The Icoanei Church ( Romanian : Biserica Icoanei ) is a Romanian Orthodox church located at 12 Icoanei Street in Bucharest , Romania . It is dedicated to the Holy Trinity .
174-573: The church derives its name from a 1682 icon that mentions a wooden church which, according to Nicolae Iorga , was built by Ceauș (messenger) David Corbea, whom Constantin Brâncoveanu sent as emissary to the court of Peter the Great . In its early years, it was thus also known as Ceauș David or Popa Dima , after a priest. In its stead, Mihail Băbeanu, former privy secretary to the Prince of Wallachia , built
348-604: A medievalist , Byzantinist , Latinist , Slavist , art historian and philosopher of history . Holding teaching positions at the University of Bucharest , the University of Paris and several other academic institutions, Iorga was founder of the International Congress of Byzantine Studies and the Institute of South-East European Studies (ISSEE). His activity also included the transformation of Vălenii de Munte town into
522-500: A socialist poet (in Contemporanul ) and critic (in both Lupta and Literatură și Știință ). Also in 1890, Iorga married Maria Tasu, whom he was to divorce in 1900. He had previously been in love with an Ecaterina C. Botez, but, after some hesitation, decided to marry into the family of Junimea man Vasile Tasu, much better situated in the social circles. Xenopol, who was Iorga's matchmaker, also tried to obtain for Iorga
696-467: A "miserable pension of pittance"). Aged thirteen, while on extended visit to his maternal uncle Emanuel "Manole" Arghiropol, he also made his press debut with paid contributions to Arghiropol's Romanul newspaper, including anecdotes and editorial pieces on European politics. The year 1886 was described by Iorga as "the catastrophe of my school life in Botoșani": on temporary suspension for not having greeted
870-512: A "morning star" by the local press and deemed a "wonder of a man" by his teacher A. D. Xenopol , Iorga was honored by the faculty with a special banquet. Three academics (Xenopol, Nicolae Culianu , Ioan Caragiani ) formally brought Iorga to the attention of the Education Ministry, proposing him for the state-sponsored program which allowed academic achievers to study abroad. The interval witnessed Iorga's brief affiliation with Junimea ,
1044-412: A "threshold" literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age three as the age when a child has basic communicative competence in their first language (Kessler, 1984). Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he or she is immersed in
1218-463: A 7 average which only entitled him to a substitute professor's position. The achievement, at age 23, was still remarkable in its context. The first of his lectures came later that year as personal insight on the historical method , Despre concepția actuală a istoriei și geneza ei ("On the Present-day Concept of History and Its Genesis"). He was again out of the country in 1895, visiting
1392-450: A Bad Patriot"). His scholarly activities resulted in a second trip into Transylvania, a second portion of his Bistrița archives collection, the 11th Hurmuzachi volume, and two works on Early Modern Romanian history: Acte din secolul al XVI-lea relative la Petru Șchiopul ("16th Century Acts Relating to Peter the Lame") and Scurtă istorie a lui Mihai Viteazul ("A Short History of Michael
1566-569: A National Liberal one. The bloody outcome prompted the historian to author and make public a piece of social critique, the Neamul Românesc pamphlet Dumnezeu să-i ierte ("God Forgive Them"). The text, together with his program of agrarian conferences and his subscription lists for the benefit of victims' relatives again made him an adversary of the National Liberals, who referred to Iorga as an instigator. The historian did however struck
1740-601: A certain very marginally enhanced or no different executive function , and older onset for dementia . More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism with repeated failures to replicate. Yet, many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation. An emerging perspective is that studies on bilingual and multilingual cognitive abilities need to account for validated and granular quantifications of language experience in order to identify boundary conditions of possible cognitive effects. Second language acquisition results in
1914-579: A chord with Stere, who had been made prefect of Iași County , and who, going against his party's wishes, inaugurated an informal collaboration between Iorga and the Poporanists. The political class as a whole was particularly apprehensive of Iorga's contacts with the League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians [ ro ] and their common irredentist agenda, which risked undermining relations with
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#17330931741252088-529: A consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves (e.g., Norwegian and Swedish), whereas the former is a property of one or more persons and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons. In sequential bilingualism , learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire
2262-470: A continuum between internationalization and localization . Due to the status of English in computing , software development nearly always uses it (but not in the case of non-English-based programming languages ). Some commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original. The first recorded use of
2436-432: A continuum between internationalization and localization : Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process, which also includes adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several languages, ranging from a handful (the most spoken languages ) to dozens for the most popular applications (such as office suites , web browsers , etc.). Due to
2610-517: A cultural and academic center. In parallel with his academic contributions, Nicolae Iorga was a prominent right-of-centre activist, whose political theory bridged conservatism, Romanian nationalism , and agrarianism . From Marxist beginnings, he switched sides and became a maverick disciple of the Junimea movement. Iorga later became a leadership figure at Sămănătorul , the influential literary magazine with populist leanings, and militated within
2784-524: A culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric , then, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture and even from time to time within a given culture. Language teachers know how to predict the differences between pronunciations or constructions in different languages, but they might be less clear about the differences between rhetoric, that is, in the way they use language to accomplish various purposes, particularly in writing. People who learn multiple languages may also experience positive transfer –
2958-444: A different language from the source text; macaronic texts which mix together two or more languages with the expectation that the reader will understand both; the existence of separate sacred and vernacular languages (such as Church Latin vs. common forms of Latin , and Hebrew vs. Aramaic and Jewish languages ); and the frequency of linguistic borrowings and other results of language contact . The definition of multilingualism
3132-524: A domed wooden church surrounded by cells, variously dated to 1745-1750 or 1770. The first masonry church, dedicated to the Trinity, dates to 1784–1786; its ktetor was mercenary captain Panait Băbeanu, nephew of Mihail. As depicted in the votive painting, this church had three domes and a three-lobed plan, and was painted in fresco. Panait added twelve cells for poor widows. Damaged by the 1838 earthquake ,
3306-573: A file on the historian, informing Romanian Premier Sturdza about nationalist agitation. The perception that Iorga was a xenophobe also drew condemnation from more moderate traditionalist circles, in particular the Viața Literară weekly. Its panelists, Ilarie Chendi and young Eugen Lovinescu , ridiculed Iorga's claim of superiority; Chendi in particular criticized the rejection of writers based on their ethnic origin and not their ultimate merit (while alleging, to Iorga's annoyance, that Iorga himself
3480-435: A general sense, may refer to any individual with a natural or innate talent for a particular field; however, people diagnosed with savant syndrome are specifically individuals with significant mental disabilities who demonstrate certain profound and prodigious capacities or certain abilities far in excess of what would usually be considered normal, occasionally including a prodigious capacity for languages. Savant syndrome
3654-451: A global lingua franca , sometimes results in majority bilingualism even when the countries in question have just one domestic official language. This occurs especially in regions such as Scandinavia and the Benelux , as well as among Germanophones , but the phenomenon has also been expanding into some non-Germanic countries. One view is that of the linguist Noam Chomsky in what he calls
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#17330931741253828-567: A historical source. He published several new books in 1899: Manuscrise din biblioteci străine ("Manuscripts from Foreign Libraries", 2 vols.), Documente românești din arhivele Bistriței ("Romanian Documents from the Bistrița Archives") and a French-language book on the Crusades , titled Notes et extraits pour servir à l'histoire des croisades ("Notes and Excerpts Covering the History of
