Heidemarie Koch argued that Inshushinak ceased to be worshiped after the emergence of

20286-455: The same epithet is also applied to Humban in this text. Katrin De Graef suggests that an oath from the Sukkalmah period ( c. 1880-1450 BCE; roughly contemporary with the Old Babylonian period ) which invokes Napirisha before Inshushinak might indicate that at the time Susa was a dependence of Anshan , where the former was recognized as the main deity. Inshushinak was strongly associated with

20447-472: The same territory, in different eras (see Hanson, Encyclopædia Iranica). To this core Shushiana was periodically annexed and broken off. In addition, some Proto-Elamite sites are found well outside this area, spread out on the Iranian plateau ; such as Warakshe , Sialk (now a suburb of the modern city of Kashan ) and Jiroft in Kerman Province . The state of Elam was formed from these lesser states as

20608-511: The setting of The Persians (472 BC), an Athenian tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus that is the oldest surviving play in the history of theatre . Events mentioned in the Old Testament book of Esther are said to have occurred in Susa during the Achaemenid period. The King Ahasuerus mentioned in that book may refer to Xerxes I (486-465 BC). Neo-Elamite Period Elam ( / ˈ iː l ə m / )

20769-505: The site is still recognizable today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple platform. Susa's earliest settlement is known as the Susa I period (c. 4200–3900 BC). Two settlements named by archaeologists the Acropolis (7 ha) and the Apadana (6.3 ha), would later merge to form Susa proper (18 ha). The Apadana

20930-434: The sons of Tishpak alongside Nanshak, Pappasānu, Me-SUḪUR and Ishtaran. According to Manuel Ceccarelli, this connection most likely should be considered as a secondary Mesopotamian development, as it is unlikely the tutelary god of Susa would be recognized as the son of the god of Eshnunna in his own city. Inshushinak is also among the deities whose temples appear in the so-called Canonical Temple List , presumably compiled in

21091-407: The stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab , are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam. Susa was the capital of an Akkadian province until ca. 2100 BC, when its governor, Kutik-Inshushinak , rebelled and made it an independent state and a literary center. Also, he was the last from the Awan dynasty according to the Susa kinglist. He unified

21252-472: The sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and, on their lands, I sowed salt." Assyrian rule of Susa began in 647 BC and lasted till Median capture of Susa in 617 BC. Susa underwent a major political and ethnocultural transition when it became part of the Persian Achaemenid empire between 540 and 539 BC when it was captured by Cyrus

21413-469: The sword, Who have gone down uncircumcised to the lower parts of the earth, Who caused their terror in the land of the living; Now they bear their shame with those who go down to the Pit. ( Ezekiel 32:24) Their successors Khumma-Menanu and Shilhak-In-Shushinak II bore the simple title "king", and the final king Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak used no honorific at all. In 540 BC, Achaemenid rule began in Susa. Elymaïs

21574-534: The temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and on their lands I sowed salt. The devastation was a little less complete than Ashurbanipal boasted, and a weak and fragmented Elamite rule was resurrected soon after with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Humban-umena III (not to be confused with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Indada,

21735-460: The throne of Larsa, and Warad-Sin's brother, Rim-Sin , succeeded him and conquered much of southern Mesopotamia for Larsa . Notable Eparti dynasty rulers in Elam during this time include Suruhduh/Siruk-tuh/Sirukdukh (c. 1850 BC), who entered various military coalitions to contain the power of the south Mesopotamian states. Siruk-tuh was the king of Elam when Hammurabi first ruled, he and later kings of

21896-520: The title "(king) whose kingdom Inshushinak loves". Multiple rulers dedicated new construction projects to Inshushinak. Jan Tavernier argues Inshushinak was initially elevated to a high position by Puzur-Inshushinak , and states that through history it reflected the political position of Susa, similarly to how the changes in the position of Marduk in Babylonia reflected the fate of the city of Babylon . Wouter Henkelman states that while Inshushinak's primacy

22057-467: The toponymic suffix -stån "place". In geographical terms, Susiana basically represents the Iranian province of Khuzestan around the river Karun . In ancient times, several names were used to describe this area. The ancient geographer Ptolemy was the earliest to call the area Susiana , referring to the country around Susa. Another ancient geographer, Strabo , viewed Elam and Susiana as two different geographic regions. He referred to Elam ("land of

