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132-576: Even though the Society of Jesus was active in the social field right from the end of the 19th century, following on the Rerum novarum encyclical of Leo XIII , it became more actively so after the second world war. In 1949, Superior General Jean-Baptiste Janssens wrote an ‘Instruction on the Social Apostolate’ (10 October 1949) - the first letter ever entirely given to this new apostolic field - calling for

264-499: A Lovefeast when churches celebrate them, to holding an ecumenical Stations of the Cross service on Fridays during the Christian liturgical season of Lent with the service being held at a different local church each Friday (e.g. Catholic, Lutheran, Moravian, Anglican, Reformed and Methodist). The ultimate goal of ecumenism is the recognition of sacramental validity, eucharistic sharing, and

396-528: A billion members of the major Christian traditions. This, with the Catholic Church's 1.25 billion Christians, indicates that 349 churches/denominations already account for nearly 80% of the world's Christian population. One problem with the larger numbers is that single denominations can be counted multiple times. For example, the Catholic Church is a single church, or communion, comprising 24 distinct self-governing particular churches in full communion with

528-457: A centralised organization and stressed acceptance of any mission to which the pope might call them. His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things normally considered of little importance. The Society of Jesus

660-467: A deeper understanding and a clearer presentation of the unfathomable riches of Christ. The unity willed by God can be attained only by the adherence of all to the content of revealed faith in its entirety. In matters of faith, compromise is in contradiction with God who is Truth. In the Body of Christ, "the way, and the truth, and the life" (Jn 14:6), who could consider legitimate a reconciliation brought about at

792-481: A distinct family of churches, though they may otherwise fit into any one of the previous categories. Some of these families are in themselves a single communion, such as the Catholic Church. Other families are a very general movement with no universal governing authority. Protestantism, for example, includes such diverse groups as Adventists , Anabaptists , Baptists, Congregationalists , Evangelicals , Hussites , Lutherans , Messianic Jews , Methodists (inclusive of

924-536: A few key activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were trained in both classical studies and theology , and their schools reflected this. These schools taught with a balance of Aristotelian methods with mathematics. Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel , founding missions in widely diverse regions such as modern-day Paraguay , Japan, Ontario , and Ethiopia . One of

1056-538: A handful of people. Other denominations may be very small remnants of once larger churches. The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing ( Shakers ) have only two full members, for example, yet are a distinct denomination. Most current divisions are the result of historical schisms —a break in the full communion between previously united Churches, bishops, or communities. Some historical schisms proved temporary and were eventually healed, others have hardened into

1188-408: A liar, and his word is not in us". So we humbly beg pardon of God and of our separated brethren, just as we forgive them that trespass against us. Christians cannot underestimate the burden of long-standing misgivings inherited from the past, and of mutual misunderstandings and prejudices. Complacency, indifference and insufficient knowledge of one another often make this situation worse. Consequently,

1320-613: A long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Catholic Christianity. Jesuit missions in the Americas became controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often

1452-523: A new ‘social mentality’ among the Jesuits. To achieve this he asked that Jesuit formation programmes be revised, education curriculum in Jesuit schools and colleges be adapted, and centres specialized in social information and action be opened. Even the more spiritual kind of apostolic work ( Marian congregation , Spiritual Exercises , and retreat work) were not to remain unaffected. As a response to this, in 1951,

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1584-504: A partner or comrade. From this came "Society of Jesus" (SJ) by which they would be known more widely. Religious orders established in the medieval era were named after particular men: Francis of Assisi (Franciscans); Domingo de Guzmán , later canonized as Saint Dominic (Dominicans); and Augustine of Hippo (Augustinians). Ignatius of Loyola and his followers appropriated the name of Jesus for their new order, provoking resentment by other orders who considered it presumptuous. The resentment

1716-638: A place of study in Louvain (1614). This was the earliest foundation of what would later be called Heythrop College . Campion Hall , founded in 1896, has been a presence within Oxford University since then. 16th and 17th-century Jesuit institutions intended to train priests were hotbeds for the persecution of Catholics in Britain, where men suspected of being Catholic priests were routinely imprisoned, tortured, and executed. Jesuits were among those killed, including

1848-699: A result of the Albigensian Crusade . In northern Italy and southeastern France, Peter Waldo founded the Waldensians in the 12th century, which remains the largest non-Catholic church in Italy and is in full communion with the Italian Methodist Church. In Bohemia , a movement in the early 15th century by Jan Hus called the Hussites called for reform of Catholic teaching and still exists to this day, known as

1980-659: A revival within Anglicanism, especially in England and the American colonies , under the leadership of the brothers John Wesley and Charles Wesley , both priests in the Church of England. This movement also produced the Holiness movement churches. The Old Catholic Church split from the Catholic Church in the 1870s because of the promulgation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility as promoted by

2112-619: A sound footing, introducing the Tridentine Reforms and finding suitable men to fill vacant sees. He established a house of religious women in Limerick known as the Menabochta ("poor women" ) and in 1565 preparations began for establishing a school at Limerick. At his instigation, Richard Creagh , a priest of the Diocese of Limerick, was persuaded to accept the vacant Archdiocese of Armagh , and