4002-737: A hub of student activity, self-financed through the sale of postcards. Its success caused alarm in Austria-Hungary: Budapesti Hírlap newspaper described Iorga's school as an instrument for radicalizing Romanian Transylvanians. Iorga also alienated the main Romanian organizations in Transylvania: the Romanian National Party (PNR) dreaded his proposal to boycott the Diet of Hungary , particularly since PNR leaders were contemplating
4176-722: A language (including but not limited to its idioms and eponyms ) without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which that language evolved, as a practical matter an in-depth familiarity with multiple cultures is a prerequisite for high-level multilingualism. This knowledge of cultures individually and comparatively can form an important part of both what one considers one's identity to be and what others consider that identity to be. Some studies have found that groups of multilingual individuals get higher average scores on tests for certain personality traits such as cultural empathy , open-mindedness and social initiative. The idea of linguistic relativity , which claims that
4350-558: A lengthy scandal. The pieces often targeted senior scholars who, as favorites or activists of the National Liberal Party , opposed both Junimea and the Maiorescu-endorsed Conservative Party : his estranged friends Hasdeu and Tocilescu, as well as V. A. Urechia and Dimitrie Sturdza . The episode, described by Iorga himself as a stormy but patriotic debut in public affairs, prompted his adversaries at
4524-644: A lexical deficit due to second language acquisition and bilingualism results in decreased verbal fluency. Bilingual and multilingual individuals are shown to have superior auditory processing abilities compared to monolingual individuals. Several investigations have compared auditory processing abilities of monolingual and bilingual individuals using tasks such as gap detection, temporal ordering, pitch pattern recognition etc. In general, results of studies have reported superior performance among bilingual and multilingual individuals. Furthermore, among bilingual individuals, one's level of proficiency in one's second language
4698-480: A literary club with conservative leanings, whose informal leader was literary and political theorist Titu Maiorescu . In 1890, literary critic Ștefan Vârgolici and cultural promoter Iacob Negruzzi published Iorga's essay on poet Veronica Micle in the Junimist tribune Convorbiri Literare . Having earlier attended the funeral of writer Ion Creangă , a dissident Junimist and Romanian literature classic, he took
4872-635: A loyalist "Greater Austria" devolution project . The consequences hit Iorga in May 1909, when he was stopped from visiting Bukovina, officially branded a persona non grata , and expelled from Austrian soil (in June, it was made illegal for Bukovinian schoolteachers to attend Iorga's lectures). A month later, Iorga greeted in Bucharest the English scholar R.W. Seton-Watson . This noted critic of Austria-Hungary became Iorga's admiring friend, and helped popularize his ideas in
5046-411: A native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation
5220-772: A new one. Once they pass an age that seems to correlate closely with the critical period , around the age of 12, total loss of a native language is not typical, although it is still possible for speakers to experience diminished expressive capacity if the language is never practiced. There is no evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive function and there is a small bilingual disadvantage in verbal fluency. Some initial reports concluded that people who use more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals, and this idea persisted in part due to publication bias . Current meta-analyses find no effect. Individuals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have
5394-464: A patriotic essay by Ferdinand's wife Marie of Edinburgh . The heightened sense of crisis prompted Iorga to issue appeals against defeatism and reissue Neamul Românesc from Iași, explaining: "I realized at once what moral use could come out of this for the thousands of discouraged and disillusioned people and against the traitors who were creeping up all over the place." The goal was again reflected in his complementary lectures (where he discussed
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5568-508: A public stand against the defamation of another such figure, the dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale , groundlessly accused of plagiarism by journalist Constantin Al. Ionescu-Caion . He expanded his contribution as an opinion journalist, publishing with some regularity in various local or national periodicals of various leanings, from the socialist Contemporanul and Era Nouă to Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu 's Revista Nouă . This period saw his debut as
5742-529: A regular basis, until ca. 1936. He was reelected to the lower chamber in the June 1918 election , becoming President of the body and, due to the rapid political developments, the first person to hold this office in the history of Greater Romania . The year also brought his participation alongside Allied envoys in the 360th anniversary of Michael the Brave's birth. On 1 December, later celebrated as Great Union Day , Iorga
5916-524: A school setting where instruction is offered in a different language. In simultaneous bilingualism , the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and also in techniques for teaching a second language. The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition
6090-453: A shift in situation or context, independent of language." However, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language shapes our vision of the world, may suggest that a language learned by a grown-up may have much fewer emotional connotations and therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of
6264-514: A source of "darkness and slavery", whereas the more liberal regime of Bukovina offered its subjects "golden chains". Nicolae Iorga ran in the 1905 election and won a seat in Parliament 's lower chamber . He remained politically independent until 1906, when he attached himself to the Conservative Party, making one final attempt to change the course of Junimism . His move was contrasted by
6438-474: A special dispensation from the Kingdom of Romania 's Education Ministry , and, as a result, applied for and passed his third term examinations, effectively graduating one year ahead of his class. Before the end of the year, he also passed his license examination magna cum laude , with a thesis on Greek literature , an achievement which consecrated his reputation inside both academia and the public sphere. Hailed as
6612-442: A strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages. This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within
6786-570: A teacher, Iorga opted to leave the city and apply for the National High School of Iași , being received into the scholarship program and praised by his new principal, the philologist Vasile Burlă . Iorga was already fluent in French, Italian, Latin and Greek; he later referred to Greek studies as "the most refined form of human reasoning". By age seventeen, Iorga was becoming more rebellious. He first grew interested in political activities for
6960-618: A teaching position at Iași University. The attempt was opposed by other professors, on grounds of Iorga's youth and politics. Instead, Iorga was briefly a high school professor of Latin in the southern city of Ploiești , following a public competition overseen by writer Alexandru Odobescu . The time he spent there allowed him to expand his circle of acquaintances and personal friends, meeting writers Caragiale and Alexandru Vlahuță , historians Hasdeu and Grigore Tocilescu , and Marxist theorist Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea . Having received
7134-445: A unitary self, but to enact different kinds of selves, and different linguistic contexts create different kinds of self-expression and experiences for the same person." However, there has been little rigorous research done on this topic and it is difficult to define "personality" in this context. François Grosjean wrote: "What is seen as a change in personality is most probably simply a shift in attitudes and behaviors that correspond to
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7308-499: A wave of Francophobia among young urbanites, Iorga boycotted the National Theater , punishing its staff for staging a play entirely in French, and disturbing public order. According to one of Iorga's young disciples, the future journalist Pamfil Șeicaru , the mood was such that Iorga could have led a successful coup d'état . These events had several political consequences. The Siguranța Statului intelligence agency soon opened
7482-608: A way to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of MAT Jan A. Nelson and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive
7656-415: A year later found that switching to a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from social norms and constraints, such as political correctness . In 2014, another study showed that people using a foreign language are more likely to make utilitarian decisions when faced with moral dilemmas, such as the trolley problem and its variations. Participants in this study chose the utilitarian option more often in
7830-460: Is a cognitive process , rather than a language acquisition device, as the school led by Stephen Krashen suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning. Rod Ellis quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of pronunciation . European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to
8004-603: Is a fusion of two or more languages that is grammatically simplified but can be understood by native speakers of any of the original languages. Some pidgins develop into "real" creole languages (such as Papiamento in Curaçao or Singlish in Singapore ), while others simply evolve into slangs or jargons (such as Helsinki slang , which remains more or less mutually intelligible with standard Finnish and Swedish). In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have
8178-422: Is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages. A coordinate model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and the community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while
8352-613: Is a subject of debate in the same way as that of language fluency. At one end of the linguistic continuum, multilingualism may be defined as the mastery of more than one language. The speaker would have knowledge of and control over the languages equivalent to that of a native speaker. At the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people multi-competent . In addition, there
8526-460: Is advantageous for people wanting to participate in trade, globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots . Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood,
8700-512: Is almost always associated with an increased memory capacity of some sort, which can, for certain savants, aid in storing and retrieving knowledge of different languages. In 1991, for example, linguists Neil Smith and Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli described a man, named Christopher, who learned sixteen languages even with a non-verbal IQ between 40 and 70. Christopher was born in 1962, and he was diagnosed with brain damage approximately six months after his birth. Despite being institutionalized because he
8874-478: Is generally referred to as a polyglot , a term that may also refer to people who learn multiple languages as a hobby. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in
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#17330931741259048-538: Is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of English . Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political reasons. One example is the creation of Serbo-Croatian as a standard language on the basis of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect to function as umbrella for numerous South Slavic dialects; after
9222-527: Is not uncommon for speakers to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon is found, amongst other places, in Scandinavia . Most speakers of Swedish , Norwegian and Danish can communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or that can be misunderstood). Using different languages
9396-434: Is someone who can communicate in more than one language actively (through speaking, writing, or signing). Multilingual people can logically speak any language they write in (aside from mute multilingual people ), but they cannot necessarily write in any language they speak. More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person
9570-584: Is sometimes credited as a tutor to Crown Prince Carol (future King Carol II), who reportedly attended the Vălenii school. In his October 1915 polemic with Vasile Sion , a Germanophile physician, Iorga at once justified suspicion of the German Romanians and praised those Romanians who were deserting the Austrian Army . The Ententists' focus on Transylvania pitted them against the Poporanists, who deplored
9744-440: Is the use of more than one language , either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. When the languages are just two, it is usually called Bilingualism . It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population . More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue ; but many read and write in one language. Being multilingual
9918-731: Is usually called non-convergent discourse , a term introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. To a certain extent, this situation also exists between Dutch and Afrikaans , although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between the two respective communities. Another example is the former state of Czechoslovakia , where two closely related and mutually intelligible languages ( Czech and Slovak ) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia, it
10092-618: The Bucharest Treaty , an effective armistice. The conditions were judged humiliating by Iorga ("Our ancestors would have preferred death"); he refused to regain his University of Bucharest chair. The German authorities in Bucharest reacted by blacklisting the historian. Iorga only returned to Bucharest as Romania resumed its contacts with the Allies and the Deutsches Heer left the country. The political uncertainty ended by late autumn, when
10266-555: The Byzantine Empire . At home, he and pupil Vasile Pârvan were involved in a conflict with fellow historian Orest Tafrali , officially over archeological theory, but also because of a regional conflict in academia: Bucharest and Transylvania against Tafrali's Iași. A seminal moment in Iorga's political career took place during the 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt , erupting under a Conservative cabinet and repressed with much violence by
10440-552: The Cantacuzinos and the Craiovești is questioned by other researchers. Iorga is generally believed to have been born on 17 January 1871, although his birth certificate provides a date of 6 June. In 1876, aged thirty-seven or thirty-eight, Nicu Sr. died of an unknown illness, orphaning Nicolae and his younger brother George. Nicolae would later write that the loss of his father dominated the image he had of his childhood. In 1878, he
10614-642: The Cantacuzinos "), Istoriile domnilor Țării Românești ("The Histories of Wallachian Princes"). Iorga was by then making known his newly found interest in cultural nationalism and national didacticism , as expressed by him in an open letter to Goga's Budapest-based Luceafărul magazine. After further interventions from Goga and linguist Sextil Pușcariu , Luceafărul became Iorga's main mouthpiece outside Romania. Returning to Bucharest in 1903, Iorga followed Lamprecht's suggestion and focused on writing his first overview of Romanian national history, known in Romanian as Istoria românilor ("The History of
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#173309317412510788-594: The Hurmuzachi brothers collection of historical documents, the position being granted to him by the Romanian Academy . The appointment, first proposed to the institution by Xenopol, overlapped with disputes over the Hurmuzachi inheritance, and came only after Iorga's formal pledge that he would renounce all potential copyrights resulting from his contribution. He also published the second part of Acte și fragmente and
10962-509: The League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians [ ro ] , and personally organized the large pro-Entente rallies in Bucharest. A prudent anti-Austrian, Iorga adopted the interventionist agenda with noted delay. His hesitation was ridiculed by hawkish Eugen Lovinescu as pro-Transylvanian but anti-war , costing Iorga his office in the Cultural League. The historian later confessed that, like Premier Ion I. C. Brătianu and
11136-461: The League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians [ ro ] , founding vocally conservative publications such as Neamul Românesc , Drum Drept , Cuget Clar and Floarea Darurilor . His support for the cause of ethnic Romanians in Austria-Hungary made him a prominent figure in the pro- Entente camp by the time of World War I , and ensured him a special political role during
11310-884: The Moldavian Prince Peter the Lame , his son Ștefăniță, and Romania's national hero, the Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave . He also met, befriended and often collaborated with fellow historians from European countries other than Romania: the editors of Revue de l'Orient Latin , who first published studies Iorga later grouped in the six volumes of Notes et extraits ("Notices and Excerpts") and Frantz Funck-Brentano , who enlisted his parallel contribution for Revue Critique . Iorga's articles were also featured in two magazines for ethnic Romanian communities in Austria-Hungary : Familia and Vatra . Making his comeback to Romania in October 1894, Iorga settled in
11484-729: The Second Balkan War , during which Romania fought alongside Serbia and against the Kingdom of Bulgaria . The subsequent taking of Southern Dobruja , supported by Maiorescu and the Conservatives, was seen by Iorga as callous and imperialistic . Iorga's interest in the Balkan crisis was illustrated by two of the forty books he put out that year: Istoria statelor balcanice ("The History of Balkan States") and Notele unui istoric cu privire la evenimentele din Balcani ("A Historian's Notes on
