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117-523: Brazil's Indian Protection Service ( Serviço de Proteção ao Índio , abbreviated as SPI) was a government agency created to administer indigenous affairs. It was created by President Nilo Peçanha in 1910 in response to pressure from Marshal Cândido Mariano da Silva Rondon and international accusations of indigenous genocide. It was the first federal agency in Brazil to focus on the protection of indigenous peoples from violence and persecution. Cândido Rondon

234-597: A Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro . In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves . Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil , a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system . The ratification of

351-555: A colony . In 1815, to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for six years, the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves , thus creating a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state. However, the leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger colony, continued to demand the return of the court to Lisbon (see Liberal Revolution of 1820 ). In 1821, acceding to

468-482: A democratic federal republic . Due to its rich culture and history, the country ranks thirteenth in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Brazil is a regional and middle power that is an emerging power and a major non-NATO ally of the United States . Categorized as a developing country , Brazil is considered an advanced emerging economy , having the one of the-largest GDP in

585-690: A century of mass immigration from around the world . Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). Covering roughly half of South America's land area, it borders all other countries and territories on the continent except Ecuador and Chile . Brazil's Amazon basin includes a vast tropical forest home to diverse wildlife , a variety of ecological systems , and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats . This unique environmental heritage positions Brazil at number one of 17 megadiverse countries . The country's natural richness

702-828: A charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, such as the Cabanagem in Grão-Pará , the Malê Revolt in Salvador, the Balaiada ( Maranhão ), the Sabinada ( Bahia ), and the Ragamuffin War , which began in Rio Grande do Sul and was supported by Giuseppe Garibaldi . These emerged from the provinces' dissatisfaction with

819-431: A colony. The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them, declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822. A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil , with the royal title of Dom Pedro I , resulting in the founding of the Empire of Brazil . The Brazilian War of Independence , which had already begun along this process, spread through

936-810: A dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic. Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls ), the Negro , São Francisco , Xingu , Madeira and Tapajós rivers. The wildlife of Brazil comprises all naturally occurring animals , plants , and fungi in

1053-494: A full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968. Oppression was not limited to those who resorted to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society, inside and outside the country through the infamous " Operation Condor ". Like other brutal authoritarian regimes , due to an economic boom, known as

1170-513: A generalized reduction in the availability of water and drier environments in most of the nation. In some regions, however, due to different mechanisms, rainfall is expected to increase, also bringing adverse effects. According to the PBMC, "the change with the greatest impact will be a change in rainfall patterns. Research shows that in the south and southeast, regions that suffer from floods and landslides, rains will become stronger and more frequent. In

1287-475: A high demographic density, since most cities are in low coastal regions or next to rivers, lakes and fragile hillsides. Port areas also present increased risks of deterioration or destruction of structures, flooding, silting of channels and estuarine bars and others, and a large part of Brazil's national and international trade depends on them. Suzana Kahn Ribeiro, president of the Scientific Committee of

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1404-427: A higher altitude. In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year. The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C (64.4 °F); winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in

1521-947: A large amount of greenhouse gases . Greenhouse gas emissions by Brazil are almost 3% of the annual world total, firstly due to cutting down trees in the Amazon rainforest , which emitted more carbon dioxide in the 2010s than it absorbed, and secondly from large cattle farms, where cows belch methane . In the Paris Agreement , Brazil promised to reduce its emissions, but the Bolsonaro government between 2019 and 2022 has been criticized for doing too little to limit climate change or adapt to climate change . In 2020, official figures were reported for 2016: agriculture 33.2%, energy sector 28.9%, land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) 27.1%. Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU) and waste contributed 6.4% and 4.5%, respectively. According to

1638-513: A military one , did civilians take power, remaining there until October 1930. In relation to its foreign policy, the country in this first republican period maintained a relative balance characterized by a success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries, only broken by the Acre War (1899–1902) and its involvement in World War I (1914–1918), followed by a failed attempt to exert

1755-420: A number of oceanic archipelagos , such as Fernando de Noronha , Rocas Atoll , Saint Peter and Paul Rocks , and Trindade and Martim Vaz . Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse. Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes 6°N and 34°S , and longitudes 28° and 74°W . Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, and third largest in

1872-410: A political crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950. Several brief interim governments followed Vargas's suicide. Juscelino Kubitschek became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises. The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably, but his greatest achievement was the construction of