2244-404: A special obedience to the sovereign pontiff in regard to the missions" to the effect that a Jesuit is expected to be directed by the pope " perinde ac cadaver " ("as if he was a lifeless body") and to accept orders to go anywhere in the world, even if required to live in extreme conditions. This was so because Ignatius, its leading founder, was a nobleman who had a military background. Accordingly,

2376-838: A thief or noted evildoer". After being court-martialled by the Lord President of Munster, Sir John Perrot , he was sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered for treason and refused pardon in return for swearing the Act of Supremacy . His execution was carried out on 25 October 1572 and a report of it was sent by Fitzmaurice to the Jesuit Superior General in 1576, where he said that Daniel was "cruelly killed because of me". Ecumenism Ecumenism ( / ɪ ˈ k juː m ə ˌ n ɪ z əm / ih- KYOO -mə-niz-əm ; alternatively spelled oecumenism ) – also called interdenominationalism , or ecumenicalism  – is

2508-559: A time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and Lithuania . Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in

2640-438: A unity of local congregations in a worldwide communion . The term ecumenism as it is now commonly used refers to interdenominational cooperation between different Christian churches . These initiatives can range from local churches of different denominations operating a soup kitchen for the poor, hosting an ecumenical Bible study with participants from different Christian traditions, inviting all baptized Christians to partake in

2772-646: Is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola and six companions, with the approval of Pope Paul III . The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations. Jesuits work in education, research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also conduct retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social and humanitarian ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue . The Society of Jesus

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2904-635: Is a central feature of contemporary ecumenism. The fact that all Christians belonging to mainstream Christian denominations profess faith in Jesus , believe that the Bible is inspired by God ( John 1:1 ), and receive baptism according to the Trinitarian formula is seen as being a basis for ecumenism and its goal of Christian unity. Ecumenists cite John 17:20–23 as the biblical grounds of striving for church unity, in which Jesus prays " may all be one " in order "that

3036-582: Is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ's faithful through hearing confessions and administering

3168-423: Is beginning to make considerable progress". Some elements of the Catholic perspective on ecumenism are illustrated in the following quotations from the council's decree on ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio of 21 November 1964, and Pope John Paul II 's encyclical, Ut Unum Sint of 25 May 1995. Every renewal of the Church is essentially grounded in an increase of fidelity to her own calling. Undoubtedly this

3300-462: Is broad agreement upon this goal, approaches to ecumenism vary. Generally, Protestants see fulfillment of the goal of ecumenism as consisting in general agreements on teachings about central issues of faith, with mutual pastoral accountability between the diverse churches regarding the teachings of salvation. For Catholics and Orthodox on the other hand, the true unity of Christendom is treated in accordance with their more sacramental understanding of

3432-418: Is classified among institutes as an order of clerks regular , that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, and following a religious rule. The term Jesuit (of 15th-century origin, meaning "one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus") was first applied to the society in reproach (1544–1552). The term was never used by Ignatius of Loyola, but over time, members and friends of

3564-712: Is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna della Strada , a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary , and it is led by a superior general . The headquarters of the society, its general curia , is in Rome. The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù , the Jesuit mother church . Members of the Society of Jesus make profession of "perpetual poverty, chastity, and obedience" and "promise

3696-862: Is known as the Great Schism . The canonical separation was sealed by the Latin sacking of Constantinople (1204) during the Fourth Crusade and through the poor reception of the Council of Florence (1449) among the Orthodox Eastern Churches. The political and theological reasons for the schism are complex. Aside from the natural rivalry between the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire and the Franco-Latin Holy Roman Empire , one major controversy

3828-452: Is responding to his admonition (John 17; Philippians 2) to be one in him and love one another as a witness to the world. The result of mutual recognition would be a discernible worldwide fellowship, organized in a historically new way. For a significant part of the Christian world, one of the highest goals to be sought is the reconciliation of the various denominations by overcoming the historical divisions within Christianity. Even where there

3960-452: Is rooted in the medieval Augustinian appropriation of Plotinian Neoplatonism . (See Augustine of Hippo, De Trinitate .) Both West and East agreed that the patriarch of Rome was owed a "primacy of honour" by the other patriarchs (those of Alexandria , Antioch , Constantinople and Jerusalem ), but the West also contended that this primacy extended to jurisdiction, a position rejected by

4092-477: Is seen as being the grounds for Christian ecumenism, the concept of unity amongst Christians. With respect to ecumenism, A. W. Tozer maintained that "Unity in Christ is not something to be achieved; it is something to be recognized." Ecumenists cite John 17:20–23 as the Biblical basis of striving for church unity, in which Jesus prays that Christians "may all be one" in order "that the world may know" and believe

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4224-472: Is that people focus primarily on Christ , not on separate church organizations. In Schlink's book Ökumenische Dogmatik (1983), he says Christians who see the risen Christ at work in the lives of various Christians or in diverse churches realize that the unity of Christ's church has never been lost, but has instead been distorted and obscured by different historical experiences and by spiritual myopia. Both are overcome in renewed faith in Christ. Included in that