11658-422: The University of Berlin 's PhD program. His working paper, on Thomas III of Saluzzo , was not received, because Iorga had not spent three years in training, as required. As an alternative, he gave formal pledge that the paper in question was entirely his own work, but his statement was invalidated by technicality: Iorga's work had been redacted by a more proficient speaker of German, whose intervention did not touch
11832-596: The "national principle") and a new set of works; these featured musings on the Allied commitment ( Relations des Roumains avec les Alliès , "The Romanians' Relations with the Allies"; Histoire des relations entre la France et les roumains , "The History of Relations between France and the Romanians"), the national character ( Sufletul românesc , "The Romanian Soul") or columns against the loss of morale ( Armistițiul , "The Armistice"). His ideal of moral regeneration through
12006-523: The "old" historians and the Junimists , Iorga was still active at the forefront of historical research. In 1904, he published the historical geography work Drumuri și orașe din România ("Roads and Towns of Romania") and, upon the special request of National Liberal Education Minister Spiru Haret , a work dedicated to the celebrated Moldavian Prince Stephen the Great , published upon the 400th anniversary of
12180-613: The 18th Century"). It was presented to the academy's consideration, but rejected, prompting the scholar to resign in protest. To receive his imprimatur later in the year, Iorga appealed to fellow intellectuals, earning pledges and a sizable grant from the aristocratic Callimachi family . Before the end of that year, the Iorgas were in the Austro-Hungarian city of Budapest . While there, the historian set up tight contacts with Romanian intellectuals who originated from Transylvania and who, in
12354-619: The 300th commemoration of Prince Michael's death, which ethnic Romanian students transformed into a rally against Austro-Hungarian educational restrictions, Iorga addressed the crowds and was openly greeted by the protest's leaders, poet Octavian Goga and Orthodox priest Ioan Lupaș . In 1902, he published new tracts on Transylvanian or Wallachian topics: Legăturile Principatelor române cu Ardealul ("The Romanian Principalities' Links with Transylvania"), Sate și preoți din Ardeal ("Priests and Villages of Transylvania"), Despre Cantacuzini ("On
12528-781: The Age of Reforms"), a book on the 1859 Moldo–Wallachian Union ( Unirea principatelor , "The Principalities' Union"), and a critical edition of poems by Eminescu. Visiting Iași for the Union Jubilee, Iorga issued a public and emotional apology to Xenopol for having criticized him in the previous decade. At that stage in his life, Iorga became an honorary member of the Romanian Writers' Society . He had militated for its creation in both Sămănătorul and Neamul Românesc , but also wrote against its system of fees. Once liberated from government restriction in 1909, his Vălenii school grew into
12702-542: The Allied victory on the Western Front sealed Germany's defeat. Celebrating the Compiègne Armistice , Iorga wrote: "There can be no greater day for the entire world". Iorga however found that Bucharest had become "a filthy hell under lead skies." His celebrated return also included the premiere of Învierea lui Ștefan cel Mare at the National Theater , which continued to host productions of his dramatic texts on
12876-499: The Austrians over Transylvania and Bukovina. However, Iorga's popularity was still increasing, and, carried by this sentiment, he was first elected to Chamber during the elections of that same year . Iorga and his new family had relocated several times, renting a home in Bucharest's Gara de Nord (Buzești) quarter. After renewed but failed attempts to become an Iași University professor, he decided, in 1908, to set his base away from
13050-597: The Austro-Hungarian Army and briefly occupied much of the region. However, following a massive counterattack on multiple fronts by the Central Powers, the campaign ended in massive defeat, forcing the Romanian Army and the entire administration to evacuate the southern areas, Bucharest included, in front of a German-led invasion. Iorga's home in Vălenii de Munte was among the property items left behind and seized by
13224-563: The Balkan Events"). Noted among the others is the study focusing on the early 18th century reign of Wallachian Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu ( Viața și domnia lui Constantin vodă Brâncoveanu , "The Life and Rule of Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu"). That same year, Iorga issued the first series of his Drum Drept monthly, later merged with the Sămănătorist magazine Ramuri . Iorga managed to publish roughly as many new titles in 1914,
13398-435: The Brave"). His controversial public attitude had nevertheless attracted an official ban on his Academy reports, and also meant that he was ruled out from the national Academy prize (for which distinction he had submitted Documente românești din arhivele Bistriței ). The period also witnessed a chill in the Iorga's relationship with Xenopol. In 1901, shortly after his divorce from Maria, Iorga married Ecaterina (Catinca),
13572-535: The Crusades", 2 vols.). Xenopol proposed his pupil for a Romanian Academy membership, to replace the suicidal Odobescu, but his proposition could not gather support. Also in 1899, Nicolae Iorga inaugurated his contribution to the Bucharest-based French-language newspaper L'Indépendance Roumaine , publishing polemical articles on the activity of his various colleagues and, as a consequence, provoking
13746-615: The English-speaking world. In 1910, the year when he toured the Old Kingdom 's conference circuit, Nicolae Iorga again rallied with Cuza to establish the explicitly antisemitic Democratic Nationalist Party . Partly building on the antisemitic component of the 1907 revolts, its doctrines depicted the Jewish-Romanian community and Jews in general as a danger for Romania's development. During its early decades, it used as its symbol
13920-505: The Entente , Iorga expressed his joy in a piece named Ceasul ("The Hour"): "the hour we have been expecting for over two centuries, for which we have been living our entire national life, for which we have been working and writing, fighting and thinking, has at long last arrived." The Romanian campaign initially went well, as the Romanian Army penetrated deep into Transylvania, defeated
14094-466: The Fat Man dilemma when it was presented in a foreign language. For the related Switch Track dilemma, however, the use of a foreign language presented no significant influence on the choices participants made. The authors of this study surmised that a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language. Because it is difficult or impossible to master many of the high-level semantic aspects of
14268-571: The Great's Resurrection") and Un domn pribeag ("An Outcast Prince"). Additionally, Iorga produced the first of several studies dealing with Balkan geopolitics in the charged context leading up to the Balkan Wars ( România, vecinii săi și chestia Orientală , "Romania, Her Neighbors and the Eastern Question "). He also made a noted contribution to ethnography , with Portul popular românesc (" Romanian Folk Dress "). In 1913, Iorga
14442-533: The Guard inaugurated its own National Legionary dictatorship, but was ultimately assassinated by a Guardist commando . Nicolae Iorga was born in Botoșani into a family of Greek origin. His father, Nicu Iorga, was a practicing lawyer; he ultimately descended from a Greek merchant who had settled in Botoșani in the 18th century five generations before Nicolae Iorga's birth. His mother, Zulnia Iorga ( née Arghiropol),
14616-571: The Hungarian Land"), Negoțul și meșteșugurile în trecutul românesc ("Trade and Crafts of the Romanian Past") etc. In 1907, he began issuing a second periodical, the cultural magazine Floarea Darurilor , and published with Editura Minerva an early installment of his companion to Romanian literature (second volume 1908, third volume 1909). His published scientific contributions for that year include, among others, an English-language study on
14790-480: The National Liberal cabinet, he had been waiting for a better moment to strike. In the end, his "Ententist" efforts were closely supported by public figures such as Alexandru I. Lapedatu and Ion Petrovici , as well as by Take Ionescu 's National Action advocacy group. Iorga was also introduced to the private circle of Romania's young King , Ferdinand I , whom he found well-intentioned but weak-willed. Iorga
14964-622: The Netherlands and, again, Italy, in search of documents, publishing the first section of his extended historical records' collection Acte și fragmente cu privire la istoria românilor ("Acts and Excerpts Regarding the History of Romanians"), his Romanian Atheneum conference on Michael the Brave's rivalry with condottiero Giorgio Basta , and his debut in travel literature ( Amintiri din Italia , "Recollections from Italy"). The next year came Iorga's official appointment as curator and publisher of