1989-520: A prominent role in the League of Nations ; Internally, from the crisis of Encilhamento and the Navy Revolts , a prolonged cycle of financial, political and social instability began until the 1920s, keeping the country besieged by various rebellions, both civilian and military. Little by little, a cycle of general instability sparked by these crises undermined the regime to such an extent that in

2106-461: A rapid increase in destruction of trees. A report estimated that if 40% of the forest disappears, droughts will increase and turn much of the forest into savanna . This will result in a drastic reduction in biodiversity and will also have a negative effect on the amount of rain Brazil can expect. There are multiple impacts of climate change on basic Brazilian production systems, such as increasing existing shortages and increasing production costs. It

2223-553: A report from 2013, said: "if nothing is done to restrict post-2020 emissions, Brazil may emit 2.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide as early as 2030. To give you an idea, the number exceeds the total for 2005, when emissions totaled around 2 billion tons." In 2012, Brazil had the second largest number of cattle in the world, with 205 million head . Cows are ruminants that emit greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide . Trees are cut down to create fields for cattle and soya . Deforestation peaked in 2004, then decreased until

2340-469: A temperature rise of 2 degrees or more, Brazil should increase its climate commitments by 90%. For a 95% chance, it should increase the commitments by 165%. For giving a 50% chance of staying below 1.5 degrees Brazil, should increase its commitments by 170%. A report from 2013 aimed to dispel some ingrained myths that represent major obstacles to the general acceptance of mitigation projects, such as that progress and nature conservation are opposed, or that

2457-435: A thousand lives, in addition to leaving homeless crowds and producing disorders of various orders that will take years to be balanced. A report from 2013 found that the coastal region, where the vast majority of the country's population lives, should receive special attention, in view of a likely increase in floods, landslides, severe weather, coastal erosion, rising sea levels and other natural disasters caused by warming: "It

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2574-511: Is a folk etymology for a word for the plant related to an Arabic or Asian word for a red plant. As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European textile industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. Throughout the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi ) along the Brazilian coast, who sold

2691-498: Is also expected that more and more serious natural disasters will occur. This will likely result in major problems for food supply, public health, industrial production, trade, installed infrastructure, the general quality of life of the population and national security as a whole, with the poor suffering the most serious consequences. The areas most vulnerable to major impacts are the Northeast and Southeast regions, exactly where most of

2808-482: Is also the subject of significant global interest, as environmental degradation (through processes such as deforestation ) has direct impacts on global issues such as climate change and biodiversity loss . The territory of present-day Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500. Subsequently claimed by the Portuguese Empire , Brazil remained

2925-429: Is no longer possible, as a Brazilian, to accept more disasters that kill more than a thousand Brazilians at once. Protective and preventive measures have to be taken urgently. Extreme events are happening more often. The population that is not prepared, will suffer from it." Researcher Andrea Santos, executive secretary of PBMC, warned in 2013 about the likely impact on megacities such as Rio and São Paulo, stating that

3042-434: Is no real dry season , but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls. Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F), with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons. Over central Brazil, rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate. This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at

3159-512: Is real estate value in the order of 124 billion reals located in areas of high vulnerability, and 2.7 trillion reals in areas of medium vulnerability. In the case of the city of Santos, most of the urban area is in an area of high vulnerability and many in areas of very high vulnerability, which puts the entire city at high risk, with more than R$ 100 billion in real estate values in regions of high vulnerability. The report stated that these examples can be extrapolated to many other regions of Brazil with

3276-469: Is the world's fifth-largest country by area and one of the most populated countries . Its capital is Brasília , and its most populous city is São Paulo . Brazil is a federation composed of 26 states and a Federal District . It is the only country in the Americas where Portuguese is an official language . Brazil is among the world's most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations, due to over

3393-518: The Arab League . The word Brazil probably comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood , a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil , with the word brasil commonly given the etymology "red like an ember ", formed from brasa ('ember') and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium ). It has alternatively been suggested that this

3510-465: The Brazilian Atlas of Natural Disasters . Recent tragedies include that of Santa Catarina, in 2008, and that of serra fluminense, in 2011. This year, a fifth of the country's municipalities entered an emergency or public calamity situation. Global warming, combined with urban expansion and the development problems that Brazil already has, allows us to project a gloomy scenario for this century, in which