4356-624: Is the basis of the movement toward unity … There can be no ecumenism worthy of the name without a change of heart. For it is from renewal of the inner life of our minds, from self-denial and an unstinted love that desires of unity take their rise and develop in a mature way. We should therefore pray to the Holy Spirit for the grace to be genuinely self-denying, humble. gentle in the service of others, and to have an attitude of brotherly generosity towards them. … The words of St. John hold good about sins against unity: "If we say we have not sinned, we make him

4488-575: Is the founding document of the Society of Jesus as an official Catholic religious order. Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General . Paul III's bull had limited the number of its members to sixty. This limitation was removed through the bull Exposcit debitum of Julius III in 1550. In 1543, Peter Canisius entered the Company. Ignatius sent him to Messina, where he founded the first Jesuit college in Sicily . Ignatius laid out his original vision for

4620-485: Is used in terms such as " ecumenical council " and " Ecumenical Patriarch ", in the meaning of pertaining to the totality of the larger Church (such as the Catholic Church or the Eastern Orthodox Church) rather than being restricted to one of its constituent local churches or dioceses . Used in this sense, the term carries no connotation of re-uniting the historically separated Christian denominations but presumes

4752-954: The Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ . On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard from the Basque city of Loyola , and six others mostly of Castilian origin, all students at the University of Paris , met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis , now Saint Pierre de Montmartre , to pronounce promises of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Ignatius' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre ( modern Spain ), Alfonso Salmeron , Diego Laínez , Nicolás Bobadilla from Castile ( modern Spain ), Peter Faber from Savoy , and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal . The meeting has been commemorated in

4884-698: The Azusa Street Revival in 1906 are held as the beginnings of the Pentecostal movement. These started just a few hours after Pope Leo XIII led a prayer Veni Spiritus Sanctus during an Urbi et Orbi message, consecrating the 20th century to the Holy Spirit and through this prayer to the reunion of Christianity. For some Protestants , spiritual unity, and often unity on the church's teachings on central issues, suffices. According to Lutheran theologian Edmund Schlink , most important in Christian ecumenism

5016-499: The Body of Christ ; this ecclesiastical matter for them is closely linked to key theological issues (e.g. regarding the Eucharist and the historical Episcopate ), and requires full dogmatic assent to the pastoral authority of the Church for full communion to be considered viable and valid. Thus, there are different answers even to the question of the church , which finally is the goal of

5148-605: The Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council . Jesuit missionaries established missions around the world from the 16th to the 18th century and had both successes and failures in Christianizing the native peoples. The Jesuits have always been controversial within the Catholic Church and have frequently clashed with secular governments and institutions. Beginning in 1759,

5280-564: The Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches before the Great Schism dividing the two churches; the first four ecumenical councils are recognized by the Lutheran Churches, Anglican Communion and Reformed churches though they are "considered subordinate to Scripture". The Assyrian Church of the East acknowledges the first two ecumenical councils, while Oriental Orthodox Churches accept

5412-700: The First Nations and Native American languages they had learned. For instance, before his death in 1708, Jacques Gravier , vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled a Miami–Illinois –French dictionary , considered the most extensive among works of the missionaries. Extensive documentation was left in the form of The Jesuit Relations , published annually from 1632 until 1673. Whereas Jesuits were active in Britain in

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5544-585: The First Vatican Council of 1869–1870. The term "Old Catholic" was first used in 1853 to describe the members of the See of Utrecht who were not under Papal authority. The Old Catholic movement grew in America but has not maintained ties with Utrecht, although talks are under way between some independent Old Catholic bishops and Utrecht. The Evangelical movement takes form as the result of spiritual renewal efforts in

5676-458: The Gospel message . As such, ecumenism has a strong implication for the Church's mission of evangelism , which is referenced in John 13:35 : "By this all men will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another". Additionally, Jesus emphasized that the ties of Christians to one another are much greater than those to blood relatives. Historically, the term "ecumenism" was originally used in

5808-512: The Greek οἰκουμένη ( oikoumene ), which means "the whole inhabited world", and was historically used with specific reference to the Roman Empire . The ecumenical vision comprises both the search for the visible unity of the Church (Ephesians 4:3) and the "whole inhabited earth" (Matthew 24:14) as the concern of all Christians. In Christianity, the qualification ecumenical was originally and still

5940-509: The Holiness movement ), Moravians, Pentecostals , Presbyterians , Reformed , and Waldensians. Many of these have, as a result of ecumenical dialogue, established full or partial communion agreements. The oldest lasting schism in Christianity resulted from fifth-century disagreements on Christology , heightened by philosophical , linguistic , cultural , and political differences. The first significant, lasting split in historic Christianity,

6072-512: The Kangxi Emperor and many Jesuit converts that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius was a nonreligious token of respect, Pope Clement XI 's papal decree Cum Deus Optimus ruled that such behavior constituted impermissible forms of idolatry and superstition in 1704; his legate Tournon and Bishop Charles Maigrot of Fujian, tasked with presenting this finding to the Kangxi Emperor , displayed such extreme ignorance that

6204-596: The Liturgy of Hours in common) allowed them to be flexible and meet diverse needs arising at the time. After much training and experience in theology, Jesuits went across the globe in search of converts to Christianity. Despite their dedication, they had little success in Asia, except in the Philippines . For instance, early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits

6336-672: The Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre . They called themselves the Compañía de Jesús , and also Amigos en El Señor or "Friends in the Lord", because they felt "they were placed together by Christ." The name "company" had echoes of the military (reflecting perhaps Ignatius' background as Captain in the Spanish army) as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The Spanish "company" would be translated into Latin as societas like in socius ,

6468-939: The Moravian Church , the Pentecostal churches and the World Communion of Reformed Churches , as well as almost all jurisdictions of the Eastern Orthodox Church ; the Roman Catholic Church participates as an observer, sending delegates to official gatherings. Many regional councils affiliated with the World Council of Churches, such as the Middle East Council of Churches , National Council of Churches in Australia and Christian Churches Together , work for

6600-410: The Petrine primacy and the priority of the Mass amongst the sacraments with his students and congregation, and that his sermons should emphasize obedience to secular princes if he wished to avoid arrest. The number of scholars in their care was very small. An early example of a school play in Ireland is sent in one of Good's reports, which was performed on the Feast of St. John in 1566. The school

6732-420: The Protestant Reformation throughout Catholic Europe. Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical church was in dire need of reform. Some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality , and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic Church. Ignatius insisted on a high level of academic preparation for the clergy in contrast to the relatively poor education of much of

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6864-423: The Scholastic structure of Catholic thought. This method of teaching was important in the context of the Scientific Revolution, as these universities were open to teaching new scientific and mathematical methodology. Further, many important thinkers of the Scientific Revolution were educated by Jesuit universities. In addition to the teachings of faith , the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum (1599) would standardize

6996-415: The Spiritual Exercises . During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. They meet regularly with a spiritual director who guides their choice of exercises and helps them to develop a more discerning love for Christ. The retreat follows a "Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive" pattern in the tradition of

7128-413: The World Council of Churches , to work for the cause of Christian unity; it today includes churches from most major traditions of Christianity as full members, including the Assyrian Church of the East , the Old Catholic Church , the Oriental Orthodox Churches , the Lutheran World Federation , the Anglican Communion , the Baptist World Alliance , the Mennonite churches , the World Methodist Council ,

7260-616: The bishop of Rome (the largest being the Latin Church , commonly called "Roman Catholic"). Further, the Catholic Church's presence in each country is counted as a different denomination—though this is in no way an ecclesiologically accurate definition. This can result in the one Catholic Church being counted as 242 distinct denominations, as in the World Christian Encyclopedia . Additionally, single nondenominational congregations or megachurches without denominational affiliation are effectively counted each as its own denomination, resulting in cases where entire "denominations" may account for only

7392-460: The "West" or "East", respectively. (There exist both Eastern Rite Roman Catholicism and Western Rite Orthodoxy, for example.) There is an ongoing and fruitful Catholic-Orthodox dialogue . In Western Christianity, there were a handful of geographically isolated movements that preceded in the spirit of the Protestant Reformation . The Cathars were a very strong movement in medieval southwestern France, but did not survive into modern times, largely as

7524-470: The 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution , to China. The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China: [The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out

7656-416: The 16th century, due to the persecution of Catholics in the Elizabethan times, an English province was only established in 1623. The first pressing issue for early Jesuits in what today is the United Kingdom was to establish places for training priests. After an English College was opened in Rome (1579), a Jesuit seminary was opened at Valladolid (1589), then one in Seville (1592), which culminated in

7788-402: The 1980s, resulting in agreement on the very issue that split them asunder, in the 1994 Common Christological Declaration , which identifies the origin of the schism as largely linguistic, due to problems of translating very delicate and precise terminology from Latin to Aramaic and vice versa. As part of the then-ongoing Christological controversy, following the Council of Chalcedon in 451,

7920-583: The Anabaptists, people such as Menno Simons and Jakob Ammann , whose movements resulted in today's communities of Mennonites , Amish , Hutterites , and Brethren churches, and to some extent, the Bruderhof Communities . Further reform movements within Anglicanism during the 16th through 18th centuries, with influence from the Radical Reformation, produced the Puritans and Separatists , creating today's Baptists, Congregationalists , Quakers , and eventually Unitarian Universalism . The Methodist churches, which uphold Wesleyan-Arminian theology , grew out of

8052-429: The Catholic Church expelled Jesuits from most countries in Europe and from European colonies. Pope Clement XIV officially suppressed the order in 1773. In 1814, the Church lifted the suppression. Ignatius of Loyola , a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona . He composed

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8184-447: The Eastern Orthodox Church. Although the Christian world as a whole did not experience any major church divisions for centuries afterward, the Eastern , predominantly Greek-speaking and Western , predominantly Latin-speaking, cultural divisions drifted toward isolation, culminating in the mutual excommunication of Patriarch of Constantinople Michael I Cerularius and the legate of then-deceased Pope of Rome Leo IX in 1054, in what

8316-519: The Eastern patriarchs. Various attempts at dialogue between the two groups would occur, but it was only in the 1960s, under Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras , that significant steps began to be made to mend the relationship between the two. In 1965, the excommunications were "committed to oblivion". The resulting division remains, however, providing the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, both of which are globally distributed bodies and no longer restricted geographically or culturally to