15138-497: The Romanian Military") and Stephen the Great's Orthodox profile ( Ștefan cel Mare și mănăstirea Neamțului , "Stephen the Great and Neamț Monastery "). His academic activity also resulted in a lengthy conflict with art historian Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș , his godfather and former friend, sparked when Iorga, defending his own academic postings, objected to making Art History a separate subject at University. Reinstated into
15312-619: The Romanians of Bessarabia. That region, the Poporanist lobby argued, was being actively oppressed by the Russian Empire with the acquiescence of other Entente powers. Poporanist theorist Garabet Ibrăileanu , editor of Viața Românească review, later accused Iorga of not ever speaking in support of the Bessarabians. Political themes were again reflected in Nicolae Iorga's 1915 report to
15486-569: The Romanians"), as well as a volume on literary history and Romanian philosophy , Faze sufletești și cărți reprezentative la români ("Spiritual Phases and Relevant Books of the Romanians"). Before spring 1916, he was commuting between Bucharest and Iași, substituting the ailing Xenopol at Iași University. He also gave a final touch to the collection Studii și documente ("Studies and Documents"), comprising his commentary on 30,000 individual documents and spread over 31 tomes. In late summer 1916, as Brătianu's government sealed an alliance with
15660-488: The Romanians"). He was also involved in a new project of researching the content of archives throughout Moldavia and Wallachia, and, having reassessed the nationalist politics of Junimist poet Mihai Eminescu , helped collect and publish a companion to Eminescu's work. Also in 1903, Nicolae Iorga became one of the managers of Sămănătorul review. The moment brought Iorga's emancipation from Maiorescu's influence, his break with mainstream Junimism , and his affiliation to
15834-513: The academy ( Dreptul la viață al statelor mici , "The Small States' Right to Exist") and in various of the 37 books he published that year: Istoria românilor din Ardeal și Ungaria ("The History of the Romanians in Transylvania and Hungary"), Politica austriacă față de Serbia ("The Austrian Policy on Serbia") etc. Also in 1915, Iorga completed his economic history treatise, Istoria comerțului la români ("The History of Commerce among
16008-485: The academy and made a full member, he gave his May 1911 reception speech with a philosophy of history subject ( Două concepții istorice , "Two Historical Outlooks") and was introduced on the occasion by Xenopol. In August of that year, he was again in Transylvania, at Blaj , where he paid homage to the Romanian-run ASTRA Cultural Society . He made his first contribution to Romanian drama with
16182-608: The academy to demand the termination of his membership for undignified behavior. Tocilescu felt insulted by the allegations, challenged Iorga to a duel, but his friends intervened to mediate. Another scientist who encountered Iorga's wrath was George Ionescu-Gion , against whom Iorga enlisted negative arguments that, as he later admitted, were exaggerated. Among Iorga's main defenders were academics Dimitrie Onciul , N. Petrașcu , and, outside Romania, Gustav Weigand . The young polemicist persevered in supporting this anti-establishment cause, moving on from L'Indépendance Roumaine to
16356-510: The attempt rekindled the feud between him and Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș , who had served in the German-appointed administration. The two scholars later took their battle to court and, until Iorga's death, presented mutually exclusive takes on recent political history. Although very much opposed to the imprisoned Germanophile poet Tudor Arghezi , Iorga intervened on his behalf with Ferdinand. Polyglot (person) Multilingualism
16530-464: The bell tower base. Entry is through a small open portico with a decorated frieze; it rests on pairs of stone columns. The facade ornamentation is slightly in relief: a cornice with small palmettes underscored by a sawtooth design, floral rosettes placed above the windows, icons of Saints Peter and Paul to the sides of the entrance. The interior windows are colored in pastel tones, with blue predominant. The tin-coated domes are decorated similarly to
16704-556: The breakup of Yugoslavia , it was split into Serbian , Croatian , Bosnian and Montenegrin . Another example is the historical dismissal of Ukrainian as a Russian dialect by the Russian tsars to discourage national feelings. Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions. For example, in Finland, all children are required to learn at least three languages:
16878-693: The capital city of Bucharest . He changed residence several times, until eventually settling in Grădina Icoanei area. He agreed to compete in a sort of debating society, with lectures which only saw print in 1944. He applied for the Medieval History Chair at the University of Bucharest , submitting a dissertation in front of an examination commission comprising historians and philosophers (Caragiani, Odobescu, Xenopol, alongside Aron Densușianu , Constantin Leonardescu and Petre Râșcanu ), but totaled
17052-923: The case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other. In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some respects a level of skill that a second (or subsequent) language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on
17226-477: The cause of Romanian irredentism became a leading characteristic of his biography during World War I . In 1915, while Romania was still keeping neutral, he sided with the dominant nationalist, Francophile and pro- Entente camp, urging for Romania to wage war on the Central Powers as a means of obtaining Transylvania, Bukovina and other regions held by Austria-Hungary; to this goal, he became an active member of
17400-400: The church was restored by Pană Băbeanu, the grandson of Panait, assisted by parishioners. The iconostasis , still in use, dates to 1850. By 1862, the church was in ruins, its funds wasted by Ioniță Băbeanu. In 1873, Elena Băbeanu commissioned a substantial renovation, led by architect Alexandru Orăscu , which gave the building its current form. The 1887-1889 restoration added the portico, redid
17574-411: The community language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being bilingual does not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French. Research has found that the development of competence in the native language serves as a foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language – the common underlying proficiency hypothesis. Cummins' work sought to overcome
17748-493: The creation of Greater Romania, Iorga was focusing his public activity on exposing collaborators of the wartime occupiers. The subject was central to a 1919 speech he held in front of the academy, where he obtained the public condemnation of actively Germanophile academicians, having earlier vetoed the membership of Poporanist Constantin Stere . He failed at enlisting support for the purge of Germanophile professors from University, but
17922-425: The development of new languages by forming connections from one language to another. Second language acquisition results in a lexical deficit. Receptive bilinguals are those who can understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as
18096-425: The domes and enlarged the windows. Under the auspices of another Mihail Băbeanu, the painting was redone in 1889 by a pupil of Gheorghe Tattarescu , covering the old frescoes. In 1928, architect Paul Smărăndescu undertook a thorough renovation, removing the central dome. Consolidation took place after the earthquakes of 1940 and 1977 , while work on the iconostasis and painting unfolded in 1967 and 1980. The church
18270-494: The early 1990s, however, confirmed that students who do complete bilingual instruction perform better academically. These students exhibit more cognitive flexibility , including a better ability to analyze abstract visual patterns. Students who receive bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required will perform at an even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools. A multilingual person
18444-691: The effect of changing one or both of them to the point a new, non-creole language is born. For example, many linguists believe that the Occitan language and the Catalan language were formed because a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided by the political spheres of influence of France and Spain, respectively. Yiddish is a complex blend of Middle High German with Hebrew and also has borrowings from Slavic languages. Bilingual interaction can even take place without speakers switching between languages or fusing them together. In certain areas, it
18618-563: The essay Gânduri și sfaturi ale unui om ca oricare altul ("Thoughts and Advices from a Man Just like Any Other"). He also paid a visit to the Romanians of Bukovina region, in Austrian territory, as well as to those of Bessarabia, who were subjects of the Russian Empire , and wrote about their cultural struggles in his 1905 accounts Neamul romănesc în Bucovina ("The Romanian People of Bukovina"), Neamul romănesc în Basarabia ("...of Bessarabia"). These referred to Tsarist autocracy as
18792-532: The exclusive use of another language, and effectively "become native" in a language that was once secondary after the L1 undergoes total attrition. This is most commonly seen among immigrant communities and has been the subject of substantial academic study. The most important factor in spontaneous, total L1 loss appears to be age; in the absence of neurological dysfunction or injury, only young children typically are at risk of forgetting their native language and switching to