3627-652: The Governorate General of Brazil in the city of Salvador , which became the capital of a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America. In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war, establishing opportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages against each other. By the mid-16th century, cane sugar had become Brazil's most important export, while slaves purchased in Sub-Saharan Africa in

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3744-530: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which predicted important changes in most of the biome . However, the impact of deforestation was not considered in the assessment, which will certainly increase the levels of variation to some extent. The evolution of the future scenario will depend on the country's success in managing the serious threats to the biome. After a decade-long trend of reduced deforestation rates, recent years have documented

3861-837: The Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar . In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2,994 meters (9,823 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean. Brazil has

3978-670: The Paris Agreement aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 48 percent by 2025 and 53 percent by 2030. President Luiz Inácio “Lula” da Silva has prioritized combating climate change, reestablishing the Amazon Fund to prevent deforestation and promote sustainable use of the Amazon. The United States Agency for International Development supports these efforts through initiatives focusing on biodiversity conservation, sustainable management of protected areas, and innovative financial instruments for nature-based solutions. USAID's climate change program in Brazil focuses on leveraging resources from

4095-528: The Petrobras corruption scandal . President Temer himself was also accused of corruption . According to a 2018 poll, 62% of the population said that corruption was Brazil's biggest problem. In the fiercely disputed 2018 elections , the controversial conservative candidate Jair Bolsonaro of the Social Liberal Party (PSL) was elected president, winning in the second round against Fernando Haddad , of

4212-617: The Quilombo of Palmares , and to repress all movements for autonomy or independence , such as the Minas Gerais Conspiracy . In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of continental Portugal , causing Prince Regent John , in the name of Queen Maria I , to move the royal court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro . There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local stock exchanges and its National Bank , additionally ending

4329-484: The South American country. Home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest , which accounts for approximately one-tenth of all species in the world, Brazil is considered to have the greatest biodiversity of any country on the planet, containing over 70% of all animal and plant species catalogued. Brazil has the most known species of plants (55,000), freshwater fish (3,000) and mammals (over 689). It also ranks third on

4446-467: The Tupi–Guarani family and fought among themselves. Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization effectively began in 1534, when King John III of Portugal divided the territory into the fifteen private and autonomous captaincies . However, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into

4563-577: The Workers Party (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes. In the early 2020s, Brazil became one of the hardest hit countries during the COVID-19 pandemic , receiving the second-highest death toll worldwide after the United States. In May 2021, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva stated that he would run for a third term in the 2022 Brazilian general election against Bolsonaro. In October 2022, Lula

4680-489: The first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress . Slavery was abolished in 1888. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup d'état . An authoritarian military dictatorship emerged in 1964 and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current constitution , formulated in 1988, defines it as

4797-471: The slave market of Western Africa (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies in Angola and Mozambique ), had become its largest import, to cope with sugarcane plantations , due to increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar. Brazil received more than 2.8 million slaves from Africa between the years 1500 and 1800. By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline and

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4914-453: The " economic miracle ", the regime reached a peak in popularity in the early 1970s. Slowly, however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power had not slowed the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas. The inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by Generals Ernesto Geisel and Golbery do Couto e Silva . With

5031-614: The 1930s, three attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power failed. The first was the Constitutionalist Revolution in 1932, led by São Paulo's oligarchy . The second was a Communist uprising in November 1935, and the last one a putsch attempt by local fascists in May 1938. The 1935 uprising created a security crisis in which Congress transferred more power to the executive branch. The 1937 coup d'état resulted in

5148-533: The Americas, with a total area of 8,515,767.049 km (3,287,956 sq mi), including 55,455 km (21,411 sq mi) of water. North to South, Brazil is also the longest country in the world, spanning 4,395 km (2,731 mi) from north to south, and the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn running through it. It spans four time zones ; from UTC−5 comprising

5265-573: The Brazilian nation-state . In a letter accepting the invitation to become the first director of the SPI, he said "As a Positivist and member of the Positivist Church of Brazil, I am convinced that our indigenes should incorporate themselves into the West..." These ideas and policies shaped government relations with indigenous peoples for the next four decades. Under Rondon and Peçanha’s leadership, legislation

5382-503: The Brazilian Climate Observatory, the country emitted 2.17 billion gross tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO 2 e) in 2019. Deforestation accounted for 968 million tCO 2 e, which was 44% of the total, agriculture emitted 598.7 million tCO 2 e (28%) and the energy sector 413.6 million tCO 2 e (19%), industry 99 million tCO 2 e (5%) and waste 96 million tCO 2 e (4%). Emissions for 2019 are estimated at 2.8% of