8448-402: The Filioque implies that the essential divinity of the Holy Spirit is derived not from the Father alone as arche (singular head and source), but from the perichoretic union between the Father and the Son. That the hypostasis or persona of the Spirit either is or is produced by the mutual, pre-eternal love between God and His Word is an explanation which Eastern Christian detractors have alleged

8580-400: The Indian Institute of Social Order was founded in Pune (India) by Jesuit Jerome D'Souza , a well-known educationist and member of the Indian Constituent Assembly . Started soon after the independence of India it was meant to help Indian Christians in general, and Jesuits in particular, to enter more actively into the issues of the common socio-economic national welfare. It was meant in

8712-532: The Japanese Language", a Japanese–Portuguese dictionary written 1603); Vietnamese (Portuguese missionaries created the Vietnamese alphabet , which was later formalized by Avignon missionary Alexandre de Rhodes with his 1651 trilingual dictionary ); Tupi (the main language of Brazil); and the pioneering study of Sanskrit in the West by Jean François Pons in the 1740s. Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peoples in New France in North America, many of them compiling dictionaries or glossaries of

8844-561: The Moravian Church. Though generally counted among Protestant churches, groups such as the Waldensians and Moravians pre-exist Protestantism proper. The Protestant Reformation began, symbolically, with the posting of Martin Luther 's " Ninety-Five Theses " in Saxony on October 31, 1517, written as a set of grievances to reform the Western Church. Luther's writings , combined with the work of Swiss theologian Huldrych Zwingli and French theologian and politician John Calvin , sought to reform existing problems in doctrine and practice. Due to

8976-412: The Pope, and the Ottoman Empire , had rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible. Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favourably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae ("To the Government of the Church Militant"), on 27 September 1540. This

9108-436: The Portuguese Province to agree a surety for the ransom of Wolfe, who was quickly banished on release. Daniel returned to Ireland the following year, but was immediately captured and incriminating documents were found on his person, which were taken as proof of his involvement with the rebellious cousin of the Earl of Desmond , James Fitzmaurice and a Spanish plot. He was removed from Limerick, taken to Cork "just as if he were

9240-460: The Puritans". Historian Mark Noll adds to this list High Church Anglicanism, which contributed to Evangelicalism a legacy of "rigorous spirituality and innovative organization". Pentecostalism is likewise born out of this context, and traditionally traces its origins to what it describes as an outpouring of the Holy Spirit on 1 January 1901 in Topeka, Kansas , at the Bethel Bible College . Subsequent charismatic revivals in Wales in 1904 and

9372-444: The anglophone world in the 18th century. According to religion scholar, social activist, and politician Randall Balmer , Evangelicalism resulted "from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain—warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from

9504-414: The beginning. We believe that this unity subsists in the Catholic Church as something she can never lose, and we hope that it will continue to increase until the end of time. While some Eastern Orthodox churches commonly rebaptize converts from the Catholic Church, thereby refusing to recognize the baptism that the converts have previously received, the Catholic Church has always accepted the validity of all

9636-449: The call for the society's suppression. Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro , and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion , and education of indigenous nations. They also built schools, organized people into villages, and created a writing system for

9768-602: The cause of Christian unity on the domestic level, with member denominations including churches from the Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Methodist, Anglican, and Reformed traditions, among others. Each year, many ecumenical Christians observe the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity for the goal of ecumenism, which is coordinated by the World Council of Churches and adopted by many of its member churches. The terms ecumenism and ecumenical come from

9900-631: The city for eight months, before moving to Kilmallock in December 1565 under the protection of the Earl of Desmond, where they lived in more comfort than the primitive conditions they experienced in the city. However they were unable to support themselves at Kilmallock and three months later they returned to the city in Easter 1566, and strangely set up their house in accommodation owned by the Lord Deputy of Ireland, which

10032-486: The city in very bad health, but had recovered due to the kindness of the people. They established contact with Wolfe, but were only able to meet with him at night, as the English authorities were attempting to arrest the legate. Wolfe charged them initially with teaching to the boys of Limerick, with an emphasis on religious instruction, and Good translated the catechism from Latin into English for this purpose. They remained in

10164-461: The clergy of his time. The Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the church had to begin with the conversion of an individual's heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called

10296-516: The commitment to ecumenism must be based upon the conversion of hearts and upon prayer, which will also lead to the necessary purification of past memories. With the grace of the Holy Spirit, the Lord's disciples, inspired by love, by the power of the truth and by a sincere desire for mutual forgiveness and reconciliation, are called to re-examine together their painful past and the hurt which that past regrettably continues to provoke even today. In ecumenical dialogue, Catholic theologians standing fast by

10428-419: The concept and principle that Christians who belong to different Christian denominations should work together to develop closer relationships among their churches and promote Christian unity. The adjective ecumenical is thus applied to any non-denominational or inter-denominational initiative which encourages greater cooperation and union among Christian denominations and churches . Ecumenical dialogue

10560-511: The context of the larger ecumenical councils organised with the support of the Roman Emperor . The aim of these councils was to clarify matters of Christian theology and doctrine, leading to the meaning of unity behind the term "ecumenical". The ecumenical councils brought together bishops from across the Roman Empire, with a total of seven ecumenical councils accepted to have been held by both