18966-406: The expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated an inability to compose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations. Robert B. Kaplan describes two key words that affect people when they learn a second language. Logic in the popular, rather than the logician's sense of the word, is the basis of rhetoric, evolved out of
19140-566: The facade. The church is listed as a historic monument by Romania's Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs . Also listed is the tomb of General Ioan Odobescu. The yard holds several other graves, the earliest being from 1846. The icon of the Virgin Mary , which attracts visitors, is kept before the altar. 44°26′35″N 26°06′23″E / 44.44294°N 26.10647°E / 44.44294; 26.10647 Nicolae Iorga Nicolae Iorga (17 January 1871 – 27 November 1940)
19314-417: The family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality. Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as mutual intelligibility of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of languages , namely
19488-420: The first language. Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire a second language. Previously, children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, but today, researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the period is closer to five years. An interesting outcome of studies during
19662-558: The first time but displayed convictions which he later strongly disavowed; a self-described Marxist , Iorga promoted the left-wing magazine Viața Socială and lectured on Das Kapital . Seeing himself confined in the National College's "ugly and disgusting" boarding school, he defied its rules and was suspended a second time, losing scholarship privileges. Before readmission, he decided not to fall back on his family's financial support and instead returned to tutoring others. Iorga
19836-459: The four-year engagement of his scholarship still applicable, Nicolae Iorga decided to spend his remaining time abroad, researching more city archives in Germany (Munich), Austria (Innsbruck) and Italy (Florence, Milan, Naples, Rome, Venice etc.) In this instance, his primordial focus was on historical figures from his Romanian homeland, the defunct Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia :
20010-466: The gross domestic production (GDP); the authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism. A study in the United States by O. Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits, as bilingual people were found to earn around $ 3,000 more per year in salary than monolinguals. A study in 2012 has shown that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It
20184-483: The group of left-nationalists from the Poporanist faction, who were allied to the National Liberals and, soon after, in open conflict with Iorga. Although from the same cultural family as Sămănătorul , the Poporanist theorist Constantin Stere was dismissed by Iorga's articles, despite Sadoveanu's attempts to settle the matter. A peak in Nicolae Iorga's own nationalist campaigning occurred that year: profiting from
20358-651: The historical sources, at archives in Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. Between 1890 and the end of 1893, he had published three works: his debut in poetry ( Poezii , "Poems"), the first volume of Schițe din literatura română ("Sketches on Romanian Literature", 1893; second volume 1894), and his Leipzig thesis, printed in Paris as Thomas III, marquis �de Saluces. Étude historique et littéraire ("Thomas, Margrave of Saluzzo. Historical and Literary Study"). Living in poor conditions (as reported by visiting scholar Teohari Antonescu ),
20532-432: The human language acquisition device —a mechanism that enables a learner to recreate correctly the rules and certain other characteristics of language used by surrounding speakers. This device, according to Chomsky, wears out over time, and is not normally available by puberty , which he uses to explain the poor results some adolescents and adults have when learning aspects of a second language (L2). If language learning
20706-545: The interconnectedness among neighboring countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the European Union . Based on the research in Ann Fathman's The Relationship Between Age and Second Language Productive Ability , there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but
20880-426: The interwar existence of Greater Romania . Initiator of large-scale campaigns to defend Romanian culture in front of perceived threats, Iorga sparked most controversy with his antisemitic rhetoric, and was for long an associate of the far-right ideologue A. C. Cuza . He was an adversary of the dominant National Liberals , later involved with the opposition Romanian National Party . Later in his life, Iorga opposed
21054-522: The introductory volumes for his German-language companion to Ottoman history ( Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches , "History of the Ottoman Empire"), a study on Romanian Orthodox institutions ( Istoria bisericii românești , "The History of the Romanian Church"), and an anthology on Romanian Romanticism . He followed up in 1909 with a volume of parliamentary speeches, În era reformelor ("In
21228-576: The language people speak influences the way they see the world, can be interpreted to mean that individuals who speak multiple languages have a broader, more diverse view of the world, even when speaking only one language at a time. Some bilinguals feel that their personality changes depending on which language they are speaking; thus multilingualism is said to create multiple personalities. Xiao-lei Wang states in her book Growing up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven : "Languages used by speakers with one or more than one language are used not just to represent
21402-613: The military: "May the dogs of this world feast on us sooner than to find our happiness, tranquility and prosperity granted by the hostile foreigner." He did however allow some of his notebooks to be stored in Moscow, along with the Romanian Treasure , and sheltered his own family in Odessa. Iorga, who reissued Neamul Românesc in Iași, resumed his activity at Iași University and began working on
21576-434: The monarch's death as Istoria lui Ștefan cel Mare ("The History of Stephen the Great"). Iorga later confessed that the book was an integral part of his and Haret's didacticist agenda, supposed to be "spread to the very bottom of the country in thousands of copies". During those months, Iorga also helped discover novelist Mihail Sadoveanu , who was for a while the leading figure of Sămănătorist literature. In 1905,
21750-490: The newly established publication România Jună , interrupting himself for trips to Italy, the Netherlands and Galicia-Lodomeria . In 1900, he collected the scattered polemical articles into the French-language books Opinions sincères. La vie intellectuelle des roumains en 1899 ("Honest Opinions. The Romanians' Intellectual Life in 1899") and Opinions pérnicieuses d'un mauvais patriote ("The Pernicious Opinions of
21924-757: The notion that monolingual solutions are essential to the realization of functional bilingualism, with multilingual solutions ultimately leading to monolingualism. The theory is based on the observation of the Swedish language in Finland in environments such as schools is subordinated to the majority language Finnish for practical and social reasons, despite the positive characteristics associated with mutual language learning. Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of
22098-512: The occupiers, and, according to Iorga's own claim, was vandalized by the Deutsches Heer . Still a member of Parliament, Iorga joined the authorities in the provisional capital of Iași, but opposed the plans of relocating government out of besieged Moldavia and into the Russian Republic . The argument was made in one of his parliamentary speeches, printed as a pamphlet and circulated among
22272-444: The order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age. In second language class, students commonly face difficulties in thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and cultural patterns. Robert B. Kaplan believes that in second language classes, foreign students' papers may seem out of focus because the foreign student employs rhetoric and sequences of thought that violate
22446-522: The other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of " code-switching " in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize
22620-441: The parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in their parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or
22794-399: The perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first to accommodate the second. The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of
22968-417: The person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as described by the communication accommodation theory . Some multilingual people use code-switching , which involves swapping between languages. In many cases, code-switching allows speakers to participate in more than one cultural group or environment. Code-switching may also function as