5499-547: The Brazilian Panel on Climate Change, has a very similar opinion: "Brazil needs to find a direction, define what it wants to be when it grows up. ... Brazil is showing mixed signals all the time. We reduce IPI tax on car so that everyone gets bottled up in traffic. We are experiencing a blackout of climate coordination ". André Ferretti, general coordinator of the Climate Observatory, says the same: Even some sectors of

5616-443: The Brazilian economy. Cardoso won the 1994 election , and again in 1998 . The peaceful transition of power from Cardoso to his main opposition leader, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva ( elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006 ), was seen as proof that Brazil had achieved a long-sought political stability. However, sparked by indignation and frustrations accumulated over decades from corruption, police brutality , inefficiencies of

5733-591: The Brazilian people are concentrated, and large cities, which in general are poorly prepared to face the challenge. In the agricultural sector, the impacts of climate change in Brazil would be multiple and significant. About 11 million hectares of arable land could be lost by 2030 due to warming. As global warming also produces several chemical and physical changes in the ocean, interfering with aquatic life, problems are foreseen for national fishing, both by reducing stocks and by geographic redistribution of economically valuable species. A 2008 study, directly inspired by

5850-848: The Cerrado the disturbances would be similar, with an increase in temperature of up to 5.5 °C and a decrease of up to 45% in rainfall. The Cerrado today concentrates most of the agricultural activities in Brazil. The Pantanal would also be very affected, with up to a 4.5 °C increase and up to 45% less rain. In the Atlantic Forest, the climate would stay up to 3 °C warmer and up to 30% rainier. For Pampa, there would be up to 3 °C increase in temperature averages, and rains up to 40% above normal. Not only will precipitation totals change, it may start to occur in more erratic and violent patterns, with more intense and prolonged droughts and more severe and frequent flooding episodes, varying in different regions. According to

5967-778: The Portuguese had to fight, notably the French in Rio during the 1560s , in Maranhão during the 1610s , and the Dutch in Bahia and Pernambuco , during the Dutch–Portuguese War , after the end of Iberian Union . The Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would ensure colonial order and the monopoly of Portugal's wealthiest and largest colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of slave rebellion and resistance, such as

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6084-527: The Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil's ports to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the conquest of French Guiana . With the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent John return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in

6201-608: The Secretariat for Sustainable Development of the Secretariat for Strategic Affairs of the Presidency of the Republic, the Brazil 2040 report was considered by the Climate Observatory to be the largest study carried out to date on climate change in Brazil. It had the main objective of giving guidance to the government for the establishment of a more coherent and solid climate policy, focusing on

6318-546: The Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and radiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near Santarém and provides evidence that the region supported a complex prehistoric culture. The Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó in the Amazon delta from AD 400 to 1400, developing sophisticated pottery, social stratification , large populations, mound building , and complex social formations such as chiefdoms . Around

6435-476: The almost-unknown Fernando Collor , who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992. Collor was succeeded by his vice-president, Itamar Franco , who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real , that, after decades of failed economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation, finally stabilized

6552-679: The approval of the Golden Law . The foreign-affairs policies of the monarchy dealt with issues with the countries of the Southern Cone with whom Brazil had borders. Long after the Cisplatine War that resulted in the independence of Uruguay , Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II: the Platine War , the Uruguayan War and the devastating Paraguayan War ,

6669-489: The areas of health, water resources, energy, agriculture and infrastructure (coastal and transport), and using two theoretical models that were used by the IPCC. The report obtained results that are broadly consistent with other studies, pointing to a country that is mostly drier and warmer in the future. Brazil 2040 emphasized the country's lack of preparedness to face the expected climatic disasters that are expected to worsen with

6786-501: The arrival of the Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture, language and moral beliefs. These wars also involved large-scale military actions on land and water, with cannibalistic rituals on prisoners of war . While heredity had some weight, leadership was a status more won over time than assigned in succession ceremonies and conventions. Slavery among

6903-515: The cancellation of the 1938 election and formalized Vargas as dictator, beginning the Estado Novo era. During this period, government brutality and censorship of the press increased. During World War II , Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when the country suffered retaliation by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in a strategic dispute over the South Atlantic, and, therefore, entered