10692-456: The council's aim was to seek renewal of the church itself, which would serve, for those separated from the See of Rome , as a "gentle invitation to seek and find that unity for which Jesus Christ prayed so ardently to his heavenly Father". Pope Paul VI, in his 1964 encyclical letter Ecclesiam Suam observed that "ecumenical dialogue, as it is called, is already in being, and there are places where it

10824-416: The demands coming from the field. The Indian Institute of Social Order was transferred to New Delhi in 1963, under the leadership of Jean-Baptiste Moyersoen (1900–1969). In 1967 it was renamed Indian Social Institute. Notable sociological studies were published, such as the "Chotanagpur Survey", the first such study of the tribal groups of Central India, by Francisco Ivern. Under repeated demands coming from

10956-466: The denominations of today. However individual denominations are counted, it is generally acknowledged that they fall into the following major "families" of churches (though certain parts of some Christian denominations, such as Quakerism , may fall into the mainline category though the majority are evangelical Quakers): In the United States , the historic racial/ethnic churches are sometimes counted as

11088-444: The ecumenist movement itself. However, the desire of unity is expressed by many denominations, generally that all who profess faith in Christ in sincerity, would be more fully cooperative and supportive of one another. For the Catholic and Orthodox churches, the process of approaching one another can be described as formally split in two successive stages: the "dialogue of love" and the "dialogue of truth". Examples of acts belonging to

11220-537: The emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism. Tournon's summary and automatic excommunication for any violators of Clement's decree  – upheld by the 1715 bull Ex Illa Die  – led to the swift collapse of all the missions in China; the last Jesuits were finally expelled after 1721. The first Jesuit school in Ireland

11352-617: The end of 1568 the Anglican Bishop of Meath, Hugh Brady , was sent to Limerick charged with a Royal Commission to seek out and expel the Jesuits. Daniel was immediately ordered to quit the city and went to Lisbon, where he resumed his studies with the Portuguese Jesuits. Good moved on to Clonmel , before establishing himself at Youghal until 1577. In 1571, after Wolfe had been captured and imprisoned at Dublin Castle , Daniel persuaded

11484-453: The expense of the truth?...Even so, doctrine needs to be presented in a way that makes it understandable to those for whom God himself intends it. When the obstacles to perfect ecclesiastical communion have been gradually overcome, all Christians will at last, in a common celebration of the Eucharist, be gathered into the one and only Church in that unity which Christ bestowed on his Church from

11616-629: The feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. This was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence. Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America. Their ascendancy in societies in the Americas accelerated during the seventeenth century, wherein Jesuits created new missions in Peru , Colombia , and Bolivia ; as early as 1603, there were 345 Jesuit priests in Mexico alone. Francis Xavier , one of

11748-533: The first Roman-style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau , China. Founded by Alessandro Valignano , it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci . Jesuit efforts in Goa were interrupted by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Portuguese territories in 1759 by

11880-603: The first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence, European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. For over a century, Jesuits such as Michele Ruggieri , Matteo Ricci , Diego de Pantoja , Philippe Couplet , Michal Boym , and François Noël refined translations and disseminated Chinese knowledge , culture , history , and philosophy to Europe. Their Latin works popularized

12012-773: The first three ecumenical councils. Christianity has not been a monolithic faith since the first century , also known as the "Apostolic Age", and in the present day, a number of widely varied Christian groups exist, both within and without mainstream Christianity. Despite the division between these groups, a number of commonalities exist throughout their traditions, understanding of theology , governing church systems , doctrine and language. As such, many of these groups are visibly divided into different communions or denominations , groupings of Christians and their churches in full communion with one another, but to some degree set apart from other Christians. The World Council of Churches counts 348 member churches, representing more than half

12144-601: The former include the mutual revocation in 1965 of the anathemas of 1054, returning the relics of Sabbas the Sanctified (a common saint) to Mar Saba in the same year, and the first visit of a Pope to an Orthodox country in a millennium ( Pope John Paul II accepting the invitation of the Patriarch of the Romanian Orthodox Church , Teoctist , in 1999), among others. Christian ecumenism can be described in terms of

12276-494: The late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education , the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into

12408-415: The local languages of Brazil. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega were the first Jesuits that Ignacio de Loyola sent to the Americas. Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very dedicated in studying the local languages and strove to produce Latinized grammars and dictionaries . This included: Japanese (see Nippo jisho , also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam , "Vocabulary of

12540-520: The name " Confucius " and had considerable influence on the Deists and other Enlightenment thinkers, some of whom were intrigued by the Jesuits' attempts to reconcile Confucian morality with Catholicism . Upon the arrival of the Franciscans and other monastic orders, Jesuit accommodation of Chinese culture and rituals led to the long-running Chinese Rites controversy . Despite the personal testimony of

12672-759: The namesake of Campion Hall, as well as Brian Cansfield, Ralph Corbington , and many others. A number of them were canonized among the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales . Four Jesuit churches remain today in London alone, with three other places of worship remaining extant in England and two in Scotland . The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguese settlement on Macau , where they settled on Green Island and founded St. Paul's College . The Jesuit China missions of

12804-480: The new order in the "Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus", which is "the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform". He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life, and apostolate of

12936-606: The new religious order. Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius' military background: Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the Cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the Name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church, his spouse, under the Roman Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth, should, after a solemn vow of perpetual chastity, poverty and obedience, keep what follows in mind. He