23142-427: The play centered on, and named after, Michael the Brave ( Mihai Viteazul ), one of around twenty new titles for that year—alongside his collected aphorisms ( Cugetări , "Musings") and a memoir of his life in culture ( Oameni cari au fost , "People Who Are Gone"). In 1912, he published, among other works, Trei drame ("Three Dramatic Plays"), grouping Mihai Viteazul, Învierea lui Ștefan cel Mare ("Stephen
23316-560: The printed rendition of the de Mézières study ( Philippe de Mézières, 1337–1405 ). Following an October 1895 reexamination, he was granted full professorship with a 9.19 average. 1895 was also the year when Iorga began his collaboration with the Iași-based academic and political agitator A. C. Cuza, making his earliest steps in antisemitic politics, founding with him a group known as the Universal ()and Romanian Antisemitic Alliance. In 1897,
23490-436: The process by which it becomes easier to learn additional languages if the grammar or vocabulary of the new language is similar to those of the languages already spoken. On the other hand, students may also experience negative transfer – interference from languages learned at an earlier stage of development while learning a new language later in life. Translanguaging also supports the acquisition of new languages. It helps
23664-522: The radically fascist Iron Guard , and, after much oscillation, came to endorse its rival King Carol II . Involved in a personal dispute with the Guard's leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , and indirectly contributing to his killing, Iorga was also a prominent figure in Carol's corporatist and authoritarian party, the National Renaissance Front . He remained an independent voice of opposition after
23838-484: The results as reports for the academy, Iorga was in Transylvania , the largely Romanian-inhabited subregion of Austria-Hungary. Concentrating his efforts on the city archives of Bistrița , Brașov and Sibiu , he made a major breakthrough by establishing that Stolnic Cantacuzino , a 17th-century man of letters and political intriguer, was the real author of an unsigned Wallachian chronicle that had for long been used as
24012-525: The right-facing swastika (卐), promoted by Cuza as the symbol of worldwide antisemitism and, later, of the " Aryans ". Also known as PND, this was Romania's first political group to represent the petty bourgeoisie , using its votes to challenge the tri-decennial two-party system . Also in 1910, Iorga published some thirty new works, covering gender history ( Viața femeilor în trecutul românesc , "The Early Life of Romanian Women"), Romanian military history ( Istoria armatei românești , "The History of
24186-486: The same sentence. If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language through calquing . This results in speakers using terms like courrier noir (literally, mail that is black) in French, instead of the proper word for blackmail in French, chantage . Sometimes pidgins develop. A pidgin
24360-809: The scholarship early in the year, he made his first study trips to Italy (April and June 1890), and subsequently left for a longer stay in France, enlisting at the École pratique des hautes études . He was a contributor for the Encyclopédie française , personally recommended there by Slavist Louis Léger . Reflecting back on this time, he stated: "I never had as much time at my disposal, as much freedom of spirit, as much joy of learning from those great figures of mankind ... than back then, in that summer of 1890". While preparing for his second diploma, Iorga also pursued his interest in philology, learning English, German, and rudiments of other Germanic languages. In 1892, he
24534-640: The sister of his friend and colleague Ioan Bogdan . Her other brother was cultural historian Gheorghe Bogdan-Duică , whose son, painter Catul Bogdan , Iorga would help achieve recognition. Soon after their wedding, the couple were in Venice, where Iorga received Karl Gotthard Lamprecht's offer to write a history of the Romanians to be featured as a section in a collective treatise of world history. Iorga, who had convinced Lamprecht not to assign this task to Xenopol, also completed Istoria literaturii române în secolul al XVIII-lea ("The History of Romanian Literature in
24708-588: The so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is usually acquired without formal education, by mechanisms about which scholars disagree. Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are called simultaneous bilinguals . It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more proficient in one language than the other. People who speak more than one language have been reported to be better at language learning when compared to monolinguals. Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of
24882-484: The state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved: Note that the terms given above all refer to situations describing only two languages. In cases of an unspecified number of languages, the terms polyglossia , omnilingualism , and multipart-lingualism are more appropriate. Taxell's paradox refers to
25056-424: The status of English in computing , software development nearly always uses it (but see also Non-English-based programming languages ), so almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original. The Multilingual App Toolkit (MAT) was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as
25230-566: The substance of Iorga's research. The ensuing controversy led him to apply for a University of Leipzig PhD: his text, once reviewed by a commission grouping three prominent German scholars ( Adolf Birch-Hirschfeld , Karl Gotthard Lamprecht , Charles Wachsmuth ), earned him the needed diploma in August. On 25 July, Iorga had also received his École pratique diploma for the earlier work on de Mézières, following its review by Gaston Paris and Charles Bémont . He spent his time further investigating
25404-687: The traditionalist, ethno-nationalist and neoromantic current encouraged by the magazine. The Sămănătorist school was by then also grouping other former or active Junimists , and Maiorescu's progressive withdrawal from literary life also created a bridge with Convorbiri Literare : its new editor, Simion Mehedinți , was himself a theorist of traditionalism. A circle of Junimists more sympathetic to Maiorescu's version of conservatism reacted against this realignment by founding its own venue, Convorbiri Critice , edited by Mihail Dragomirescu . In tandem with his full return to cultural and political journalism, which included prolonged debates with both
25578-441: The two national languages (Finnish and Swedish) and one foreign language (usually English). Many Finnish schoolchildren also study further languages, such as German or Russian. In some large nations with multiple languages, such as India , schoolchildren may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In many countries, bilingualism occurs through international relations, which, with English being
25752-543: The urban centers, at a villa in Vălenii de Munte town (nestled in the remote hilly area of Prahova County ). Although branded an agitator by Sturdza, he received support in this venture from Education Minister Haret. Once settled, Iorga set up a specialized summer school, his own publishing house, a printing press and the literary supplement of Neamul Românesc , as well as an asylum managed by writer Constanța Marino-Moscu . He published some 25 new works for that year, such as
25926-555: The use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a lingua franca or a shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual. The reverse phenomenon, where people who know more than one language end up losing command of some or all of their additional languages, is called language attrition . It has been documented that, under certain conditions, individuals may lose their L1 language proficiency completely, after switching to
26100-551: The wake of the Transylvanian Memorandum affair, supported ethnic nationalism while objecting to the intermediary Cisleithanian ( Hungarian Crown ) rule and the threat of Magyarization . Interested in recovering the Romanian contributions to Transylvanian history , in particular Michael the Brave's precursory role in Romanian unionism, Iorga spent his time reviewing, copying and translating Hungarian-language historical texts with much assistance from his wife. During
26274-404: The war effort came with an endorsement of land reform projects . Brătianu did not object to the idea, being however concerned that landowners would rebel. Iorga purportedly gave him a sarcastic reply: "just like you've been shooting the peasants to benefit the landowners, you'll then be shooting the landowners to benefit the peasants." In May 1918, Romania yielded to German demands and negotiated
26448-744: The war propaganda daily România , while contributing to R.W. Seton-Watson's international sheet The New Europe . His contribution for that year included a number of brochures dedicated to maintaining morale among soldiers and civilians: Războiul actual și urmările lui în viața morală a omenirii ("The Current War and Its Effects on the Moral Life of Mankind"), Rolul inițiativei private în viața publică ("The Role of Private Initiative in Public Life"), Sfaturi și învățături pentru ostașii României ("Advices and Teachings for Romania's Soldiers") etc. He also translated from English and printed My Country ,