7020-535: The cascading effects. Another important part of the Brazilian rains comes from the circulation of ocean moisture. Global warming also has an impact on ocean currents that influence the Brazilian climate, and the winds that carry the humidity that reaches Brazil are having their patterns modified, with the effect of reducing the level of atmospheric humidity and disturbing the formation of clouds, reducing precipitation. Reducing rainfall, in turn, can dry underground aquifers . These combined factors mean, in total,

7137-400: The central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nation state . This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt in Pernambuco , was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841. During

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7254-479: The change in climate will continue in the same way. The 2012 drought in the Northeast affected more than ten million people and generated a loss of more than R$ 16 billion. In 2013, the phenomenon was repeated with even greater intensity, being considered by the UN the worst of the last 50 years, leaving 1,200 municipalities in a state of emergency. In Paraíba alone , 360,000 heads of cattle died. Climate change in Brazil may also result in an energy crisis, since

7371-570: The city of Rio de Janeiro, it was pointed out that the majority of the resources for assisting the population (hospitals, military and police facilities, fire departments, etc.) are located in medium or high areas. Vulnerability to natural disasters, along rivers and canals or in low-lying regions, which can easily flood, or at the seaside, subject to rising levels and coastal storms, and can be compromised even in small climatic events, harming their functionality and increasing impacts on society. The majority of water and sewage treatment plants are located in

7488-423: The climate throughout Brazil and other regions in South America . Its forest is a major carbon sink and is essential for the formation of the rains that irrigate much of the country. According to Marengo et al., 30% to 50% of the rainfall in the Amazon Basin originates in the forest itself through evaporation . "In addition, the humidity originated in the Amazon Basin is carried by the winds to other parts of

7605-416: The coast of São Paulo indicate that sea level has risen 30 cm in the last century, surpassing the world average, and there are already many signs of coastal erosion, groundwater is gradually salted, the hangovers become higher, causing damage to the infrastructure of coastal cities. Twenty beaches are in danger of disappearing. In Recife , the famous Boa Viagem beach lost some sections swallowed by

7722-414: The continent and is considered important in the formation of precipitation in regions distant from the Amazon itself." Naturally, if the forest disappears, the rains will disappear. A vicious circle is created in which if deforestation exceeds a certain critical level, estimated at losses of 40%, the forest will be unable to generate enough rain to maintain itself: the less forest, the less precipitation, and

7839-418: The continent's interior, sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela , Guyana , Suriname and France (French overseas region of French Guiana ) to the north. It shares a border with every South American country except Ecuador and Chile . The brazilian territory also encompasses

7956-464: The coordinators of Working Group 3 of the 5th IPCC Report , considers that the greatest threats hanging over Brazil stem from the expected reduction in rainfall in most of the area of food production and capture for hydroelectric and consumption, the country's strategy, both adaptive and mitigating, of investing in reducing deforestation must be a priority for the country, as forests are major producers and conservators of water resources, in addition to all

8073-424: The current infrastructure, especially in transport and urban mobility, was not designed to face rising temperatures and more intense rainfall. "Between 1991 and 2012, more than half of the Brazilian population had their lives affected by extreme weather events. Droughts, floods and landslides affected 127 million people. The number of records has grown 40% in the past decade compared to the previous one, according to

8190-416: The demands of revolutionaries who had taken the city of Porto , John VI departed for Lisbon. There he swore an oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara , as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil . Tensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased and the Portuguese Cortes , guided by the new political regime imposed by the Liberal Revolution , tried to re-establish Brazil as

8307-601: The discovery of gold by bandeirantes in the 1690s would become the new backbone of the colony's economy, fostering a gold rush which attracted thousands of new settlers to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the world. This increased level of immigration in turn caused some conflicts between newcomers and old settlers. Portuguese expeditions known as bandeiras gradually expanded Brazil's original colonial frontiers in South America to its approximately current borders. In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that

8424-740: The early 1960s it was an international scandal, and it was disbanded in 1967, after allegations of atrocities surfaced in the Figueiredo Report . That same year, It was replaced by the National Indian Foundation ( Fundação Nacional do Índio ) or FUNAI, which is still active today. Brazil Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest and easternmost country in South America and Latin America . It

8541-540: The early 2010s. Since then, deforestation has tended to increase through 2020. The largest single emitter in the energy sector is oil products used as fuel for transport in Brazil , but some natural gas and coal is burnt by the electricity sector in Brazil . In 2016/17, coal-fired power stations in Brazil received over 1 billion reals in subsidies. In the Convention on Biological Diversity , Brazil committed to phasing out environmentally harmful subsidies by 2020, but