22218-429: The underworld to be found in a grave in situ . It has been suggested that they might represent a guide for the dead. However, it is possible they do not form a single coherent composition, and they might not even all belong to the same genre. It is not impossible that they constitute a collection of excerpts from longer texts. Wasserman argues that it cannot be established with certainty to what degree they actually present

22379-407: The underworld, others, like Manzat , Simut and Suhsipa, lacked such a connection. Furthermore, the proposed identification between siyan husame and haštu , in the past used to support this proposal, is no longer accepted, as they are listed as two separate types of structures in the text EKI 48. A type of monumental gates, hiel , could be dedicated to Inshushinak too, and might have represented

22540-727: The vassal king of Babylon. The Elamites gave support to Shamash-shum-ukin, but also engaged in fighting among themselves. Babylon was besieged in midsummer of 650 BC, and fell by 648 BC; Shamash-shum-ukin died in a fire. The Elamite kingdom was greatly weakened by rebellions and civil wars; kings from 651 to 640 had short reigns before being usurped, overthrown, or captured by the Assyrians. Having dealt with his brother, Ashurbanipal sensed an opportunity to devastate Elam. In 646 BC Ashurbanipal devastated Susiana with ease, and sacked Susa. He installed several vassal kings such as Tammaritu , although these quickly broke off relations with Assyria over their pillages. The last Elamite king, Humban-Haltash III ,

22701-764: The very latest, had conquered its vast empire which stretched from the Caucasus Mountains to Egypt , Libya and the Arabian Peninsula , and from Cyprus and Ephesus to Persia and the Caspian Sea . The major cities in Assyria itself were gradually taken; Arrapha (modern Kirkuk ) and Kalhu (modern Nimrud ) in 616 BC, Ashur , Dur-Sharrukin and Arbela (modern Erbil ) in 613, Nineveh falling in 612, Harran in 608 BC, Carchemish in 605 BC, and finally Dur-Katlimmu by 599 BC. Elam, already largely destroyed and subjugated by Assyria, thus became easy prey for

22862-417: The west. Previously, Chogha Mish was a very large settlement, and it featured a similar massive platform that was later built at Susa. Another important settlement in the area is Chogha Bonut , which was discovered in 1976. Shortly after Susa was first settled over 6000 years ago, its inhabitants erected a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding landscape. The exceptional nature of

23023-625: Was also being ravaged by the empire of Assyria during this period), and at the same time were exhibiting vigorous construction activity—building and restoring luxurious temples in Susa and across their Empire. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte raided Babylonia, carrying home to Susa trophies like the statues of Marduk and Manishtushu , the Manishtushu Obelisk , the Stele of Hammurabi and the stele of Naram-Sin . In 1158 BC, after much of Babylonia had been annexed by Ashur-Dan I of Assyria and Shutruk-Nakhkhunte,

23184-477: Was also the period when the Elamite pantheon was being imposed in Susiana. This policy reached its height with the construction of the political and religious complex at Chogha Zanbil , 30 km (19 mi) south-east of Susa. In ca. 1175 BC, the Elamites under Shutruk-Nahhunte plundered the original stele bearing the Code of Hammurabi and took it to Susa. Archeologists found it in 1901. Nebuchadnezzar I of

23345-640: Was an ancient city in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km (160 mi) east of the Tigris , between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers in Iran. One of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East , Susa served as the capital of Elam and the winter capital of the Achaemenid Empire , and remained a strategic centre during the Parthian and Sasanian periods. The site currently consists of three archaeological mounds, covering an area of around 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi). The city of Shush

23506-414: Was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran , stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq . The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a) , along with the later Akkadian elamtu , and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of

23667-466: Was captured in 640 BC by Ashurbanipal, who annexed and destroyed the country. In a tablet unearthed in 1854 by Austen Henry Layard , Ashurbanipal boasts of the destruction he had wrought: Susa, the great holy city, abode of their Gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed ... I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced

23828-472: Was done by William Loftus , accompanied by Fenwick Williams , who identified it as Susa. Among his finds was a jar containing around 110 coins, the earliest of which was dated to 697-98 AD. In 1885 and 1886 Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and Jane Dieulafoy began the first French excavations, discovering glazed bricks, column bases, and capitals from the palace of the Achaemenid kings. However, they failed to identify mudbrick walls, which were then destroyed in

23989-453: Was enclosed by 6 metre thick walls of rammed earth (this particular place is named Apadana because it also contains a late Achaemenid structure of this type). Nearly two thousand pots of Susa I style were recovered from the cemetery, most of them now in the Louvre . The vessels found are eloquent testimony to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and they hold clues about