13068-894: The next large split came with the Syriac and Coptic churches dividing themselves. The churches dissented from Chalcedon, becoming today's Oriental Orthodox Churches. These also include the Armenian Apostolic Church , the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , and the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church in India. In modern times, there have also been moves towards healing this division, with common Christological statements being made between Pope John Paul II and Syriac patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas , as well as between representatives of both Oriental Orthodoxy and

13200-498: The only force standing between the Indigenous and slavery . Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay , they formed Indigenous Christian city-states, called " reductions ". These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. The efforts of Jesuits like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya to protect the natives from enslavement by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers would contribute to

13332-402: The opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God, to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith, and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine". Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers", "God's marines", or "the Company". The society participated in

13464-692: The opposition; there were already congregations named after the Trinity and as "God's daughters". In 1537, the seven travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order . Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. These initial steps led to the official founding in 1540. They were ordained in Venice by the bishop of Arbe (24 June). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy . The Italian War of 1536–1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , Venice,

13596-539: The original companions of Loyola , arrived in Goa ( Portuguese India ) in 1541 to carry out evangelical service in the Indies. In a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed in Goa to combat heresies like crypto-Judaism and crypto-Islam. Under Portuguese royal patronage , Jesuits thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded their activities to education and healthcare. In 1594 they founded

13728-553: The original seven arrived in India already in 1541. Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the pope . The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the movement toward Protestantism in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and southern Germany . Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions , adopted in 1553, which created

13860-403: The other sacraments. Moreover, he should show himself ready to reconcile the estranged, compassionately assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and indeed, to perform any other works of charity, according to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good. In fulfilling the mission of the "Formula of the Institute of the Society", the first Jesuits concentrated on

13992-639: The pope. Thomas Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury introduced the English Reformation in a form compromising between the Calvinists and Lutherans. This schism created today's Anglican Communion. The Radical Reformation , also mid-sixteenth century, moved beyond the Magisterial Reformation , emphasizing the invisible, spiritual reality of the Church , apart from any visible ecclesial manifestation. A significant group of Radical reformers were

14124-689: The powerful Marquis of Pombal , Secretary of State in Portugal. The Portuguese Jesuit António de Andrade founded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624 (see also " Catholic Church in Tibet "). Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville , reached Lhasa , in Tibet, in 1661. The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideri established a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (1716–21) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing

14256-429: The reaching of full communion between different Christian denominations. There are a variety of different expectations of what that Christian unity looks like, how it is brought about, what ecumenical methods ought to be engaged, and what both short- and long-term objectives of the ecumenical movement should be. Baptism according to the Trinitarian formula , which is done in most mainstream Christian denominations,

14388-653: The reactions of ecclesiastical office holders at the time of the reformers, the Catholic Church separated from them, instigating a rift in Western Christianity. This schism created the Mainline Protestant Churches, including especially the Lutheran and Reformed traditions. In England , Henry VIII of England declared himself to be supreme head of the Church of England with the Act of Supremacy in 1531, repressing both Lutheran reformers and those loyal to

14520-533: The sacraments administered by the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches. The Catholic Church likewise has very seldom applied the terms " heterodox " or " heretic " to the Eastern Orthodox churches or its members, although there are clear differences in doctrine, notably about the authority of the Pope, Purgatory, and the filioque clause. More often, the term "separated" or " schismatic " has been applied to

14652-501: The sacraments to the public. In late 1568 the Castle Lane School, in the presence of Daniel and Good, was attacked and looted by government agents sent by Sir Thomas Cusack during the pacification of Munster. The political and religious climate had become more uncertain in the lead up to Pope Pius V 's formal excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I , which resulted in a new wave of repression of Catholicism in England and Ireland. At

14784-466: The sacraments. The Directory for the Application of Principles and Norms on Ecumenism , 102 states: "Christians may be encouraged to share in spiritual activities and resources, i.e., to share that spiritual heritage they have in common in a manner and to a degree appropriate to their present divided state." Pope John XXIII , who convoked the council that brought this change of emphasis about, said that

14916-459: The so-called Nestorian Schism , came from the Church of the East , consisting largely of Eastern Syriac churches outside the Roman Empire , who left full communion after 431 in response to misunderstandings and personality conflicts at the Council of Ephesus . After fifteen centuries of estrangement, the Assyrian Church of the East and the Catholic Church entered into an ecumenical dialogue in

15048-540: The social fields an extension service was started. One of its first ventures was to organize a cooperative movement among fishermen, most of them being bonded labourers . Setting up cooperatives became the main thrust of the extension service. A tribal -orientated development group was started in the late 1960s, the Vikas Maitri, and a programme for women’s development in the 1970s, both fostering self dignity and awareness in marginalized groups. A Mobile Orientation Team

15180-414: The society adopted the name with a positive meaning. While the order is limited to men, Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal , favored the order and she is reputed to have been admitted surreptitiously under a male pseudonym. The Jesuits were founded just before the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ensuing Counter-Reformation that would introduce reforms within the Catholic Church, and so counter

15312-521: The spirituality of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers . Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life. Further, he used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as "retreats". The Jesuits' contributions to