8658-471: The enactment of the Amnesty Law in 1979, Brazil began a slow return to democracy , which was completed during the 1980s. Civilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency. He became unpopular during his tenure through failure to control the economic crisis and hyperinflation he inherited from the military regime. Sarney's unsuccessful government led to the election in 1989 of

8775-452: The first time, "a drought has covered all the way from the North to the country’s Southeast". It is the strongest drought in Brazil since the beginning of measurement in the 1950s, covering almost 60% of the country's territory. The drought is linked to deforestation and climate change. Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of

8892-517: The government agree that there are problems in this area: Carlos Nobre, secretary of Research and Development Policies and Programs at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, said that "the Ministry of Science and Technology is playing its part, investing in research development and knowledge generation, but there is still a lack of integration between research and policy making." Another of Brazil's latest Nationally Determined Contribution to

9009-488: The government said in 2022 that coal power would be subsidized until 2040. According to José Marengo, of the National Institute for Space Research , recent studies show that, with the exception of stretches of the coast of Chile , where there has been a slight cooling in recent decades, in all other areas of South America , forecasts indicate an increase in temperature. The Amazon has a prominent role in regulating

9126-490: The greatest natural tragedy ever experienced in the country, 906 people died, 400 were reported missing, 30,000 had to leave their homes, 770 hillsides had their stability compromised, and will need to be reconsolidated at an estimated cost of 3.3 billion reals. The loss for companies reached R$ 470 million. In 2011, according to the UN calculation, floods throughout Brazil totaled 10 billion reals in material losses and claimed more than

9243-459: The highest areas. The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 millimeters (31.5 in) of rain, most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought. Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history, caused approximately half a million deaths. A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915. In 2024, for

9360-526: The indigenous groups had a different meaning than it had for Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socioeconomic organization, in which asymmetries were translated into kinship relations. Following the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas , the land now called Brazil was claimed for the Portuguese Empire on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral . The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several ethnic societies, most of whom spoke languages of

9477-456: The largest war effort in Brazilian history. Although there was no desire among the majority of Brazilians to change the country's form of government , on 15 November 1889, in disagreement with the majority of the Imperial Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup. A few days later, the national flag

9594-433: The largest percentage of national electricity is generated by hydroelectric plants. It is expected that there will be an important drop in the flow of most of the great national hydrographic basins. According to the Climate Observatory, This would have negative consequences in other ways, as it would encourage the use of coal and natural gas-fired power plants, which are major emitters of greenhouse gases. A special alert

9711-564: The last 150 years. Despite its growing economic and global profile, the country continues to face high levels of corruption , crime and social inequality . Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations , the G20 , BRICS , G4 , Mercosul , Organization of American States , Organization of Ibero-American States , and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries , and also an observer state of

9828-520: The last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850, as a result of the British Aberdeen Act and the Eusébio de Queirós Law , but only in May 1888, after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country , was the institution formally abolished with

9945-742: The less precipitation, the less forest. About 19% of the Amazon forest has already been lost, and recent studies indicate that it is close to passing the critical point, beyond which its degradation will become irreversible. In addition to the problems in the Amazon, all other national biomes – the Cerrado , the Semi-Arid , the Pantanal , the Atlantic Forest and the Pampa – also suffer important effects, most of them with an increasing tendency, contributing to amplify

10062-473: The list of countries with the most bird species (1,832) and second with the most reptile species (744). The number of fungal species is unknown but is large. Brazil is second only to Indonesia as the country with the most endemic species. Climate change in Brazil Brazil 's greenhouse gas emissions per person are higher than the global average , and Brazil is among the countries which emit

10179-465: The naturally regenerating forest, 44% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 30% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For 2015, 56.% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 44% private ownership . Many regions have starkly different microclimates . An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There

10296-483: The new capital city of Brasília , inaugurated in 1960. Kubitschek's successor, Jânio Quadros , resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office. His vice-president, João Goulart , assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military dictatorship . The new regime was intended to be transitory but gradually closed in on itself and became

10413-439: The north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil. In Brazil, forest cover is around 59% of the total land area, equivalent to 496,619,600 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 588,898,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 485,396,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 11,223,600 hectares (ha). Of