26622-489: The word multilingual in the English language occurred in the 1830s. The word is a combination of multi- ("many") and - lingual ("pertaining to languages"). The phenomenon of multilingualism is as old as the very existence of different languages. Today, evidence of multilingualism in an area includes things such as bilingual signs , which represent the same message in more than one language. Historical examples include glosses in textual sources, which can provide notes in
26796-493: The world. Many polyglots know up to five or six languages, but the frequency of polyglotism drops off sharply past this point. Those who know more languages than five or six— Michael Erard suggests eleven or more, while Usman W. Chohan suggests six to eight (depending on proficiency) or more—are sometimes classed as hyperpolyglots . Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti , for example, was an Italian priest reputed to have spoken anywhere from 30 to 72 languages. The term savant , in
26970-561: The year when he received a Romanian Bene Merenti distinction, and inaugurated the international Institute of South-East European Studies or ISSEE (founded through his efforts), with a lecture on Albanian history . Again invited to Italy, he spoke at the Ateneo Veneto on the relations between the Republic of Venice and the Balkans, and again about Settecento culture. His attention
27144-569: The year when he was elected a corresponding member of the academy, Iorga traveled back to Italy and spent time researching more documents in the Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia , at Dubrovnik . He also oversaw the publication of the 10th Hurmuzachi volume, grouping diplomatic reports authored by Kingdom of Prussia diplomats in the two Danubian Principalities (covering the interval between 1703 and 1844). After spending most of 1898 on researching various subjects and presenting
27318-659: The year when historian Onisifor Ghibu became his close friend and disciple, he followed up with over 23 individual titles, among them the two German-language volumes of Geschichte des Rümanischen Volkes im Rahmen seiner Staatsbildungen ("A History of the Romanian People within the Context of Its National Formation"), Istoria românilor în chipuri și icoane ("The History of the Romanians in Faces and Icons"), Sate și mănăstiri din România ("Villages and Monasteries of Romania") and
27492-403: Was a Greek). Iorga eventually parted with Sămănătorul in late 1906, moving on to set up his own tribune, Neamul Românesc . The schism was allegedly a direct result of his conflicts with other literary venues, and inaugurated a brief collaboration between Iorga and Făt Frumos journalist Emil Gârleanu . The newer magazine, illustrated with idealized portraits of the Romanian peasant,
27666-676: Was a Romanian politician who held top posts, including prime minister and president of the Senate . He was also a historian, literary critic, memoirist, albanologist, poet and playwright. Co-founder (in 1910) of the Democratic Nationalist Party (PND), he served as a member of Parliament , President of the Deputies' Assembly , and cabinet minister. A child prodigy , polymath and polyglot , Iorga produced an unusually large body of scholarly works, establishing his international reputation as
27840-540: Was a woman of Phanariote Greek descent. Iorga claimed direct descent from the noble Mavrocordatos and Argyros families. He credited the five-generation- boyar status received from his father's side (e.g. the Miclescu and Catargi families) and the "old boyar " roots of his mother (e.g. the Mavrocordatos family) with having turned him into a politician. His parallel claim of being related to noble families such as
28014-480: Was also reported to influence auditory processing abilities. Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people can carry out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and
28188-522: Was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any difficulty understanding each other. This bilingualism still exists nowadays, although it has started to deteriorate since Czechoslovakia split up. With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use software and applications in their own language. Multilingualisation (or "m17n", where "17" stands for 17 omitted letters) of computer systems can be considered part of
28362-559: Was enlisted at the Marchian Folescu School, where he discovered a love for intellectual pursuits and took pride in excelling in most academic areas. At age nine, he was allowed by his teachers to lecture his schoolmates on Romanian history. His history teacher, a refugee Pole , sparked his interest in research and his lifelong polonophilia . Iorga also credited this period with having shaped his lifelong views on Romanian language and local culture: "I learned Romanian ... as it
28536-510: Was focused on the Albanians and Arbëreshë —Iorga soon discovered the oldest record of written Albanian , the 1462 Formula e pagëzimit . In 1916, he founded the Bucharest-based academic journal Revista Istorică ("The Historical Review"), a Romanian equivalent for Historische Zeitschrift and The English Historical Review . Nicolae Iorga's involvement in political disputes and
28710-603: Was in England and in Italy, researching historical sources for his French-language thesis on Philippe de Mézières , a Frenchman in the Crusade of 1365 . In tandem, he became a contributor to Revue Historique , a leading French academic journal. Somewhat dissatisfied with French education, Iorga presented his dissertation and, in 1893, left for the German Empire , attempting to enlist in
28884-420: Was in London for an International Congress of History, presenting a proposal for a new approach to medievalism and a paper discussing the sociocultural effects of the fall of Constantinople on Moldavia and Wallachia. He was later in the Kingdom of Serbia , invited by the Belgrade Academy and presenting dissertations on Romania–Serbia relations and the Ottoman decline . Iorga was even called under arms in
29058-579: Was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India . Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual. In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in
29232-539: Was participant in a seminal event of the union with Transylvania , as one of several thousand Romanians who gathered in the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia to demand union on the basis of self-determination . Despite these successes, Iorga was reportedly snubbed by King Ferdinand, and only left to rely on Brătianu for support. Although he was not invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference , he supported Queen Marie in her role of informal negotiator for Romania, and cemented his friendship with her. Shortly after
29406-406: Was re-sanctified in 1991. The cross-shaped church measures 23 meters long by 9 to 10.8 meters wide; the apses are in slight relief and circular both inside and out. The round Pantocrator dome above the nave has eight windows; the square bell tower above the narthex , aligned with the western facade, has two large windows on each side. The roof is flat, in two halves, terminating in a tympanum at
29580-501: Was spoken back in the day: plainly, beautifully and above all resolutely and colorfully, without the intrusions of newspapers and best-selling books". He credited the 19th-century polymath Mihail Kogălniceanu , whose works he first read as a child, with having shaped this literary preference. Iorga enrolled in Botoșani's A. T. Laurian gymnasium in 1881, receiving top honors. In 1883, Iorga began tutoring some of his colleagues to supplement his family's main revenue (according to Iorga,
29754-579: Was surmised that the framing effect disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. As human reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision-making skills. A study published
29928-399: Was suspended a third time for reading during a teacher's lesson but graduated in the top "first prize" category (with a 9.24 average) and subsequently took his Baccalaureate with honors. In 1888, Nicolae Iorga passed his entry examination for the University of Iași Faculty of Letters, becoming eligible for a scholarship soon after. Upon the completion of his second term, he also received
30102-467: Was unable to take care of himself, Christopher had a verbal IQ of 89, could speak English with no impairment, and could learn subsequent languages with apparent ease. This facility with language and communication is considered to be unusual for most diagnosed with savant syndrome. Widespread multilingualism is one form of language contact . Multilingualism was common in the past: in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it
30276-487: Was widely popular with Romania's rural intelligentsia (among which it was freely distributed), promoting antisemitic theories and raising opprobrium from the authorities and the urban-oriented press. Also in 1906, Iorga traveled into the Ottoman Empire , visiting Istanbul , and published another set of volumes— Contribuții la istoria literară ("Contributions to Literary History"), Neamul românesc în Ardeal și Țara Ungurească ("The Romanian Nation in Transylvania and
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