15444-447: The state of the Eastern Orthodox churches. The Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox churches are two distinct bodies of local churches. The churches within each body share full communion , although there is not official communion between the two bodies. Both consider themselves to be the original church, from which the West was divided in the 5th and 11th centuries, respectively (after

15576-435: The study of Latin , Greek , classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric , and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials. The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for

15708-572: The teaching of sacred scripture and tradition. Before the Aggiornamento or "updating" of the Second Vatican Council , the main stress was laid on this second aspect, as exemplified in canon 1258 of the 1917 Code of Canon Law: The 1983 Code of Canon Law has no corresponding canon. It absolutely forbids Catholic priests to concelebrate the Eucharist with members of communities which are not in full communion (canon 908), but allows, in certain circumstances and under certain conditions, other sharing in

15840-448: The teaching of the Church and investigating the divine mysteries with the separated brethren must proceed with love for the truth, with charity, and with humility. When comparing doctrines with one another, they should remember that in Catholic doctrine there exists a "hierarchy" of truths, since they vary in their relation to the fundamental Christian faith. Thus the way will be opened by which through fraternal rivalry all will be stirred to

15972-467: The third class learned Donatus by heart, though translated into English rather than through Latin. Young boys in the fourth class were taught to read. Progress was slow because there were too few teachers to conduct classes simultaneously. In the spirit of Ignatius' Roman College founded 14 years before, no fee was requested from pupils, though as a result the two Jesuits lived in very poor conditions and were very overworked with teaching and administering

16104-435: The three largest divisions of Christianity: Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant. While this underemphasizes the complexity of these divisions, it is a useful model. The Catholic Church has always considered it a duty of the highest rank to seek full unity with estranged communions of fellow Christians and, at the same time, to reject what it sees as a false union which would mean being unfaithful to or glossing over

16236-471: The visual and performing arts as well as in music. The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools. Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the early modern period . They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living and celebration of

16368-660: The words of its founder to "contribute to the emergence of a new social order in post-independence India." The quarterly journal Social Action was launched in 1951. Concurrently several regional training centres were established in various parts of the country, the Xavier Institute in Ranchi , Loyola School of Social Work in Madras (now Chennai ), and another one in Trivandrum , ( Kerala ). The regional centres responded more directly to

16500-648: The world may know" and believe the Gospel message . In 1920, the Ecumenical Patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church , Germanus V of Constantinople , wrote a letter "addressed 'To all the Churches of Christ, wherever they may be', urging closer co-operation among separated Christians, and suggesting a 'League of Churches', parallel to the newly founded League of Nations ". In 1937, Christian leaders from mainstream Christian churches resolved to establish

16632-574: Was also started to reach out to peoples’ organizations at the grassroots level. 28°35′21.55″N 77°13′40.64″E  /  28.5893194°N 77.2279556°E  / 28.5893194; 77.2279556 Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus ( Latin : Societas Iesu ; abbreviation: SJ ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( / ˈ dʒ ɛ ʒ u ɪ t s , ˈ dʒ ɛ zj u -/ JEZH -oo-its, JEZ -ew- ; Latin: Iesuitae ),

16764-464: Was conducted in one large aula, but the students were divided into distinct classes. Good gives a highly detailed report of the curriculum taught and the top class studied the first and second parts of Johannes Despauterius 's Commentarli grammatici, and read a few letters of Cicero or the dialogues of Frusius (André des Freux, SJ). The second class committed Donatus' texts in Latin to memory and read dialogues as well as works by Ēvaldus Gallus. Students in

16896-407: Was consecrated at Rome in 1564. This early Limerick school, Crescent College , operated in difficult circumstances. In April 1566, William Good sent a detailed report to Rome of his activities via the Portuguese Jesuits. He informed the Jesuit superior general that he and Edmund Daniel had arrived at Limerick city two years beforehand and their situation there had been perilous. Both had arrived in

17028-420: Was conveyed to them by certain influential friends. They recommenced teaching at Castle Lane, and imparting the sacraments, though their activities were restricted by the arrival of Royal Commissioners. Good reported that as he was an Englishman, English officials in the city cultivated him and he was invited to dine with them on a number of occasions, though he was warned to exercise prudence and avoid promoting

17160-516: Was established at Limerick by the apostolic visitor of the Holy See , David Wolfe . Wolfe had been sent to Ireland by Pope Pius IV with the concurrence of the third Jesuit superior general, Diego Laynez . He was charged with setting up grammar schools "as a remedy against the profound ignorance of the people". Wolfe's mission in Ireland initially concentrated on setting the sclerotic Irish Church on

17292-530: Was recorded by Jesuit José de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. In the words of one historian: "The use of the name Jesus gave great offense. Both on the Continent and in England, it was denounced as blasphemous; petitions were sent to kings and to civil and ecclesiastical tribunals to have it changed; and even Pope Sixtus V had signed a Brief to do away with it." But nothing came of all

17424-577: Was the inclusion and acceptance in the West in general—and in the diocese of Rome in particular—of the Filioque clause ("and the Son") into the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed , which the East viewed as a violation of ecclesiastical procedure at best, an abuse of papal authority as only an Ecumenical Council could amend what had been defined by a previous council, and a heresy at worst, inasfar as

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