10530-567: The northeast, the trend is the opposite. In the executive summary of the 1st PBMC Report, the limitations of the study are highlighted. Because some projections were made based on incomplete data, there is some uncertainty about the conclusions. Despite this, For the Semi-Arid- Caatinga , an increase of up to 4.5 °C in air temperature and a reduction of up to 50% in rainfall are predicted. The environment, naturally very dry and with sparse vegetation, can partially become desert . For

10647-464: The northern, northeastern regions and in the Cisplatina province. The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824; Portugal officially recognized Brazilian independence on 29 August 1825. On 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissent with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of republican secession and unreconciled to

10764-535: The number of people affected and the cost of tragedies for the economy only increase. And no one will be spared." Indigenous people consist of 40 million of the Latin American -Caribbean populations. They populate most of the rural poor areas in countries such as Ecuador , Brazil , Peru and Paraguay . This makes these populations extremely susceptible to threats of climate change due to socioeconomic, geographic, and political factors. Suzana Bustamante, one of

10881-510: The official Portuguese name. Some early sailors called it the "Land of Parrots". In the Guaraní language , an official language of Paraguay , Brazil is called "Pindorama", meaning 'land of the palm trees'. Some of the earliest human remains found in the Americas , Luzia Woman , were found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo , Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years. The earliest pottery ever found in

10998-620: The other essential environmental services they provide and all the biodiversity they harbor. Brazil is the most biodiverse country in the world, an invaluable wealth that is at great risk and is suffering continuous losses. Jair Bolsonaro has said that foreigners should stop complaining about fires in the Amazon, and the country's environmental policies and in 2020 accused them of a "brutal disinformation campaign." In 2021, Brazil announced that it will not block carbon market agreements in COP26 what has significant importance. Published in 2015 by

11115-521: The political establishment and public service , numerous peaceful protests erupted in Brazil in the middle of the first term of Dilma Rousseff , who had succeeded Lula after winning election in 2010 and again in 2014 by narrow margins. Rousseff was impeached by the Brazilian Congress in 2016, halfway into her second term, and replaced by her Vice-president Michel Temer , who assumed full presidential powers after Rousseff's impeachment

11232-470: The private sector for biodiversity conservation and improving local livelihoods. Key results from 2022 include avoiding more than 23 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent GHG emissions, strengthening the management of 117 Protected Areas covering 47.9 million hectares, and reducing deforestation rates in USAID-supported areas. Calculations in 2021 showed that, for giving the world a 50% chance of avoiding

11349-460: The progress of climate change, such as major droughts and floods, storms, rising levels sea and landslides caused by torrential rains. It was also identified that despite the numerous mitigation and adaptation programs already approved by the Union, States and Municipalities, they typically do not leave the paper, or produce timid or marginal results. Analyzing the case of the emergency support structure in

11466-523: The report, "the scenarios point to a decrease in rainfall in the winter months across the country, as well as in the summer in eastern Amazonia and the Northeast. [...] In contrast, the country could experience an increase in the frequency and intensity of intense rain in the subtropical region (South region and part of the Southeast) and in the extreme west of the Amazon." Changes in the levels and availability of groundwater are also foreseen. Measurements on

11583-407: The same regions, as well as many points on the main highways and streets, including some major road junctions, offering increased risks in the event of a disaster in terms of sanitation, supply and transportation of flagellates. Even worse is the situation of transportation by the subway, which is mostly in regions of high vulnerability. Citing the threat of sea level rise, it was pointed out that there

11700-403: The sea, and Olinda lost 59% of its strip of sand between 1995 and 2010. Brazil's ecosystems will be impacted by temperature changes and rainfall changes. In the projections of the 1st Report , by the end of the 21st century, the Amazon may experience a reduction of up to 45% in rainfall, and an increase in the average temperature of up to 6 °C. This comes close to the worst scenarios foreseen by

11817-688: The state of Acre and the westernmost portion of Amazonas , to UTC−4 in the western states, to UTC−3 in the eastern states (the national time ) and UTC−2 in the Atlantic islands . The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical. According to the Köppen system , Brazil hosts six major climatic subtypes: desert , equatorial , tropical , semiarid , oceanic and subtropical . The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in

11934-441: The tendency towards an increase in the problems of conservation of the road network, and showed concern about Brazil's little preparation in the management of climatic disasters and the scarce information available on the future impacts of rising sea levels. In the city of São Paulo alone, where rain is forecast to increase, flooding causes a loss of 762 million reals per year. In the floods and landslides in Rio de Janeiro in 2011,