24150-418: Was equated with Adad , but there is no evidence in any primary sources that would support this view, and Mesopotamian god lists instead recognize three otherwise unknown deities as his Elamite counterparts, Kunzibami, Šihhaš and Šennukušu. In the incantation series Šurpu , Inshushinak appears in a sequence of Elamite deities invoked from Susa alongside Lahuratil , Humban and Napirisha . They are assigned

24311-559: Was far larger than Susa at the time, Susa was not its colony, but still maintained some independence for a long time, according to Potts. An architectural link has also been suggested between Susa, Tal-i Malyan, and Godin Tepe at this time, in support of the idea of the parallel development of the Proto-Cuneiform and proto-elamite scripts. Some scholars believe that Susa was part of the greater Uruk culture. Holly Pittman, an art historian at

24472-594: Was his role as a divine judge, which exemplified his connection to justice. In the Sukkalmah period he frequently appears in oath formulas in economic and legal documents alongside Ishmekarab. Sources from the same period also state that parties in agreements committed themselves to them by touching the kidinnu (Akkadian) or kitin (Elamite) of this god. This term is variously translated as "god-given royal power", "divinely-enforced legal protection", "legal authority", "legal order, rules" or "divine symbol, emblem". Its meaning

24633-414: Was more significant at the early period, and also continued later on. Thus, Susa combined the influence of two cultures, from the highland area and from the alluvial plains . Potts also stresses the fact that the writing and numerical systems of Uruk were not simply borrowed in Susa wholesale. Rather, only partial and selective borrowing took place, that was adapted to Susa's needs. Despite the fact that Uruk

24794-461: Was no new construction in that period so this is in dispute. Under Cyrus' son Cambyses II , Susa became a center of political power as one of four capitals of the Achaemenid Persian empire, while reducing the significance of Pasargadae as the capital of Persis. Following Cambyses' brief rule, Darius the Great began a major building program in Susa and Persepolis , which included building

24955-657: Was one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East . In historic literature , Susa appears in the very earliest Sumerian records: for example, it is described as one of the places obedient to Inanna , patron deity of Uruk , in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta . Susa is mentioned in the Ketuvim of the Hebrew Bible by the name Shushan, mainly in the Book of Esther , but also once each in

25116-470: Was partly contemporary with that of the Mesopotamian emperor Sargon of Akkad , who not only defeated the Awan king Luh-ishan and subjected Susa , but attempted to make the East Semitic Akkadian the official language there. From this time, Mesopotamian sources concerning Elam become more frequent, since the Mesopotamians had developed an interest in resources (such as wood, stone, and metal) from

25277-431: Was recognized across the Elamite lowlands around Susa, Elamite religion , like other ancient religions, should be understood as a "patchwork of local traditions", and as a result further east Humban and Napirisha were more commonly recognized as deities of comparable status instead. An inscription of Shilhak-Inshushinak refers to Inshushinak as the "greatest of gods" (or "great among the gods"; rišar nappapir ), though

25438-415: Was regarded as Inshushinak's spouse, though this proposal relies on the assumption the former was a female deity, which remains uncertain. An inheritance document indicates that it was believed that Inshushinak and Ishmekarab were responsible for establishing the customary view that the position of a brother by adoption was equal to that of a biological brother. There is evidence that Inshushinak could form

25599-410: Was routed by Sargon's troops during an expedition in 710, and another Elamite defeat by Sargon's troops is recorded for 708. The Assyrian dominion over Babylon was underlined by Sargon's son Sennacherib , who defeated the Elamites, Chaldeans and Babylonians and dethroned Merodach-baladan for a second time, installing his own son Ashur-nadin-shumi on the Babylonian throne in 700. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II,

25760-481: Was the lead god of Susa and Napirisha held an analogous position in Anshan , rulers might have sometimes attempted to present them the same figure. For example, in a number of texts from Chogha Zanbil plural forms are not used when these two gods invoked at once where they would be necessary according to the grammar of the Elamite language . It has been argued that the Kurangun  [ de ] relief, which depicts

25921-533: Was the location of the death of Antiochus III the Great who was killed while pillaging a temple of Bel in 187 BC. Following the rise and fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the Seleucid Empire , a new dynasty of Elamite rulers established Elymais from 147 BC to 224 AD, usually under the suzerainty of the Parthian Empire , until the advent of the unified Sasanian Empire in 224 AD. Dated to approximately

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