12051-445: The terrain lies between 200 meters (660 ft) and 800 meters (2,600 ft) in elevation. The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country. The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills. The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 meters (3,900 ft). These ranges include

12168-492: The timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods. The official Portuguese name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the "Land of the Holy Cross" ( Terra da Santa Cruz ), but European sailors and merchants commonly called it the "Land of Brazil" ( Terra do Brasil ) because of the brazilwood trade. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted

12285-526: The time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people, mostly semi-nomadic, who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. The population comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g., the Tupis , Guaranis , Gês , and Arawaks ). The Tupi people were subdivided into the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás . Before

12402-522: The wake of the murder of his running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas , supported by most of the military, successfully led the Revolution of 1930 . Vargas and the military were supposed to assume power temporarily, but instead closed down Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with his own supporters. In

12519-679: The war on the allied side . In addition to its participation in the battle of the Atlantic , Brazil also sent an expeditionary force to fight in the Italian campaign . With the Allied victory in 1945 and the end of the fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable, and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup, with democracy "reinstated" by the same army that had ended it 15 years earlier. Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid

12636-470: The way that absolutists in Portugal had given in the succession of King John VI, Pedro I departed for Portugal to reclaim his daughter's crown after abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (Dom Pedro II ). As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, a regency was set up by the National Assembly. In the absence of

12753-464: The work of the IPCC, especially in the Fourth Report , was produced by Embrapa focusing on agribusiness and food security. Its main conclusions are: In 2022, a study found that 28% of the agricultural land in Brazil is no longer climatically optimal for agriculture due to climate change and to change in local climate as a result of deforestation. The number will go up to 51% by 2030 and 74% by 2060 if

12870-621: The world in both nominal and PPP terms—the largest in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere . Classified as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank , and a newly industrialized country by the IMF , Brazil has the largest share of wealth and the most complex economy in South America. It is also one of the world's major breadbaskets , being the largest producer of coffee for

12987-408: The world total. As of 2021 , Brazil is the 4th heaviest cumulative emitter at 110 Gt. In 2019, on average, Brazilians emitted 10 gross tons of CO 2 equivalent each, compared to the global average of 7 tons per person. Although the government has pledged net zero emissions by 2050, critics complain that immediate action is not being taken. Researcher Emilio La Rovere, one of the coordinators of

13104-498: Was accepted on 31 August. Large street protests for and against her took place during the impeachment process. The charges against her were fueled by political and economic crises along with evidence of involvement with politicians from all the primary political parties. In 2017, the Supreme Court requested the investigation of 71 Brazilian lawmakers and nine ministers of President Michel Temer 's cabinet who were allegedly linked to

13221-404: Was created which attempted to secure the rights of indigenous people to their native lands and customs while also facilitating the establishment of new Brazilian settlements in indigenous regions. Shortly after Rondon left the organization in 1915, it became “riddled with corruption and double dealing,” however Rondon soon rejoined the agency and successfully made it somewhat honorable. However, by

13338-530: Was given in a 2015 report for the increased risk of extreme heat waves , mainly affecting the elderly and the North and Northeast regions, further aggravating pre-existing diseases, such as respiratory problems. José Feres, from the Institute of Applied Economic Research, said that Brazil's ageing population is particularly at risk. The report also pointed to the tendency towards an increase in endemic infectious diseases such as malaria , dengue and leptospirosis ,

13455-430: Was in first place in the first round, with 48.43% of the support from the electorate, and received 50.90% of the votes in the second round. On 8 January 2023, a week after Lula's inauguration, a mob of Bolsonaro's supporters attacked Brazil's federal government buildings in the capital, Brasília , after several weeks of unrest. Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of

13572-442: Was replaced with a new design that included the national motto " Ordem e Progresso ", influenced by positivism . 15 November is now Republic Day , a national holiday. The early republican government was a military dictatorship, with the army dominating affairs both in Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power. Not until 1894, following an economic crisis and

13689-482: Was the first and most influential director of the agency, and was invited to the role by Brazilian Minister of Agriculture Rodolfo Miranda. He emphasized interacting with indigenous peoples in a peaceful way with the motto "Die if need be, but never kill." His policies included protecting indigenous peoples from attacks, guaranteeing titles to the lands they occupied, and restoring lands previously usurped by whites. However, he also aimed to assimilate indigenous peoples into

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